Division of Layers

7. Application

6. Presentation
Upper Layers
5. Session

4. Transport Middle Layer

3. Network

2. Data Link
Lower Layers
1. Physical
7. Application Layer

• Purpose
– User application to network service interface
• Examples
– File request from server
– E-mail services
– etc.
Application Layer Function

• General network access

• Flow control
• Error recovery
6. Presentation Layer

• Purpose
– Formats data for exchange between points of
communication
• Ex: Between nodes in a network
• Example:
– Redirector software
• Formats for transmission to the server
Presentation Layer Function

• Protocol conversion
• Data translation
• Encryption
• Character set conversion
• Expansion of graphics command
Redirector Example
C:/CORRES/USDA
F:/PUR/ORDER

REDIRECTOR

TO SERVER TO LOCAL
DISK
5. Session Layer

• Purpose
– Oversee a communication session
• Establish
• Maintain
• Terminate
• Example
Session Layer Function

• Performs name recognition and related

security
• Synchronization between sender and
receiver
• Assignment of time for transmission
– Start time
– End time etc.
4. Transport Layer

• Purpose
– Repackage proper and efficient delivery of
packages
• Error free
• In sequence
• Without duplication
• Example
Transport Layer Function

• For sending data

– Repackage the message to fit into packets
• Split long messages
• Assemble small messages
• On receiving data
– Perform the reverse
– Send an acknowledgment to the sender
• Solve packet problems
– During transmission and reception
3. Network Layer

• Purpose
– Addressing and routing the packets
• Example application at the router
– If the packet size is large, splits into small
packets
Network Layer Function

• Address messages
• Address translation from logical to physical
– Ex: nganesa ----------> 102.13.345.25
• Routing of data
– Based on priority
– Best path at the time of transmission
• Congestion control
End of Module 2
Module 3

The ISO Lower Layers

© N. Ganesan, Ph.D. , All rights reserved.

2. Data Link Layer

• Purpose
– Manages the flow of data over the physical
media
• Responsible for error-free transmission over
the physical media
• Assures error-free data submission to the
Network Layer
Data Link Layer Function

• Point of origin
– Packages data for transmission over physical line
• Receiving end
– Packages data for submission to the network layer
• Deals with network transmission protocols
– IEEE 802. protocols
Data Link Layer Subdivision

• Improvement to ISO Model

• Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer
– Manages service access points (logical link)
– Error and flow control
• Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer
– Applies directly to network card
communication
– Access control
System Architecture

• The architecture of a computer system is the

high-level (most general) design on which
the system is based

• Architectural features include:

– Components
– Collaborations (how components interact)
– Connectors (how components communicate)
System Architecture

• Common architectural patterns include

– Client-Server
– Layered
– Peer-to-peer
– Pipes and Filters
– etc.
Client-Server Architecture

• Each component of a client-server system

has the role of either client or server

– Client: a component that makes requests

clients are active initiators of transactions

– Server: a component that satisfies requests

servers are passive and react to client requests
Centralized / Distributed

• The client-server architecture can be

thought of as a median between
– Centralized processing: computation is
performed on a central platform, which is
accessed using “dumb” terminals
– Distributed processing: computation is
performed on platforms located with the user

Centralized Client / Server Distributed

Client-Server Architecture

• The Web is a client-server system

• Web browsers act as clients, and make
requests to web servers
• Web servers respond to requests with
requested information and/or computation
Client
Client Server
Client Server

Client request
Client Server
Tiered Web Architectures

• Web applications are usually implemented

with 2-tier, 3-tier, or multitier (N-tier)
architectures

• Each tier is a platform (client or server) with

a unique responsibility
2-Tier C-S Architecture

• Tier 1: Client platform, hosting a web

browser
• Tier 2: server platform, hosting all server
software components
2-Tier Characteristics
• Advantage:
– Inexpensive (single platform)

• Disadvantages
– Interdependency (coupling) of components
– No redundancy
– Limited scalability

