MCE 331 – Manufacturing Processes

Metal Cutting
Theory of Metal Cutting
Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping
operations in which excess
material is removed from a
starting workpart so that
what remains is the desired
final part.
Machining
 Importance:
 Variety of work material
 Variety of shapes and geometric features
 Dimensional accuracy
 Good surface finish

 Disadvantages:
 Wasteful of material
 Time consuming
Machining
 Generally performed after other manufacturing processes,
such as casting, forging, and bar drawing

 Other processes create the general shape

 Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish, and
special geometric details that other processes cannot create
Types of Machining Operations
Most important machining operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milling

Other machining operations:

Shaping and planning
Broaching
Sawing
Turning
 Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
 Speed motion------ rotating workpart
 Feed ------- cutting tool movement in a direction parallel to
the axis of rotation of the workpart
Drilling
 To create a round hole
 Rotating tool with two cutting
edges
 Feed ------- tool movement in a
direction parallel to its axis of rotation
Milling
 Generate plane or straight surface
 Rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
 Feed ------- cutting tool movement in a direction
perpendicular to its axis of rotation

Peripheral milling Face milling

Cutting Tools
1. Single-Point Tools
 One dominant cutting edge
 Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
 Turning uses single point tools

2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools

 More than one cutting edge
 Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge tools
Cutting Conditions
Three dimensions of a machining process:
Cutting speed (v ) – primary motion
Feed ( f ) – secondary motion
Depth of cut (d )– penetration of tool below original
work surface
Machining
• Two categories:
•Roughing: to remove large amounts of material rapidly to
produce a shape close to the desired form
•Finishing: small amount of material is removed, usually at
low speed and feed, to achieve the final dimensions,
tolerances, and surface finish

•Cutting Fluid is often used in machining to serve as coolant

and lubricant for the cutting tool

•Machine tools: is a machine used to hold the workpart,

position the tool, provide power for feed, speed and depth
Orthogonal Cutting Model
• Actual machining process is 3-D and geometries involved are
complex .
• Simplified 2-D model ( Orthogonal Model) which neglects many
of the geometric complexities is used to describe the mechanics
of the process .
Chip Ratio
to
Chip thickness ratio (Chip ratio) r
tc
where to = thickness of the chip prior to chip formation;
and tc = chip thickness after separation

 Chip thickness after cut always greater than before, so chip ratio
always less than 1.0

 Shear plane angle  : r cos 

tan  
1  r sin

where r = chip ratio, and  = rake angle

Orthogonal Model

 Shear Strain γ :
 = tan( - ) + cot 
Actual Chip Formation
 Shear deformation does not occur along a plane but within a
zone ( few thousands of an inch thick)
 Another shearing action is taken place between the tool and
the formed chip (Secondary shear zone).
 Formation of the chip depends on the material
Types of Chip in Machining
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
Discontinuous Chip
 Brittle work materials
 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and depth of
cut
 High tool-chip friction

Continuous Chip
 Ductile work materials
 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and depths
 Sharp cutting edge
 Low tool-chip friction
Continuous with built-up edge (BUE)
 Ductile materials
 Low-to-medium cutting
speeds
 Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to adhere to
rake face
 BUE forms, then breaks off,
cyclically

Serrated Chip
 Semicontinuous - saw-
tooth appearance
 Cyclical chip forms with
alternating high shear
strain then low shear strain
 Associated with difficult-
to-machine metals at high
cutting speeds
Forces in Metal Cutting

 F: friction force, N: normal Force

 Fs: shear force, Fn: normal force to shear
 Fc: cutting force, Ft: thrust force
Forces in Metal Cutting

 Coefficient of F
friction between

tool and chip
N
  tan 

 Area of shear t ow
plane As 
sin 

 Shear stress along Fs

shear plane 
As
Forces in Metal Cutting
Relations between measured and calculated forces:

 Estimating the cutting and thrust forces needed for a given shear
strength (S)
Merchant Equation
Fc cos   Ft sin 
 
to w / sin  
 
 Merchant relation:
  45  
2 2
 To increase shear plane angle ( higher shear plane angle ---
-smaller shear plane area----less force and power)
1. Increase the rake angle
2. Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of friction)
Approximation of Turning by Orthogonal Cutting
 to (chip thickness
before) ---- f (feed)
 w (width)----- d (depth
of cut)
Power & Energy
 Cutting Power

