3IS conducting practical methods as

THE NATURE OF RESEARCH substitutes for fundamental and

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH theoretical ones.
● It follows a step-by-step process of
investigation that uses a Qualitative research is defined as the
standardized approach (Polit & Beck, naturalistic method of inquiry of research
2004). which deals with the issue of human
● It plays an important role in tertiary complexity by exploring it directly (Polit and
education. Though there are many Beck, 2008).
problems confronted by higher
education, developments are Quantitative research is a systematic
realized through research (Palispis, investigation of observable phenomena
2004). where the researcher gathers quantitative or
● It is an investigation following ordered numerical data and subjects them to
steps leading to a discovery of new statistical methods.
information or concepts (Sanchez,
1999). QUALITATIVE
● It is a very careful investigation of ● Phenomenological Study - Lived
something that purports the Experiences
contributions of additional or new ● Ethnographic Study - Cultural
knowledge (Bassey, as cited by groups or minorities.
Coleman & Briggs, 2002). ● Case Study - In depth examination of
● It tests approach of thinking and an individual, groups of people, or an
employing validated instruments and institution.
steps (Crawford, as cited by ● Grounded Theory - Comparing
Alcantara & Espina, 1995). collected units of data against one
another.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH ● Basic Interpretative Qualitative
● It should be systematic. Study - How individuals give
● It should be objective meanings (Perception- based)
● It should be feasible.
● It should be empirical. QUANTITATIVE
● It should be clear. ● Descriptive - Report and Observe
GENERAL FORMS OF RESEARCH certain phenomenon.
● Scientific – naturally occurring ● Correlational - It shows relationship
phenomena are examined. It is a of the variables.
systematic process that involves ● Ex post facto - It shows causes to
formulating hypotheses, testing effect.
predictions using relevant data. ● Quasi Experimental - Cause and
● Research in the Humanities – effect that go with intact groups.
seeks to define the purpose of human ● Experimental - Cause and effect that
existence. proceed to extensive variable
● Artistic – provides alternative manipulation.
approaches to establish concepts by
VARIABLE o Ex. Frequency (rare, seldom,
VARIABLE- Is any element or entity which sometimes etc.)
can be measured for quantity or quality.
VARIABLES CAN ALSO BE
GENERAL TYPES OF VARIABLES ARE CATEGORIZED BASED ON THEIR
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE: PURPOSE AND ROLE.
FOR EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES – can be • Dependent Variable – is the variable
measured numerically. being examined for changes.
• DISCRETE - Can be counted and (Presumed effect)
whole numbers. Not describe in • Independent Variable- is
ranges. considered to affect the dependent
o Ex. Frequency of behaviour Variable.
and group sizes
• CONTINUOUS - Also referred as FOR DESCRIPTIVE, CORRELATIONAL
INTERVAL. Measured in ranges. AND EX POST FACTO
Can be denoted by non-whole • Refrain from using the terms “DEP
numbers. (+ and -/fractions) and IND” in non experimental kinds.
o Ex. Temperature
• RATIO - Special type of continuous RESEARCH DESIGN QUALITATIVE AND
variable. Cannot have a negative QUANTITATIVE METHODS
value. For clarification, method pertains to a
o Ex. Height, weight, distance BIGGER scope.
and test scores.
3 POWERFUL METHODS
QUALITATIVE VARIABLES • QUALITATIVE - Human Narratives
(CATEGORICAL)- Lacks numerical value. STORIES
Assigning value to specific • QUANTITATIVE - Driven by
categories/groups. (blood type and colour) numbers Tangible
• DICHOTOMOUS - Two distinct • MIXED METHOD - Qualitative and
categories or values only. Quantitative processes
o Ex. A response to a “yes or (COMBINED)
no” question
• NOMINAL - More than two Under method is the research design.
categories or values. Research Design is the OVER ALL
o Ex. Hair colour, marital status, STRATEGY OF THE RESEARCH PAPER
blood type, mode of
transportation, source of COMMON TYPES OF QUALITATIVE
income and citizenship. RESEARCH
• ORDINAL - Characteristics of both
Quali and Quanti. Can be ranked or PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY
ordered. Specific non numerical • This type of research seeks to find
classes the essence or structure of an
experience by explaining how
complex meanings are built out of to gain insights into a little –known
simple units of inner experience. problem.
• It examines human experience • A comprehensive and extensive
(LIVED EXPERIENCE) through the examination of a particular individual.
descriptions provided by subjects or • The impact of a situation to people.
respondents.
EXAMPLE QUESTION:
EXAMPLE QUESTION: • How do cancer survivors look at life?
• What are the common experience • The researcher is able to give an
encountered by a person with a overview of the problem by
spouse who is undergoing interviewing a cancer survivor about
rehabilitation? his/her experiences.
• With the given problem the
researcher has to discover the inner GROUNDED THEORY STUDY
feelings, emotional hardships, and • The method involves comparing
mental disturbances that the collected units of data against one
respondent is experiencing. another until categories, properties,
and assumptions. (assumptions are
ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY tentative and suggestive)
• This study involves the collection and
analysis of data about cultural groups EXAMPLE QUESTION:
or minorities. • Ten School counselors were given
• The researcher immerses with the structured interviews to help
people and becomes a part of their determine how their professional
culture. - To develop cultural identity is formed.
theories. • The data were coded first to form
• It has KEY INFORMANTS. concepts. Then, connection between
these concepts were identified.
EXAMPLE QUESTION:
• What is the demographic profile and BASIC INTERPRETATIVE QUALITATIVE
migratory adaptations of squatter STUDY
families in Barangay Cutcut, Angeles • This is used when a researcher is
City. interested in identifying how
• In studying the problem, the individuals give meaning to a
researcher immerses with the situation of phenomenon.
subjects and becomes involved with
the activities that exemplify the EXAMPLE QUESTION:
cultural practices of the respondents. • What is your perspective regarding
the stand of the Philippines in
CASE STUDY claiming the West Philippine Sea?
• It is an in-depth examination of an • Interviewees do not have the real and
individual, groups of people, or an authentic lived experience unlike
institution. Some of its purposes are Phenomenological study. But it has
the perspective about certain matter.
KEY TERMS TO REMEMBER ABOUT • It looks after the P –Value of the
QUALITATIVE DESIGNS: entire procedure before pursuing to
• PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY – concluding answers.
Lived Experience
• ETHNOGRAPHIC – Culture, Beliefs, EX POST FACTO
and Ethnicity. • A cause(s) from the existing effects.
• CASE STUDY – In depth analysis Attempts to have causal relationship.
about the life of an individual, group, Causes = Effects / Causes = Effect
and/or group of people.
• GROUNDED THEORY – A topic that EXAMPLE QUESTION:
is not yet spearheaded by someone. • Are information technology education
• BASIC INTERPRETATIVE students and vocational education
QUALITATIVE STUDY –It deals with students digitally literate?
the perceptions without lived • Most of the time, ex post facto
experiences. exposes comparisons out of the
variables.
COMMON TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH Last two designs can be distinguished with
DESCRIPTIVE the use of “INTERVENTION”.
• Observe and report on a
phenomenon. An INTERVENTION OR TREATMENT
• It has the type of behavior, or trait. involves the manipulation of the independent
also, it has the use of scale variable in the experiment.
• Participants subjected to the
EXAMPLE QUESTION: intervention are referred to as
• Are you aware of the mandate “TREATMENT/EXPERIMENTAL
regarding CLAYGO? GROUP”
• This design is considered the • Participants not subjected to the
simplest one amongst other existing intervention are referred to as
ones. It could be answerable by yes “CONTROL GROUP”
or no and/or things that pertain to
ordinal variables. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL
• Causal Relationship between
CORRELATIONAL variables.
• Determining the increase/decrease • Occurred during the study itself.
relationship. Divides the subjects into intact
• Not for cause and effect but for the groups. (groups that have been
association of the variables. - It does established prior to research proper).
not use the terms independent and
dependent. EXAMPLE QUESTION:
• Is there any significant difference in
EXAMPLE QUESTION: post test ?
• Is there any significant relationship • Is there a difference between the post
