Mythology AND Folklore Reviewer

MESOPOTAMIAN MYTHOLOGY

1. Medium of Literature:
- Literature from Mesopotamia was primarily recorded on
stone or clay tablets.
- Scribes, often associated with temples and palaces,
played a crucial role in producing and preserving written
documents.

2. Blurred Lines Between Religious and Secular:

- There was no clear distinction between religious and
secular writings.
- Even seemingly secular documents like shipping
receipts had a religious aspect due to the function of
temples as food redistribution centers.

3. Divine Influence in Governance:

- Laws were perceived as given by the gods, and kings'
victories were often associated with divine favor.
- The gods played a role in establishing and enforcing
treaties between political powers.

4. Omens and Signs:

- The interpretation of omens was a significant aspect of
Mesopotamian culture.
- People believed that signs revealed by the gods could
predict future events, and rituals were performed to
prevent negative outcomes.

5. Historical Overview:
- Hunter-gathering Neolithic society in Mesopotamia dates
back to before 9000 BC.
- Around 9000 BC, the earliest farming settlement
was discovered, and by 8000 BC, large-scale
farming with wheat as the chief crop had
developed in Sumer.

6. Cultural Development:
- The Assyrians, initially part of the northern Akkadian
culture, eventually became independent and were skilled
in architecture and art.
- The Babylonians, also originating from the Akkadian
culture, became independent and were known for using
baked clay (brick) in construction.
- Babylonians made significant contributions to
mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, achieving
advancements not surpassed until Greek civilization.

LIST OF MAJOR MESOPOTAMIAN DEITIES

● Adad or Ishkur - god of storms, venerated as a
supreme power especially in Syria and Lebanon
● Anshur - head of the Assyrian pantheon, regarded as
the equivalent of Enlil
● Anu or An - god of heaven and the sky, lord of
constellations, and father of the gods,creator
● Enki or Ea - god of the freshwater Abzu, crafts, water,
intelligence, mischief and creation
● Enlil - god of the wind and divine ruler of the Earth and
its human inhabitants
● Ereshkigal - goddess of Irkalla, the Underworld
● Inanna or Ishtar - goddess of fertility, love, sex and war
● Marduk - patron deity of Babylon who eventually
became regarded as the head of the Babylonian
pantheon
● Nabu - god of wisdom and writing
● Nanshe - goddess of social justice, prophecy, fertility
and fishing
● Nergal - god of plague, war, and the sun in its
destructive capacity; later husband of Ereshkigal
● Ninhursag - earth and mother goddess; also known
as Mami, Belet-Ili, Ki, Ninmah, Nintu and Aruru
● Ninlil - goddess of the air; consort of Enlil
● Ninurta - champion of the gods, the epitome of
youthful vigour, and god of agriculture
● Shamash or Utu- god of the sun, arbiter of justice and
patron of travellers
● Sin or Nanna - god of the moon
● Tammuz or Dumuzi - god of food and vegetation

The Epic of Gilgamesh

1. Discovery of Cuneiform Tablets:

- Cuneiform tablets were first discovered by
archaeologists in the 19th century CE among the ruins in
Nineveh, the former capital city of the Assyrian Empire.
- Additional copies and versions of these tablets were
found across the Ancient Near East.

2. Earliest Known Literary Work (Epic of Gilgamesh):

- The Epic of Gilgamesh is considered the earliest
known literary work, with the earliest version dating
back to around 1900 BCE in Babylonian civilization.
- The narrative includes an account of the Great Flood
and features the story of Utnapishtim, a virtuous man who
survived the flood (a narrative that likely influenced the
biblical story of Noah).
- Expresses the values of ancient civilization, reflecting
beliefs in divine retribution for transgressions such as
violence, pride, oppression of others, and environmental
destruction.

3. Editing and Compilation of Sumerian Tales:

- The Epic of Gilgamesh is a reflection of the editing
and combination of earlier, smaller Sumerian tales.
- The epic, as we know it, has multiple unknown
authors who integrated these tales into a single,
cohesive narrative with sustained themes.
- The process involves weaving together diverse
stories into a larger, unified epic that explores
themes such as friendship, mortality, and the quest
for immortality.
SUMMARY OF EPIC OF GILGAMESH

In the prologue, Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, is introduced

as a powerful and extraordinary figure, two-thirds god
and one-third man. His achievements in building
structures and physical
prowess are highlighted. The narrative briefly mentions
Gilgamesh's journey and the inscription of his story on a
stone tablet.