 Cutting horsepower

 Gross power(the machine tool power)

 Unit power(power per unit volume rate) or specific energy (U)

(Where RMR ----- material removal rate, E---- mechanical efficiency of the
machine)

 Table 19.2 lists the unit horsepower and specific energy for selected
materials ( correction factors have to be used if the tool is not sharp
and/or chip thickness is different than what is given in the table
Other Factors Affecting Power in Machining
 Sharpness of the tool: more power is needed when using a
worn or dull tool ( for nearly worn tool X1.10, for worn out
tool X 1.25)

 Chip thickness before cut: as to is reduced unit power

increases (Use Figure 19.14 to determine the correction
factor)

 Rake angle and cutting speed : as they increased power

decreases

 Cutting fluid: cutting fluid works as a lubricant which

reduces friction and so the power
Distribution of Total Cutting Energy
Other Factors Affecting Power in Machining
 Sharpness of the tool: more power is needed when using a
worn or dull tool

 Chip thickness before cut: as to is reduced unit power

increases

 Rake angle and cutting speed : as they increased unit power

decreases

 Cutting fluid: cutting fluid works as a lubricant which

reduces friction and so the unit power
Solved Problems
 P.17.10

In a turning operation on stainless steel, cutting speed = 150

m/min, feed = 0.25 mm/rev, and depth of cut = 7.5 mm.
How much power will the lathe draw in performing this
operation if its mechanical efficiency = 90%. Use Table 17.2 to
obtain the appropriate specific energy value.
Machining Operations &
Machine Tools
Machining
 Machining is the most common application to shape metal
parts
 Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all
manufacturing processes

 Classification of Machined Parts

1. Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape
2. Non-rotational (prismatic)

 Two factors specify the part geometry in

machining :
1. Relative motion
2. Shape of cutting tool
Turning

 A single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating

workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape
 Performed on a machine tool called a lathe
Operations Related to Turning

Facing Counter Form

Taper turning turning turning

Chamfering Cutoff Threading

Boring Drilling Knurling

Cutting Conditions in Turning
Where:
 Rotational Speed (rev/min)
 v – cutting speed
(m/min)
 Final Diameter
 Do – original
diameter
 Linear travel rate (feed rate)
(mm/min) or (in/min)  d – depth of cut
 f – feed (mm/rev)
 Time to machine  L – length of
cylindrical workpiece
 Material Removal Rate
(mm 3/min) or (in3 /min)
Solved Problem
P.18.2
In a production turning operation, the cylindrical workpiece is
375 mm long and 150 mm in diameter. Feed = 0.30 mm/rev,
and depth of cut = 4.0 mm. What cutting speed must be used
to achieve a machining time of 5.0 min?
Drilling
 Machining operation used to create
a round hole in a workpiece

 Contrasts with boring which can

only enlarge an existing hole

 Cutting tool: is a rotating

cylindrical tool with two cutting
edges called a drill or drill bit

 Performed on a drill press

Cutting Conditions in Drilling
 Rotational Speed (rev/min)

 Linear travel rate (feed rate)

(mm/min) or (in/min)

 Time to drill a through hole

 Approach allowance that Where:

accounts for drill point
angle  v – cutting speed
(m/min)
 Time to drill a blind hole  D – drill diameter
 t – work thickness
 Material Removal Rate
(mm 3/min) or (in3 /min)  θ – drill point angle
 d – hole depth
Operations Related to Drilling
1. Reaming

2. Tapping

3. Counterboring

4. Countersinking

5. Center drilling

6. Spot facing
Milling
 Machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool
with multiple cutting edges
 Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed direction
 Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting edges called teeth
 Machine tool called a milling machine
 Creates a planar surface; other geometries possible either by
cutter path or shape
 Milling is an interrupted cutting operation
Milling
 Types of milling
1. Peripheral milling
 Cutter axis is parallel to surface being machined
 Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
2. Face milling
 Cutter axis is perpendicular to surface being milled
 Cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter
Cutting Conditions in Milling
 Rotational Speed (rev/min)