between the variables? test of the control group?
• Different context in terms of the use data, and the findings are integrated during
but similar in all platforms. (pertaining the interpretation phase of the study
to experimental)
SEQUENTIAL EXPLORATORY DESIGN
EXPERIMENTAL In this design, qualitative data collection
• Also known as the TRUE and analysis is followed by quantitative
EXPERIMENTAL. data collection and analysis. The priority is
• Aims to establish cause- effect given to the qualitative aspect of the study,
relationship. and the findings are integrated during the
• Applies variable manipulation - interpretation phase of the study.
extensively.
• Not assigning individuals based on MAKING AN INTRODUCTION OF AN
their characteristics. IMRD TYPE
FOR MIXED METHODS
EXAMPLE QUESTION: • Background of the Study
• Is there any significant difference in • Statement of the Problem (both for
post test ? Qualitative and quantitative)
• Is there a difference between the post • Assumption and Hypothesis
test of the control group? • Scope and Delimitation
• Different context in terms of the use • Significance of the Study
but similar in all platforms. (pertaining • Definition of terms
to experimental) • Review of Related Literatures and
Studies
MIXED METHODS • Theoretical Framework
MIXED METHODS research are • Conceptual Framework
methodologies for conducting research that • Synthesis
involve collecting, analysing and integrating
quantitative (e.g., experiments, surveys) and FOR NON-MIXED METHODS:
qualitative (e.g., focus groups, interviews) • Background of the Study
research. • Statement of the Problem
• Assumption OR Hypothesis
This approach to research is used when this • Scope and Delimitation
integration provides a better understanding • Significance of the Study
of the research problem than either of each
• Definition of terms
alone. Types
• Review of Related Literatures and
Studies
TYPES OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH
• Theoretical Framework
DESIGNS
• Conceptual Framework (not
SEQUENTIAL EXPLANATORY DESIGN
applicable to a plain research
This design involves the collection and
method)
analysis of quantitative data followed by
• Synthesis
the collection and analysis of qualitative
data. The priority is given to the quantitative
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY NOTE:
• Identify the following: Current state • This should be answered in the
Conventional practices Research conclusion part.
Gap
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION AND
NOTE: SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
• Look for the most current literature
piece. SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
• Cite a particular idea and go revolve • It sets the parameter of research.
around that idea. • Researchers are expected to know
• Select a portion of the literature that their realms in such research paper.
you think appropriate in your study.
• Don’t ever forget to include your SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
research gap in the last part of your • Names of the institution, people, or
background of the study. any entity that have a significant role
in the context of your research.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
• A particular issue about your DEFINITION OF TERMS
research. • This section defines the terms
• Draw questions based on your included in the context of research.
design.
NOTE: 2 ways to define terms:
• Compose questions that can be • OPERATIONAL - It defines how the
answered using your data analysis. researchers used a particular term on
• For mixed methods type, come up their paper.
with questions that relate to your • CONCEPTUAL - It has the meaning
priority as a research. (pertaining to of the terms based on the dictionary
the designs of mixed methods types) and citations of other relevant pieces
of literature.
ASSUMPTION OR HYPOTHESIS
ASSUMPTION (QUALITATIVE) REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES
• It doesn’t use numbers. AND STUDIES
• The researchers are after the words Researchers may arrange their literatures
and terms to predict certain results. and studies following these types:
• THEMATIC ARRANGEMENT –
HYPOTHESIS Similar or Different from the previous
• Proven with the use of statistical ones.
treatments. • CHRONOLOGICAL
• It has null and alternative sections. ARRANGEMENT – Development
• NULL - it doesn’t have significant and progress
difference • TYPOLOGICAL ARRANGEMENT-
• ALTERNATIVE - it does have Foreign and Local studies (if there’s
significant difference any) FOREIGN and LOCAL
NOTE: long as researchers can defend it to
• Most common one is the use of their panel members.
typological arrangement
For special purposes, the following
TAKE NOTE OF THESE THINGS WHILE guidelines may consider:
DOING YOUR RRL/S • For correlational design, a two-
• Refrain from using references head arrow may be used.
published by PREDATORY • For experimental design, Input –
Journals/Publisher. Process- Output (IPO) may also be
• Refrain form using materials that do used
not speak for the concept of your
paper. SYNTHESIS
• Five years for legit references. (more (this part is a sister to RRL/S)
than five years for historical study) • It is a summarized version of all the
• Group the references according to writings a researcher had included in
the categories. the context of research paper.
• If the reference is relevant, continue • It is found in the last part where the
reading its content. RRL/S is included.
• Note down the key information from
the reference. METHODOLOGY
MICRO PARTS OF THE METHODOLOGY
Categorize your readings: • Research Design
• LITERATURE – those writings from • Sampling Technique/s
books, magazines, diaries, and other • Instrument/s
personal writings. • Data Analysis
• STUDIES- dissertations and • Data Gathering Procedure
research paper and/or thesis.
RESEARCH DESIGN
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND It refers to an OVERALL STRATEGY that a
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK researcher uses to logically and coherently
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK integrate the various components of a study.
• Researchers should look for the
latest theory related to their study. DISTINCT DESIGNS FOR QUALITATIVE,
• Cite the proponent, name of the QUANTITATIVE, AND MIXED METHODS
theory, and the year that theory has QUALITATIVE
been established. • Interpretative Phenomenological
Analysis (IPA)
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK • Ethnographic
(This is only applicable to a quantitative • Case Study
research method or any method that uses • Grounded theory
processes) • Basic Interpretative Qualitative Study
• It has graphic organizers. QUANTITATIVE
• Researchers are free to choose and • Descriptive
to create their own framework for as
• Correlational the population or a predetermined interval.
• Ex post facto (Specified nth value.)
• Quasi experimental
• Experimental NON - PROBABILITY
• Commonly used in qualitative
MIXED METHODS method.
• Sequential Explanatory • It uses classification.
• Sequential Exploratory
• Concurrent Triangulation CONVENIENCE SAMPLING (Accidental or
• Concurrent Nested Incidental Sampling) – It is based on the
availability of the participants.
HAWTHORNE EFFECT – refers to the
observed change in behavior due to QUOTA SAMPLING – similar to stratified
consciousness that they are under sampling. The researcher deliberately sets
observations. specific proportions in the sample, whether
or not the resulting proportion is reflective of
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE the total population. This is commonly done
refers to the process of systematically to ensure the inclusion of a particular
selecting individuals, units, or groups to be segment of the population.
analysed during the conduct of study.
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING – involves
PROBABILITY handpicking subjects, usually to suit very
• Commonly used in quantitative specific intentions. This is also called the
method. judgmental sampling.
• It uses numbers
SNOWBALL SAMPLING – also called as
referral sampling.
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING - Individuals
in a given population all have an equal
OTHER TYPES OF NON – PROBABILITY
chance of being selected.
• SELF SELECTION - Based on the
STRATIFIED - Similar to simple random preference of the researcher. It is a
sampling (by chance). Population is divided very self explanatory type of a
into subgroups (strata). The samples are not design.
from the population as a whole. It has
different characteristics or classes. SPECIAL TYPE OF QUANTITATIVE
METHOD
CLUSTER SAMPLING -It involves the • PROTOTYPING – is a development
grouping of the population into sub groups or approach to improve the planning
clusters. NOT CREATED BASED on specific and execution of creative designs
characteristics or traits (Hetero). This is to such as software or technology
overcome a large size. development.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING - Participants are 4 WAYS OF DETERMINING THE SAMPLE

