WEEK 12

INTRODUCTION TO CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Concrete is a construction material composed of cement, fine aggregates (sand) and coarse
aggregates mixed with water which hardens with time. Concrete can also be defined as a
composite construction material basically composed of cement, aggregates (generally a coarse
aggregate made of gravels or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite and fine aggregate such
as sand)and water. Where necessary admixtures (Supplementary Cementitious Materials and
other chemical admixtures) are added to concrete to improve its fresh or/and hardened properties.

There are different types of admixtures which are used to provide certain properties. Admixtures
or additives such as pozzolans or superplasticizers are included in the mixture to improve the
physical properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Various types of concrete are
manufactured these days for construction of buildings and structures. These have special
properties and features which improve quality of construction as per requirement.

Portland cement is the commonly used type of cement for production of concrete. Concrete
technology deals with study of properties of concrete and its practical applications. In a building
construction, concrete is used for the construction of foundations, columns, beams, slabs and
other load bearing elements. There are different types of binding material used other than cement
such as lime for lime concrete and bitumen for asphalt concrete which is used for road
construction.

HOW IS CONCRETE MANUFACTURED?

Once suitable mix proportions are known, the ingredients are mixed in the ratio as selected. Two
methods are used for mixing, i.e. Hand Mixing or Machine Mixing. Based on quantity and
quality required, the suitable method of mixing is selected. In the hand mixing, each ingredients
are placed on a flat surface and water is added and mixed with hand tools. In machine mixing,
different types of machines are used. In this case, the ingredients are added in required quantity
to mix and produce fresh concrete.

Once the concrete is mixed adequately it is transported to casting location and poured in
formworks. Various types of formworks are available which as selected based on usage. Poured
concrete is allowed to set in formworks for specified time based on type of structural member to
gain sufficient strength. After removal of formwork, curing is done by various methods to make
up the moisture loss due to evaporation. Hydration reaction requires moisture which is
responsible for setting and strength gain. So, curing is generally continued for minimum 7 days
after removal of formwork

Materials are mixed in specific proportions to obtain the required strength. Strength of mix is
specified as M5, M10, M15, M20, M25, M30 etc, where M signifies Mix and 5, 10, 15 etc. as
their strength in kN/m2. In United States, concrete strength is specified in PSI which is Pounds
per Square Inch.

COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE

Components of concrete are cement, sand, aggregates and water. Mixture of Portland cement and
water is called as paste. So, concrete can be called as a mixture of paste, sand and aggregates.
The cement paste coats the surface of the fine and coarse aggregates when mixed thoroughly and
binds them. Soon after mixing the components, hydration reaction starts which provides strength
and a rock solid concrete is obtained.

Cement

Cement is a blended mixture of argillaceous and calcareous material which develops the binding
ability in a matrix of constituent element. The cement and water form a paste that coats
aggregates in the mix. The paste hardens and binds the aggregates together. Cement is the
binding material in the cement concrete. This concrete is used for different engineering works
where strength and durability are of prime importance.

Functions of cement:

 It fills up voids existing in the fine aggregate and makes the concrete impermeable.
 It provides strength to concrete on setting and hardening.
 It binds the aggregate into a solid mass by virtue of its setting and hardening properties
when mixed with water.

Aggregates
The aggregates are granular materials obtained from rocks and crushed stones. They may also be
obtained from synthetic materials like slag, shale, fly ash and bloated clay. The sand obtained
from river beds or quarries is used as fine aggregates. The fine aggregate along with hydrated
cement paste to fill the space between the coarse aggregate, called as cement-sand mortar. The
aggregate in normal concrete forms this skeletal matrix, it's about 60-65 percent by volume.
Aggregates are used in two size groups to provide good quality of concrete:

 Fine aggregate (sand) particle size less than 4.75mm

 Coarse aggregate – Particle size more than 4.75mm

Fine aggregate (sand):

Sand consists of small angular or rounded grains of silica. Sand is commonly used as the fine
aggregate in cement concrete. Both natural and artificial sands are used for this purpose.

Functions of sand:

1. It fills the voids existing in the coarse aggregate.

2. It reduces shrinkage and cracking of concrete.
3. By varying the proportion of sand, concrete can be prepared economically for any
required strength.
4. It helps in hardening of cement by allowing the water through its voids.
5. To form hard mass of silicates as it is believed that some chemical reaction takes place
between silica of sand and constituents of cement.