• Typical application
– 10-100 users
– Small company or organization, e.g., law office,
medical practice, local non-profit
3-Tier C-S Architecture

• Tier 3 takes over part of the server function

from tier 2, typically data management
3-Tier Characteristics
• Advantages
– Improved performance, from specialized hardware
– Decreased coupling of software components
– Improved scalability

• Disadvantages
– No redundancy

• Typical Application
– 100-1000 users
– Small business or regional organization, e.g., specialty retailer,
small college
Multitier C-S Architecture

• A multitier (N-tier) architecture is an

expansion of the 3-tier architecture, in one
of several different possible ways
– Replication of the function of a tier
– Specialization of function within a tier
– Portal services, focusing on handling incoming
web traffic
Replication

• Application and data servers are replicated

• Servers share the total workload
Specialization

• Servers are specialized

• Each server handles a designated part of the
workload, by function
Portal Services

• Portal servers handle incoming traffic,

reducing application server load
– e.g., firewall, load balancer, transaction
processing manager
Multi-Tier Characteristics
• Advantages
– Decoupling of software components
– Flexibility to add/remove platforms in response to load
– Scalability
– Redundancy

• Disadvantages
– Higher costs (maintenance, design, electrical load, cooling)

• Typical Application
– 1000+ users
– Large business or organization
Internet and World Wide Web

• Which came first - Internet or WWW?

The Internet

• Internet is a network of interconnected

computers that is now global
• Internet born in 1969 - called ARPANET
• 1969 ARPANET was connection of
computers at UCLA, Stanford, UCSB,
Univ. of Utah
State of computers?

• What was the state of computers in the late

1960s and early 1970s?
Computers late 60s & 70s

• No Personal Computers – all

large mainframe computers
in late 60s
• Mid 1970s – initial personal
computers
– Altair: Box with blinking
lights
• Late 1970s – Apple 2, first
usable PC
Personal Computing?

• Just a box with

blinking lights
• Not where
Networking/ Internet
was being developed
Internet - 1970s

• 1972 - Telnet developed as a way to connect to

remote computer
• 1972 – Email introduced
– 1977 - U. Wisconsin has first “large” Email system -
100 users
• 1973 - ARPANET goes international
• 1973 - File Transfer Protocol (FTP) established
State of computers?

• What was the state of computers in the early

1980s?
Computers 1980s

• 1981 – IBM PC
• 1984 – Apple Macintosh
• 1986 – Modem becomes option on PCs
Internet - 1980s

• 1984 - Domain Name Server introduced

– allows naming of hosts, no longer numeric
• 1986 - NSFNET created
– in 1990, becomes backbone of modern Internet
when ARPANET is decommissioned
– Completely privatized by 1995
– 56 K interconnection initially, increased rapidly
Barry M. Leiner, Vinton G. Cerf, David D. Clark, Robert E. Kahn, Leonard Kleinrock, Daniel C.
Lynch, Jon Postel, Larry G. Roberts, Stephen Wolff. A Brief History of the Internet. Internet Society.
http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml

Internet Timeline

NSF Net
Internet 1990s
• 1991 - Tim Berners-Lee releases World Wide
Web!
– TBL is computer programmer at CERN, a physics lab in
Europe (new book Weaving the Web by TBL)
• 1993 - Mosaic (becomes Netscape) designed by
graduate students at University of Illinois
– first point-and-click browser
– later developed into Netscape Navigator
• These are the two most significant events in the formation of the WWW
Internet 1990s
• 1991 - Tim Berners-Lee releases World Wide
Web!
– TBL is computer programmer at CERN, a physics lab in
Europe (book Weaving the Web by TBL)
• 1993 - Mosaic (becomes Netscape) designed by
graduate students at University of Illinois
– first point-and-click browser
– later developed into Netscape Navigator
• These are the two most significant events in the formation of the WWW
World Wide Web

• Via Internet, computers can contact each

other
• Public files on computers can be read by
remote user
– usually HyperText Markup Language (.html)
• URL - Universal Resource Locator - is
name of file on a remote computer
• http://www.msu.edu/~urquhar5/tour/active.html
HTTP

• World Wide Web uses HTTP Servers,

better known as web server
• Receive HTTP type request and send
requested file in packets
Web Browsers

• Mosaic (1993) was first point-and-click

browser
• Web browsers are the software we use to
view web pages
• Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer
were most popular
• Netscape Navigator was original, but
Microsoft leveraged IE on market
State of computers?