The main storyline revolves around the Battle with

Humbaba, triggered by the people of Uruk's complaints
about Gilgamesh's arrogance. The goddess Aruru creates
Enkidu to contend with Gilgamesh, and after a series of
events, Enkidu becomes Gilgamesh's friend. Together, they
decide to confront Humbaba, the guardian of the cedar
forest.

During the battle, Enkidu expresses fear, but Gilgamesh

encourages him to proceed. Humbaba attempts
negotiation, offering servitude, but Enkidu warns against
mercy. Despite the gods' anger and confusion, Gilgamesh
and Enkidu kill Humbaba. The gods take back Humbaba's
powers and distribute them among various entities. Enlil,
angered by their actions, curses Gilgamesh and Enkidu.

The conclusion reflects on the gods' displeasure, Enlil's

curse, and the redistribution of Humbaba's powers.
Despite the negative consequences, there's
acknowledgment of Gilgamesh's conquest and glory, with
a reference to the god Enki.
This narrative showcases the epic's themes of power,
bravery, consequences, and the complex relationship
between gods and mortals.

SUMMARY OF THE LESSON

- The Mesopotamian civlilization is one of the oldest
civilization in the ancient world. It started in fertile
crescent and developed over the years.
- As a civilization, they have one of the most systematic
and complex system of government, economic
activity, religious activity. They also have one of the earliest
form of writng, this enabled them to keep
early written records.
- The Mesopotamian mythology is also Polytheistic in
nature. They venerate many gods and acknowledge
their various roles in the society.
- The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the outstanding work of
the Mesopotamian civilization. It is an account of
a king who for long existed and ruled a great kingdom.
- The stories preserved in the literary tale(s),
however, are not historical in any strict
sense,although
some elements may trace back to the myths and legends
that began to spread (in both written and
oral form) in his own time and perhaps even soon after his
death.
CHINESE MYTHOLOGY
Chinese civilization is considered to be one of the greatest
and advanced in the ancient time. Its government
structure, economic activities and religion added to the
elevation and development of the mythology and
common foklore among the people. Unlike other
mythologies, there are many variations of the Chinese
gods. In fact, there was no recorded unified and
unanimously accepted gods and goddesses. This thinking
was left to the ruling families whose emperorship makes
them close to gods. In this lesson, we will explore the
Chinese myth perhaps draw ouf ideas from them.

1. China is one of the greatest civlization that emerged in

Asia. In fact, many scholars believe that what China
accomplished in the matters of the government was
really advanced.
2. The time markings in the Chinese history are called
dynasties. Dynasty refers to the ruling families
who took control of authority and power. A dynasty
normally ends through rebellion and war.
3. The Zhou dynasty introduced the concept of
“Mandate of Heaven.” This refers to the recogniztion
of
God and Heaven. The pollitics of the ruling families and
emperors seem to have an approval from the
divine authorities.
4. In the reading of Chinese mythology and folklore, one
must be careful enough since some were
written for political reasons and to explain important
historical events.
5. The figure below shows the Chinese concept of the
“Mandate of Heaven” and the cycle of the dynasties.
An overview of the Chinese Mythology
1 The Chinese mythology often reveals theme about
perseverance and self- sacrifice.

2. In addition, the Chinese mythology often reflect the

society’s outlook about love, their religion
(Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism) and rising up
against adversities.

3. The Chinese mythologies often reveal characters like:

ghost, gods and goddesses, heroes, foxes and
mythological creatures.

4. Major Deities of the Chinese Mythology

a. Nu-Ka- goddess, creator of the humans. She fashioned
the Chinese out of yellow clay.
b. Lao Tien-Yeh - He is considered as the “Father of
Heaven.” He is also known as the Jade emperor and
represented by Emperors.
c. Ao - the four dragon kings who ruled parts of the Earth
and the sea. People pray to them in drought seasons.
d. Yinglong- The dragon god of water who helped huangdi
gain power.
e. Huangdi - A real life emperor and considered to be
part of the deity. He is known as the Yellow Emperor
and a cosmic ruler.

5. Chinese myths do not have a unified creation story

unlike the Greco-Roman and Egyptian myths. Nu-Ka is
considered only as the creator of humans in some part
of China.

6. Chinese mythology has very few mythological heroes,

gods and goddesses

SUMMARY OF THE LEGEND OF SHEN NONG, THE DIVINE

FARMER

Thousands of years ago, during a time when ancient

Chinese believed their culture was divinely bestowed, a
demigod named Yandi, or Shen Nong, emerged. Shen
Nong, often called the Sun God, had a human body, an
ox's head, and a transparent abdomen. Renowned as the
Emperor of Five Grains and the God of Chinese Medicine,
Shen Nong's story revolves around his benevolence and
wisdom.