Requirements:

1. Fine aggregate should consist of coarse, angular, sharp and hard grains.
2. It must be free from coatings of clay and silt.
3. It should not contain any organic matter.
4. It should be free from hygroscopic salt.
5. It should be strong and durable and chemical inert.
6. The size of sand grains should pass through 4.75mm sieve and should be entirely retained
on 75 micron sieve.
Coarse aggregate

Functions of coarse aggregates:

1. Coarse aggregate makes solid and hard mass of concrete with cement and sand.
2. It increases the crushing strength of concrete.
3. It reduces the cost of concrete, since it occupies major volume.

Requirements:

1. Coarse aggregate used may be crushed stone, gravel or broken bricks.

2. Crushed stone: It is an excellent coarse aggregate provided. It is obtained by crushing
granite, sandstone and close grained limestone.
3. Crushed granite chips are commonly and advantageously used in reinforced cement
concrete.
4. Broken bricks, well burnt and over burnt bricks are broken into suitable size and used as
aggregate. It should be well watered before its use. Broken bricks are used as aggregate
for concrete in foundations and under floors.
5. But generally crushed stone is only used as coarse aggregate.

Water

The water used in concrete plays an important part in the mixing, placing, compaction,
setting and hardening of concrete. Water is needed to chemically react with the hydrated
cement and to provide workability with the concrete. The water must therefore be portable
tap water, clean and free from visible impurities. The strength of concrete directly depends
on the quantity and quality of water is used in the mix. The amount of water in the mix
compared with the amount of cement is called water/cement ratio (W/C). The lower the W/C
ratio, the stronger will be the concrete (high strength and reduce permeability). If the
water/cement ratio is maximum in the concrete it leads to segregation of coarse aggregate
and fine aggregate and also bleeding of concrete. When the concrete bleeds then it results in
strength loss. Water is also used in curing the concrete. Curing is keeping concrete damp for
a period, to allow it to reach maximum strength. Longer curing will give more durable
concrete.
Functions of water:

1. Water is only the ingredient that reacts chemically with cement and thus setting and
hardening takes place.
2. Water acts as a lubricant for the aggregate and makes the concrete workable.
3. It facilitates the spreading of cement over the fine aggregate.

Admixtures

Modern engineering concrete has additional ingredients other than the above materials. These are
chemical admixtures like accelerator, set retarders, water reducers, etc. and Mineral admixtures
such as fly ash, silica fume, rice husk and pozzolana or similar other materials. This admixture is
added to concrete during production, in order to improve the performance of concrete in fresh
and the hardened state. Never try to make a mixture more workable by just adding more water
because this lowers the strength and durability of concrete.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE

Following are the advantages of concrete structures;

1. Ingredients of concrete are locally available, which make it economical

2. Unlike natural stones, concrete is free from defects and flaws
3. Concrete can be manufactured to desired strength with an economy
4. The durability of concrete is high
5. It can be cast to any desired shape
6. The casting of concrete can be done on the working site
7. Maintenance of concrete is almost negligible
8. The deterioration of concrete is not appreciable with age
9. Concrete makes building a fire-safe due to its incombustible nature
10. Concrete can withstand high temperature
11. Concrete is resistant to wind and water. Therefore, it is very useful in storm shelters

Disadvantages of concrete structures

1. Compare to other binding material, the tensile strength of concrete is relatively low
2. Concrete is less ductile
3. The weight of the concrete is high compared to its strength
4. Concrete may contain soluble salts, which causes efflorescence

WEEK 13

TYPES OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

Concrete is generally used in two types of construction, plain concrete construction (PCC) and
reinforced concrete construction (RCC). In PCC, it is poured and cast without use of any
reinforcement. This is used when the structural member is subjected only to compressive forces
and not bending. When a structural member is subjected to bending, reinforcements are required
to withstand tensile forces in the structural member as it is very weak in tension compared to
compression. Generally, strength of concrete in tension is only 10% of its strength in
compression. Concrete is used as construction material for almost all types of structures such as
residential concrete buildings, industrial structures, dams, roads, tunnels, multi storey buildings,
skyscrapers, bridges, sidewalks and superhighways etc. Example of famous and large structures
made with concrete are Hoover Dam, Panama Canal and Roman Pantheon. Concrete is the most
common man-made building materials used for construction.