selected from a list based on their order in SIZE
HEURISTICS It refers in the degree to which an instrument
• this has the RULE THUMB. measures what it is supposed to measure.
• It has the use of introspection.
TYPES OF VALIDITY
FACE VALIDITY
Also known as LOGICAL VALIDITY. It
involves intuitive judgment just by looking at
the instrument.
• It includes size, spacing, the size of
the paper used and other necessary
details that will not distract
respondents from answering the
questionnaire.
LITERATURE REVIEW
CONTENT VALIDITY
• Read similar studies to yours and
This one is determined by studying the
check the sample size that they used.
questions. An instrument with high content
validity has to meet the objectives of the
FORMULA
research. (Based on logical judgment)
• Determining the size with the use of
formula or for descriptive
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
approaches, use at least 10% - 20%
• It tests the correspondents with its
of the population.
theoretical construct.
• FACTOR ANALYSIS is used.
POWER ANALYSIS
• it is with the use of statistics.
CRITERION – RELATED VALIDITY OR
EQUIVALENT TEST
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
This type is an expression of how scores
are tools used to gather data for a particular
from the test are correlated with an external
research topic.
criterion. (It predicts most of the time)
THREE WAYS OF DEVELOPING THE
CRITERION VALIDITY HAS 2 TYPES.
INSTRUMENT
• PREDICTIVE VALIDITY- It refers to
1. Adopting
how well the test predicts the future
2. Modify
behavior of the examinees. (future
3. Create your own instrument
settings)
• CONCURRENT VALIDITY -
If you are to create your own…
Administering the old and the new
• Checking of Validity (For qualitative)
one. (past to present examination
• Checking of Validity and Reliability
results)
(For quantitative)

