Topics in Algebra solution

Sung Jong Lee, lovekrand.github.io

November 12, 2020

Problems in Section 3.1-3.2.

1. If a, b, c, d ∈ R, evaluate (a + b)(c + d).

Solution. Observe that

(a + b)(c + d) = a(c + d) + b(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd.

2. Prove that if a, b ∈ R, then (a + b)2 = a2 + ab + ba + b2 , where by x2 we mean xx.

Proof. Observe that

(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) = a(a + b) + b(a + b) = a2 + ab + ba + b2 .

3. Find the form of the binomial theorem in a general ring; in other words, find an
expression for (a + b)n , where n is a positive integer.

Solution. We define the notion of word by arbitrary products of a and b(with its order kept
in consideration). Let Ck (a, b) an equivalence class of words, with k a’s and n − k b’s in
n
the word of length n. It is clear that for each Ck (a, b), its size is . Consequently,
k
 
Xn X
(a + b)n =  x
k=0 x∈Ck (a,b)

is one of the form of binomial expansion in a general ring.

4. If every x ∈ R satisfies x2 = x, prove that R must be commutative.(A ring in which

x2 = x for all elements is called a Boolean ring.

1
Proof. Note that in a Boolean ring R, x = −x for all x ∈ R since 1 = (−1)2 = −1. Now
we see that for a, b ∈ R,

(a + b)2 = a2 + ab + ba + b2 = a + ab + ba + b = a + b =⇒ ab = −ba = ba,

so that R must be commutative.

5. If R is a ring, merely considering it as an abelian group under its addition, we have

defined in Chapter 2, what is mean by na, where a ∈ R and n is an integer. Prove that if
a, b ∈ R and n, m are integers, then (na)(mb) = (nm)(ab).

Proof. Observe that

(na)(mb) = (a + a + · · · + a)(mb)
| {z }
n summands
= a(mb) + a(mb) + · · · + a(mb)
| {z }
n summands
= a(b + b + · · · + b) + a(b + b + · · · + b) + · · · + a(b + b + · · · + b)
| {z }
n summands
= (ab + ab + · · · + ab) + (ab + ab + · · · + ab) + · · · + (ab + ab + · · · + ab)
| {z }
n summands
= ab + ab + · · · + ab
| {z }
nm summands
= (nm)(ab).

6. If D is an integral domain and D is of finite characteristic, prove that the characteristic

of D is a prime number.

Proof. Suppose we assume that the characteristic d is not a prime, that is, d = mn for
some integers n, m > 1. Note that da2 = 0 ⇐⇒ (mn)a2 = (ma)(na) = 0. Since D
is an integral domain, either ma = 0 or na = 0. But in either cases, we have a smaller
characteristic than d, which is a contradiction. Hence, it is must that d is a prime.

7. Give an example of an integral domain which has a infinite number of elements, yet is
of finite characteristic.
Y
Solution. Consider the infinite product ring Z2 . This is an integral domain with infinite
number of elements but has characteristic 2.

8. If D is an integral domain and if na = 0 for some a 6= 0 in D and some integer n 6= 0,

prove that D is of finite characteristic.

2
Proof. Let n be the smallest positive integer satisfying na = 0. Suppose D is not of finite
characteristic. Then, we have b 6= 0 in D such that kb = 0 if and only if k = 0. Let k < n
and k > 0. Then

0 = (na)(kb) = (nk)(ab) = (kn)(ab) = (ka)(nb).

Since nb 6= 0 and D is an integral domain, ka = 0, which is a contradiction. Hence, D

must be of finite characteristic.

9. If R is a system satisfying all the conditions for a ring with unit element with the
possible exception of a + b = b + a, prove that the axiom a + b = b + a must hold in R and
that R is thus a ring.

Proof. We compute (a + b)(1 + 1) in two ways;

(a + b)(1 + 1) = a(1 + 1) + b(1 + 1) = a + a + b + b,

(a + b)(1 + 1) = (a + b)1 + (a + b)1 = a + b + a + b,

which implies a + a + b + b = a + b + a + b ⇐⇒ a + b = b + a.

10. Show that the commutative ring D is an integral domain if and only if for a, b, c ∈ D,
with a 6= 0 the relation ab = ac implies that b = c.

Proof. Suppose D is an integral domain. Then for a 6= 0, ab = ac ⇐⇒ a(b − c) = 0 so

that (b − c) = 0 ⇐⇒ b = c. Conversely, if we assume that D is not an integral domain,
there exists a, b 6= 0 ∈ D such that ab = 0. But 0 = ab = a · 0 =⇒ a(b − 0) =⇒ b − 0 = 0,
b = 0 which is a contradiction. Hence, D must be an integral domain.

11. Prove that Lemma 3.2.2 is false if we drop the assumption that the integral domain is
finite.

Proof. Z is clearly an infinite integral domain, but not a field.

12. Prove that any field is an integral domain.

Proof. Suppose a 6= 0 and ab = 0 for some b. Since the inverse of a exists, a−1 ab =
0 ⇐⇒ b = 0. So, there is no zero divisor in the field. Hence, every field is also an integral
domain.

13. Using the pigeonhole principle, prove that if m and n are relatively prime integers
and a and b are any integers, there exists an integer x such that x ≡ a (mod m) and
x ≡ b (mod n).

3
Proof. Consider the remainders of a, a + m, a + 2m, · · · , a + (n − 1)m on division by n.
Since n and m are relatively prime, each of remainders of above yield distinct integers. Now
by pigeonhole principle, for some 0 ≤ b ≤ n, there corresponds one of remainders(under
division of n) of a + km. That is, a + km ≡ b (mod n). Moreover, a + km ≡ a (mod m).
By setting x = a + km, x is the desired integer satisfying the given relationship.

14. Using the pigeonhole principle, prove that the decimal expansion of a rational number
must, after some point, become repeating.

Proof. Let p/q be a rational number where p, q are relatively prime. On reminding, for a
decimal expansion of a rational number p/q = a0 .a1 a2 a3 · · · , each ai , i > 1, corresponds
to the quotient of ai−1 · 10 on divison by q. Note that there can be at most q distinct
values of ai−1 · 10. Thus, keep making such modular calculation consequently, at the
time when calculation is made more than q times, the pigeonhole principle forces that
there must exists a tuple (i, j) of positive integers i < j such that ai+j = ai . Hence
ai is occuring at least twice in these calculations. Now from these, we can conclude that
(ai , ai+1 , · · · , ai+j−1 ) = (ai+j , ai+j+1 , · · · , ai+2j−1 ) and so on, so that the decimal expansion
of p/q, after ai−1 , becomes repeating.