 Linear travel rate (feed rate)

(mm/min) or (in/min)
 Material Removal Rate Where:
(mm 3/min) or (in3 /min)  v – cutting speed
 Approach distance (slab (m/min)
milling)  nt – number of teeth
 f – feed per cutter teeth
 Time to mill (slab milling)
(chip load) (mm/tooth)
 L – length of cut
Cutting Conditions in Milling

 For face milling:

1. When cutter centered

2. When cutter is offset

 Time to mill (slab milling)

Types of Peripheral Milling
 (a) Slab milling, (b) slotting, (c) side milling, (e) straddle milling, and
(e) form milling

Types of Face Milling

 (a) Conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling, (c) end milling, and (d) profile
milling using an end mill(e) Pocket milling and (f) contour milling

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Cutting-Tool Technology
Cutting Tool
 Cutting tool has to withstand the machining harsh
environment; forces, temperature , and wearing action

 Different work material and different operations

required different cutting tool

 Two aspects of cutting tool have to be carefully chosen

or designed ; Material & Geometry
Tool Failure Modes
1. Fracture failure :excessive cutting force ------sudden
brittle fracture
2. Temperature failure : cutting temperature is too high for
the tool material------- tool material becomes soft-----
plastic deformation-----loose edge sharpness
3. Gradual wear :gradual wearing of the cutting tool-----
change tool shape ------- reduce cutting efficiency ----
accelerate wearing ------failure

 Gradual wear is preferred (over other failure modes)

because it leads to the longest possible use of the tool
Tool Wear
Two main types :
1. Crater wear :
 Occurs at the top rake face (facing
the chip)
 Sliding of chip against rake face----
high stresses and temperature------
wear (concave section)
 Can be measured by depth or area

2. Flank wear:
 occurs at the flank face (facing
the machined surface of the
workpiece)
 Due to rubbing the machined
surface
Tool Life
Tool Life
 Tool life: the length of cutting time that the tool can be used

 Wear rate increases as:

 hardness of the work material increases
 Increasing cutting speed, feed and/or depth of cut
Taylor Tool Life Equation

Natural log-log plot

Taylor Tool Life Equation

Where:
 T – tool life (min)
 v – cutting speed (m/min) or (ft/min)
 C & n – parameters depend on cutting conditions and material

 C – intercept with cutting speed axis

 n – slope of the plot
Cutting Fluids
• Functions of cutting fluids:
1. Coolant: reduce the temperature due to heat
Major

generation at shear zone and friction zone

2. Lubricant : reduce the friction at the tool-chip and
tool-work interfaces
3. Wash away chips
4. Reduce temperature of workpart for easier handling
5. Improve dimensional stability of workpart

• Two major types:

• Water based: more cooling
• Oil based: more lubrication
Economics and Product
Design Considerations in
Machining
 Mechanical Properties affecting machinability
 Hardness
 High hardness ---- abrasive wear increases --tool
life is reduced
 Strength
 High strength ----cutting forces, specific energy,
and cutting temperature increase ---- more
difficult to machine
 Ductility
 High ductility ----tearing of metal as chip is
formed----chip disposal problems and poor surface
finish
Tolerances in Machining
 Tolerances are used to set permissible limits on
variability
 Machining provides higher accuracy relative to
other shaping operation
 Closer tolerances ---- higher cost
 Closer tolerances and fewer variability --- fewer
problem in assembly, product testing and service
and customer acceptance
Surface Finish in Machining
 Factors affecting surface finish (roughness)
1. Geometric factors
2. Work material
3. Vibration and tool machine

 Machining parameters that determine surface geometry:

1. Type of machining operation, e.g., milling vs. turning
2. Cutting tool geometry, especially nose radius
3. Feed
 The surface geometry that would result from only these
factors = "ideal" or "theoretical" surface roughness
Geometric Factors

Nose radius Feed Cutting-edge angle

Vibration and Tool Machine Factors
 Related to machine tool, tooling, and setup:
1. Chatter (vibration) in machine tool or cutting tool
2. Deflections of fixtures
3. Backlash in feed mechanism