INSTRUMENT VALIDITY
RELIABILITY
It refers to the consistency of the results of • Measures reliability with respect to
an instrument in repeated trials. It also each item and construct being
checks the credibility of the subject if the examined by the instrument.
latter yield the same results in several tests.
KUDER- RICHARDSON FORMULA
(Reliability is sometimes not reflected on • Test reliability in terms of instruments
validity) of a dichotomous nature, such as yes
or no tests.
METHODS IN ESTABLISHING
RELIABILTY INTER-RATER RELIABILITY
TEST-RETEST OR STABILITY Measures the consistency of scores
• Achieved by administering an assigned by two or more raters on a certain
instrument twice to the same group of set of results.
participants and the computing the
consistency of scores. INFORMED CONSENT
• Conduct the retest after a short is a document that explains the objectives of
period of time the study and the extent of the participants’
involvement in your research.
EQUIVALENT FORMS RELIABILITY
• Is measured by administering two DATA ANALYSIS
tests identical in all aspects except involves the use of statistical tests/ thematic
the actual wording of items. tests to address your research questions or
• Two test have the same coverage. objectives.
(level of difficulty)
• Pre test and post test. ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA
Involves the identification, examination, and
INTERNAL CONSISTENCY interpretation of patterns and themes in
• Is a measure of how well the items in textual data and determines how these
two instruments measure the same patterns and themes help answer the
construct. research questions at hand.