One day, a minister approached Shen Nong, seeking help

for an old man in great pain. Stricken by the lack of
medical knowledge and unable to aid the suffering man,
Shen Nong felt compelled to expand medicinal
understanding. He embarked on daily foraging
expeditions into the forest, sampling and categorizing
numerous plants with his transparent stomach.

Shen Nong identified 365 medicinal herbs, various fruits

and vegetables, and the staple crops of ancient China. His
taste-testing adventures led to a profound understanding
of plant growth, soil types, and seasonal variations.
Credited with inventing the calendar, plow, and axe, Shen
Nong also devised plans for mass cultivation and food
preservation, marking the beginning of agriculture in
China.

Despite tasting countless unidentified herbs, Shen Nong

ingeniously discovered an antidote for all poisons—tea. By
accidentally sipping leaves from a fire kindle, Shen Nong
found that tea not only neutralized toxins but also
contributed to his longevity, allowing him to live to the age
of 120.

Shen Nong's selfless pursuit of medicinal knowledge and

agricultural advancements left a lasting legacy.
Unfortunately, his life met its end when he sampled the
poisonous
"intestine-splitting grass" without tea nearby. Despite his
demise, Shen Nong's sacrifice and extensive knowledge
continued to benefit humanity through the ages, shaping
the foundations of Chinese medicine and agriculture.

SUMMARY OF THE LESSON

- The Chinese mythology emerged from the great
civlization that prospered in China by the yellow river.
- The Chinese civilization is know to be believers of the
divine universal force and that families with the mandate
of heaven were given authority to rule over the vast land.
- It was during the Zhou dynasty that the divine
appointment and divine recognition of an emperor to
rule was initiated.
- Emperors were worshipped and believed to be an
extension of divine power in the land.
- Chinese mytho often highlights stories about
perseverance, sacrifice, love and rising up against
adversaries.
- Chinese mythology has very few mythological heroes,
gods and goddesses.There were very few unified and
universally accepted in China.

JAPANESE MYTHOLOGY
Japan is a group of island in the Eastern part of Asia. In
these islands, a collection of traditional stories, folktales
and beliefs emerged. Primarily, the ancient Japan
practiced animism, the belief that spirits are in dwelling in
nature and the shintoism, the relligion which translates to
‘the way of the spirits.’ Religion plays a huge role in the
conception and development of the
Japanese mythology.

Introduction to Japanese Myth

1. Japanese mythology is largely derived from the
state religion of Shinto (Shintoism) and Buddhism.

2. The early Japanese believed that the world around

them was inhabited by gods and spirits. Almost every
aspect of Japan nature evoke a sense of wonder and
awe among its people.

3. The early Japanese elevated this awe and

fascination to nature into what is called as Shintoism
(The way of the kami or spirits.)

4. In Japanese mythology, everything in nature has a

kami— a deity or spirit. As a result, the Japanese
pantheon is enormous, with some sources claiming that
there are millions of different spirits and deities.

5. The two most important creator deities are Izanagi and

his sister Izanami. According to the myths, they made the
islands of Japan as well as many of the gods and
goddesses. Izanagi and Izanami also appear in a story
about a descent to Yomi-tsu Kuni, a land of darkness and
death associated with the underworld.

6. Mythology plays an important role in the lives of the

Japanese people today. Myths and legends are the basis
of much Japanese art, drama, and literature, and people
still learn and tell stories about the gods and goddesses.
SUMMARY OF WHEN THE SUN GODDESS HID IN THE CAVES OF
HEAVENS

Amaterasu, the sun goddess, went into hiding in a cave

out of guilt after her brother Susano’o accidentally killed a
weaver. The Upper World and the Middle World fell into
darkness, causing gods to voice their concerns and
resentments, resulting in inauspicious events.

The gods gathered for an emergency meeting to bring

Amaterasu out of hiding. Omohikane proposed a plan that
involved using music, a mirror, and a dance to lure her out.
Cockerels crowed, a one-eyed smith rhythmically hit an
iron nail, and a large mirror and a string of beads were
created. A sacred tree was decorated, and a dance was
performed by Ameno-uzume, goddess of the arts.

Puzzled by the merriment outside the cave, Amaterasu slid

the Heavenly Rock slightly.
Ameno-uzume, seizing the opportunity, claimed that a
god greater than Amaterasu had arrived. As Amaterasu
leaned out to see, Ameno-tajikarao pulled her out with
force, while
Ameno-futodama set a magical boundary with a rope,
preventing her from reentering the cave.