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

The properties of concrete are its characteristics or basic qualities. The following are the
desirable properties of a good concrete;

1. Strength: concrete should be strong in compression as it will be weak in tension. The concrete
used in the construction of load carrying structures such as dams, construction of bridges, pier
and abutment of bridges, etc. must include reinforcements to extend the strength and the ability
of the concrete to resist the loads.

2. Durability: Concrete should be able to resist weathering actions such a wind, rain, storm,
and variation of temperature. Concrete used in the construction of dams, sewer line or in
seawater should be able to withstand the action of chemical salts. Then the concrete will be safe
from environmental problems.
3. Impermeability: When used in the construction of water-retaining structures like culverts,
retaining wall of dams or in water canals, concrete must be watertight. If the concrete is not
watertight, reinforcing steel bars which are used in the concrete will rust (corrosion).

4. Density: Concrete must be well compacted and there should be no voids or hollow left in the
concrete. The weight of concrete must be 2400 kg/cubic meter to be a good quality concrete.

5. Resistance to Wear and Tear: When we use concrete in the construction of roads and floors,
the concrete must be able to resist abrasive action.

6. Cohesiveness: This is how well concrete holds together when plastic. Cohesiveness is
affected by:

 The Aggregate Grading: Graded aggregate means that there is a range of sizes of
aggregates, from large rocks to small sands. Well-graded aggregates give a more
cohesive mix; too much coarse aggregate gives a honey-combed mix.
 Water Content: A mix that has too much water will not be cohesive and may separate and
bleed.
 Weather: Warmer or hot weather will cause concrete to have a higher early strength
therefore affecting cohesion.
 Type of Cement: Different types of cement will affect concrete properties, i.e. how
quickly or slowly concrete gains strength.
 The Water to Cement Ratio: Too much water and not enough cement means concrete will
be weaker and less durable. The water to cement ratio (W/C) is the weight of the water
divided by the weight of cement

7. Workability: Workability in a nutshell means how easy it is to: Mix, Place, Handle, Compact
and Finish a concrete mix. Concrete must be easily workable when used in construction. When
stiff or dry, it may be difficult to handle and, if not constructed properly, will not be as strong or
durable when finally hardened. For that, we have to use the water in a limit. A slump test can be
used to measure the workability of concrete. In design mix, to achieve the desired degree of
workability, the following must be kept in mind:

 The amount of cement paste

 Distance of transport
 Strength and Durability
 Method of placing
 Loss of slump

Concrete states

Concrete has three different states: Plastic, Setting, Hardening. Each state it has different
properties.

1) Plastic State: When the concrete is first mixed it is like 'bread dough'. It is soft and can
be worked or moulded into different shapes. In this state concrete is called PLASTIC.
Concrete is plastic during placing and compaction. The most important properties of
plastic concrete are workability and cohesiveness. A worker will sink into plastic
concrete.
 2) Setting State: Concrete then begins to stiffen. The stiffening of concrete, when it is no
longer soft, is called SETTING. Setting takes place after compaction and during
finishing. Concrete that is sloppy or wet may be easy to place but will be more difficult to
finish. A worker leaves footprints in setting concrete.
 3) Hardening State: After concrete has set it begins to gain strength and harden. The
properties of hardened concrete are strength and durability. Hardened concrete will have
no footprints on it if walked on.

GRADES OF CONCRETE

In construction certain standard mixes are used. A set of the mix for concrete should be well
defined either in terms of the proportion of cement, fine, and coarse aggregate or in terms of the
28 days compressive strength requirements.

The various concrete grades are denoted by M10, M15, M20, etc. In which M denotes mix of
concrete followed by the compressive strength number. A mix is the respective proportion of
constituent materials cement, fine aggregates and coarse aggregate. Compressive strength
number indicates the compressive strength of 150mm size cube at 28 days, expressed in N/mm2.
Grade of concrete denotes its strength required for construction. For example, M20 grade
signifies that compressive strength required for construction is 20MPa. The first letter in grade
“M” is the mix of concrete and 20 is the required strength in MPa.