 To reduce or eliminate vibration

1. Add stiffness and/or damping to setup
2. Operate at speeds that avoid cyclical forces with
frequencies close to natural frequency of machine tool
system
3. Reduce feeds and depths to reduce forces
4. Change cutter design to reduce forces
5. Use a cutting fluid
Selection of Cutting Conditions
 Cutting conditions in machining: speed, feed, depth of
cut and cutting fluids.
 Cutting fluids: tooling considerations are the dominate
factor
 Depth of cut: usually predetermined based on work
piece geometry and operation sequence ( within
available horsepower, tool and setup rigidity, strength
of cutting tool
Selection of Feed
 Determining factors for feed selection:
1. Tooling: harder tool materials require lower feeds
2. Roughing or finishing: high feeds (0.02-0.05
in/rev) for roughing, and low feeds (0.005-0.015
in/rev) for finishing
3. Constrains on feed in roughing: limited by cutting
forces, setup rigidity and horsepower
4. Surface finish requirements in finishing:
Optimizing Cutting Speed
• Select speed to achieve a balance between high metal
removal rate and suitably long tool life
• Mathematical formulas are available to determine
optimal speed based on two alternative objectives :
1. Maximum production rate
2. Minimum unit cost
Maximizing Production Rate
• In other words minimizing cutting time
• Total production cycle time for one part:
1. Part handling time (Th)
2. Machining time (Tm)
3. Tool changing time (Tt)

Where np is the number of pieces cut in one tool life

Maximizing Production Rate
 Machining time
for turning

 Number of
machined part in
one tool life

 Cycle time
 Speed (maximum
production rate)

 Tool life (maximum

production rate)
Minimizing Cost per Unit
Co ----Cost rate
• Cost components : ($/min)

1. Cost of part handling time = CoTh Ct ----Cost per

cutting edge($/tool
2. Cost of machining time =CoTm life)
3. Cost of tool changing time =CoTt/ np
Pt ---- Price of the
4. Tooling cost = Ct/ np insert($/insert)

ne ----Number of
For disposable inserts cutting edges
ng ----Number of
For regrindable tooling tool lives

Tg ----Time to grind
the tool

Total cost Cg ----Grinder’s rate

($/min)
Minimizing Cost per Unit
 Speed (minimum
cost)

 Tool life (minimum

cost)
Solved Problem
• P.20.9
A high-speed steel tool is used to turn a steel work part that
is 350 mm long and 75 mm in diameter. The parameters in
the Taylor equation are: n = 0.13 and C = 75 (m/min) for a
feed of 0.4 mm/rev. The operator and machine tool rate =
$36.00/hr, and the tooling cost per cutting edge = $4.25. It
takes 3.0 min to load and unload the work part and 4.0 min
to change tools. Determine (a) cutting speed for maximum
production rate, (b) tool life, and (c) cycle time and cost per
unit of product.
Nontraditional
Machining
Nontraditional Machining
• Processes that use various techniques involving
mechanical, thermal, electrical, or chemical energy (or
combinations of these energies)to remove excess
material . They do not use a sharp cutting tool in the
conventional sense

• Why??
1. The need to machine newly developed materials
2. Complex geometries
3. The need to avoid surface damage (due to stresses
created by conventional machining)
Classifications of Nontraditional Machining
1. Mechanical: mechanical energy (ex. erosion by a high
velocity stream of abrasives or fluid)
2. Electrical: electrochemical energy.
3. Thermal: thermal energy (thermal energy is applied
over a small portion of surface to remove material by
fusion or vaporization
4. Chemical: chemical reactions (chemical etching)
Mechanical
Ultrasonic machining (USM)
Mechanical
Water jet cutting (WJC)
•Nozzle diameter --- 1-4 mm
•Pressure up to 400 MPa
•Velocity up to 900 m/s
Electrical
Electrochemical machining (ECM)
•Material depleted from the
anode (work) and deposited
on onto the cathode
Thermal
Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
•Discrete electrical discharges ----- localized temperature ---- melting
and vaporization
Thermal
Electron beam machining (EBM)
Thermal
Laser beam (LBM)
Thermal
Plasma arc cutting (PAC)
•Plasma: superheated
electrically ionized gas
(10,000-14,000 C)
Application Considerations
1. Geometry
Application Considerations
2. Work Materials
Application Considerations
3. Performance