Three ways to measure internal Processes involved are as follows:

consistency reliability: • GETTING TO KNOW THE DATA –
reading and re- reading.
THE SPLIT HALF METHOD/ SPLIT HALF • FOCUSING THE ANALYSIS –
COEFFICIENT o focus by question or topic,
• Obtained through administering a time period, or event
single instrument aimed at measuring o Focus by case, individual, or
only one construct. group
• While computing, the results are • CODING – the process of
divided into two sets for the categorizing data. (make your own
comparison. code for your research to become
manageable)
CRONBACH’S ALPHA
o Predefined codes – codes Sample Coding and Tallying of
formulated by the researcher Kapampangan Traits and Practices of
based his or her knowledge Principles
through RRL/S.
o Emergent codes – refer to
codes that become apparent
to one reviews the data.
o Ex. What do you need to
continue your learning about
evaluation?

It could be that the answers with one letter is

weaker as compared to any other. The letters
are the representations of the degrees found
in the context of the answer.

(As a qualitative researcher you are free to

have introspection)

CLEANING THE DATA - This is a process

of checking data for errors. The dirty data
when not eliminated can negatively influence
the results of the study.
• Spot checking. It involves
comparing the raw data to the
electronically entered data to check
for data entry and coding errors.
• ENTERING AND ORGANIZING THE • Eye-balling. This technique involves
DATA – This can be done manually reviewing the data for errors that may
by using a piece of paper or through have resulted from a data entry or
computers. Upon deciding the use of coding oversight.
a word processing program, such as • Logic check. This one involves a
Microsoft Word, the recording will be careful review of the electronically
easier to accomplish. entered data to make sure that the
answers to the different questions
“make sense”.
IDENTIFYING MEANINGFUL PATTERNS
AND THEMES - This is the core process of
qualitative data analysis.

There are two primary ways to perform this:

• CONTENT ANALYSIS – Carried out
by coding the data for certain words
or content by going through all the INTERPRETING THE DATA
text and label words, phrases, and The following are the steps in interpreting
sections of the text; identifying their research findings:
patterns. • Points or important findings should
SAMPLE DISPLAY OF RECURRENT be listed.
THEMES • The lessons learned and new things
should be noted.
• Quotes or descriptive examples
given by the participants should be
included.
• The newfound knowledge from other
settings, programs, or reviewed
literatures should be applied.

ANALYZING QUANTITATIVE DATA

• THEMATIC ANALYSIS - This is a
THE DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS is
process of analyzing the data by
divided into three stages; data collection and
grouping them according to themes.
preparation, exploration of data, and data
Themes either evolve directly from
analysis.
the research questions or preset, or
naturally emerge from resulting data.
DATA COLLECTION AND PREPARATION
Example 1:
At this stage, you may use instruments or
Table 2. Sample Thematic Analysis
already-existing data. Organise the collected
data through merging, sorting, selecting
cases, and preparing data file information.
• Merging: involves combining related
data with one another.
• Sorting: refers to classifying data
based on their characteristics.
• Selecting cases: involves choosing
Example 2:
specific objects in the collected data
Kapampangan Qualities and Practices
based on particular attributes or
qualities.
• Preparing data file information:
involves converting data or files to the
appropriate formats for processing
later on.
EXPLORATION OF THE DATA
After the data collection and preparation
stage, identify the graphs and the descriptive
statistical values appropriate for representing
the data. Identify as well the categories to be
used in classifying and further organizing the
data.

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

At this stage, you may now look into the
relationships among the variables. You can
now compare the data representing the
groups of participants in your study.