With Amaterasu's emergence, light returned to the Upper

and Middle Worlds. The gods, bowing before her, praised
her greatness more than ever. This event is a crucial
mythological tale in Japanese folklore, illustrating the
triumph of light over darkness and the ingenious methods
employed by the gods to bring Amaterasu back from
hiding.
SUMMARY OF THE LESSON

- The Japanese mythology are heavily grounded in the

fascination of the Japanese people in nature and their
shinto beliefs.Because of their acknowledgement of the
spirit, the Japanese mythology is filled with vast
creatures and spirits beautifying and extending the
myths.

- The two most important figure in the Japanese myth are

Izanagi and Izanami.

- Shintoism and Buddhism at large affect the

perspective and belief of the people. These two faith
strengthen the grasp of the myths and makes their
relevance to continue further.

- Mythology plays an important role in the lives of the

Japanese people today. Myths and legends are the basis
of much Japanese art, drama, and literature, and people
still learn and tell stories about the gods and goddesses.

PHILIPPINE MYTHOLOGY
The Philippine mythology was greatly taken from the
popular folk literature which is the traditional way of
sharing stories among the people in the early times. Due
to the Philippines diverse culture, the mythological
creatures, the gods and goddesses and other stories vary.
Thus, the Philippne mythology is not a unified concept but
rather a cultural and social group relative thing.

Philippine Mythology; An overview

1. Prior to the arrival of the Spanish and the introduction
of Christianity, the Philippine mythology gave our
ancestors a sense of direction and helped them explain
everything–from the origin of mankind to the existence
of diseases.

2. There’s no one-size-fits-all rule in Philippine mythology.

In other words, ancient Filipinos from every part of the
country didn’t stick to a single version of creation story
nor did they give uniform names to their deities.

3. Philippine mythology is a collection of stories and

superstitions about magical beings a.k.a. deities whom
our ancestors believed controlled everything.

Major Deities of the Philippine Mythology (Luzon)

1. Bathala- The highest ranking deity for he is the creator of
everything.
2. Idianale- The goddess of labor and good deeds.
3. Dumangan- The sky god of good harvest.
4. Anitun Tabu- The fickled goddess of the wind and rain.
5. Dumakulem- The tagalogs revered him as the guardian
of the mountains.
6. Ikapati/ Lakapati- The goddess of fertility
7. Mapulon- The god of seasons.
8. Anagolay- The goddess of lost things.
9. Apolaki- The sun god and the patron of the warriors.
10. Dian Masalanta- The patron goddess of lovers, of child
birth.
11. Amanikabli- The tagalog patron of hunters and the god
of the sea.
12. Mayari- The moon goddess.
13. Hana- the goddess of the morning
14. Tala- The goddess of the stars.

SUMMARY OF MAYKAPAL

In the beginning, the sky was so low that it could be

touched with a long bamboo pole, causing intense heat
that burned everything on Earth. The rivers and seas were
boiling due to the proximity of the scorching sun.
Maykapal, a huge man, appeared on Earth, described by
some ancient Tagalogs as the lord of the universe who
came to correct mistakes in his work.

Maykapal, unable to find rest from the intense heat, raised

the sky to its present height to alleviate the burning
conditions. Despite this change, the sun's unbearable heat
persisted. Maykapal, frustrated, pierced one of the sun's
eyes with his bolo, making it one-eyed and regulating its
heat to sustain life on Earth.
Still unsatisfied, Maykapal felt lonely and decided to
transform the barren earth. He sowed curious seeds, tore
the clouds to bring rain, and covered the earth with plants
and flowers. To address the darkness at night, he picked
up glittering shells from the beach, willed them to emit
light, and hung them in the sky, creating the stars and the
moon.

Contented with his creations, Maykapal returned to his

abode via Mount Arayat. This mythological narrative
explains the origin of the sky's height, the regulation of the
sun's heat, the creation of plants, flowers, stars, and the
moon, all orchestrated by Maykapal's actions to shape the
world into a more habitable and illuminated place.

SUMMARY OF THE LESSON

- The Philippine mythology is greatly influenced by the
traditional religionof the Flipinos.

- There is no unified mythology for the Phiippines,

because of the diversity in culture and language,
every cultural group has their respective mythology.

- Philippine mythology is a collection of stories and

superstitions about magical beings a.k.a. Deities whom
our ancestors believed controlled everything.