Based on various lab tests, grade of concrete is presented in Mix Proportions. For example, for
M30 grade, the mix proportion can be 1:1:2, where 1 is the ratio of cement, 1 is the ratio of sand
and 2 is the ratio of coarse aggregate based on volume or weight of materials.

The strength is measured with concrete cubes or cylinders by civil engineers at construction site.
Cube or cylinders are made during casting of structural member and after hardening it is cured
for 28 days. Then compressive strength test is conducted to find the strength.

Regular grades of concrete are M15, M20, M25 etc. For plain cement concrete works, generally
M15 is used. For reinforced concrete construction minimum M20 grade of concrete are used.

Table: Details of various grade of concrete in use (IS 456:2000)

Concrete Grade Mix Ratio Compressive Strength

MPa (N/mm2) psi
M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 MPa 725 psi
M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 MPa 1087 psi
M10 1:3:6 10 MPa 1450 psi
M15 1:2:4 15 MPa 2175 psi
M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 20 MPa 2900 psi
Standard Grade of Concrete
M25 1:1:2 25 MPa 3625 psi
M30 Design Mix 30 MPa 4350 psi
M35 Design Mix 35 MPa 5075 psi
M40 Design Mix 40 MPa 5800 psi
M45 Design Mix 45 MPa 6525 psi
High Strength Concrete Grades
M50 Design Mix 50 MPa 7250 psi
M55 Design Mix 55 MPa 7975 psi
M60 Design Mix 60 MPa 8700 psi
M65 Design Mix 65 MPa 9425 psi
M70 Design Mix 70 MPa 10150 psi

As Per Indian Standards:

Grade of Concrete as Per British/European standards:

As per BS 8500-2 British/European standards The grade of concrete is denoted as C10, C15,
C20, C25, etc., ‘C’ which means ‘Concrete Strength class’ and number behind C refers to
characteristic Compressive strength of Concrete in N/mm2 @ 28 days when tested with the 15
cm dia. & 30 cm height cylinder in a direct compression test.

The grade of concrete is also denoted as C16/20, C20/25, C25/30, etc., which means Concrete
Strength Class (C) the number behind C refers to Compressive strength of Concrete in N/mm2
when tested with Cylinder / Cube.

The Selection of the Concrete Grade depends on the Situation and Uses:

Concrete Grade N/mm2 Ratio Usage

10 1:3:6 Blinding concrete/ for mass concrete

15 1:2:4 General RCC work

20 1:1.5:3 Light reinforced concrete

25 1:1:2 Piles/precast

30 Concrete Mix Design /Heavy Reinforced concrete/pre-cast

35 Concrete Mix Design /Pre-stressed/pre-cast concrete

45 Concrete Mix Design /Very heavy reinforced

concrete/pre-cast/prestressed

There are two types of concrete mixes, i.e. nominal mix and design mix. Nominal mix is
produced at site level on the volumetric basis and is used for normal construction works such as
small residential buildings. This type of mix is based on observation and experience without
reference to material properties. The most popular nominal mix are in the proportion of 1:2:4.

Design mixed concrete are those for which mix proportions are finalized based on various lab
tests on material properties where a cylinder or cube is tested for its compressive strength. This
process is also called as mix design. It is produced on the weight basis. These tests are conducted
to find suitable mix based on locally available material to obtain strength required as per
structural design. A design mix offers economy on use of ingredients.

TESTS ON CONCRETE

The most important aspect of concrete is how to ensure it is of good quality. In order to
determine the quality of concrete on site, it shall undergo quality tests. As a quality engineer, you
must know about these quality tests of concrete. Here are some common quality tests on concrete
before and after completion of casting on site:

A. Tests on fresh concrete:

• Workability Tests (Slump Test, Compaction Factor Test and Vee-Bee Test)

• Bleeding;

• Segregation resistance;
• Unit weight;

• Wet analysis;

• Temperature, and Heat generation.

B. Tests on hardened concrete:

• Compressive strength (Cube/Cylinder);

• Tensile strength: Direct tension, Modulus of rupture;

• Density;

• Shrinkage;

• Creep;

• Absorption;

• Freeze/thaw resistance;

• Resistance to aggressive chemicals;

• Analysis for cement content and proportions