• What was the state of computers in the early

to mid 1990s?
Computer History – 1990s

• Windows 95 GUI made computing easier

for PC-bound masses
• Windows 95 + Internet (AOL, others) 
Huge increase in number of home PCs
• Computer on every desk in workplace
21st Century – File Sharing
• Internet allowed sharing of simple
information
• FTP was initial file sharing system, but a bit
hard to use
• WWW advanced type of info allowed, but
not designed for file-sharing
• Napster, KaZaA, Morpheus and LimeWire
are file-sharing.
Napster

• Napster was a music sharing community

• Used a central server to catalog who had
what
• This central server violated music industry’s
copyrights
• Napster now screens transfers to see if they
are copyrighted material
HTTP vs HTML

• HTML: hypertext markup language

– Definitions of tags that are added to Web documents to
control their appearance
• HTTP: hypertext transfer protocol
– The rules governing the conversation between a Web client
and a Web server

Both were invented at the same time by the same person

What is a protocol?

• In diplomatic circles, a protocol is the set of rules

governing a conversation between people

• We have seen that the client and server carry on a

machine-to-machine conversation

• A network protocol is the set of rules governing a

conversation between a client and a server

• There are many protocols, HTTP is just one

An HTTP conversation

Client Server
• I would like to open a
connection • OK

• GET <file location>

• Send page or error message

• Display response
• Close connection
• OK

HTTP is the set of rules governing the format and content of the
conversation between a Web client and server
An HTTP example
The message requesting a Web page must begin with the word
“GET” and be followed by a space and the location of a file on the
server, like this:

GET /fac/lpress/shortbio.htm

The protocol spells out the exact message format, so any Web
client can retrieve pages from any Web server.
Network protocols

• The details are only important to developers.

• The rules are defined by the inventor of the protocol –
may be a group or a single person.
• The rules must be precise and complete so
programmers can write programs that work with
other programs.
• The rules are often published as an RFC along with
running client and server programs.
• The HTTP protocol used for Web applications was
invented by Tim Berners Lee.

RFC = request for comments

HTTP is an application layer protocol

• The Web client and the Web server are application programs
• Application layer programs do useful work like retrieving Web
pages, sending and receiving email or transferring files
• Lower layers take care of the communication details
• The client and server send messages and data without knowing
anything about the communication network
The application layer is boss – the top layer
Layer Function
Application Do useful work like Web browsing, email,
and file transfer
Lower layers Handle communication between the client
and server

• Your boss says: Send this package to Miami -- I don't care if you use
Federal Express, UPS, or any other means. Also, let me know when it
arrives or if it cannot be delivered for some reason.

• The application program says: Send this request to the server -- I don't care
how you do it or whether it goes over phone lines, radio, or anything else
about the details. Just send the message, and let me know when it arrives or
if it cannot be delivered for some reason.

There are five TCP/IP layers, the application layer and four lower layers.
Many application layer protocols are used on
the Internet, HTTP is only one

Protocol Application

HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Retrieve and view Web pages

Copy files from client to server

FTP: File Transfer
or from server to client
SMTP: Simple Mail
Send email
Transport

POP: Post Office Read email

The TCP/IP protocol layers
The application program is king – it gets work done using the lower level
layers for communication between the client and server.

Get useful work done – retrieve Web

Application
pages, copy files, send and receive email,
etc.
Make client-server connections and
Transport
optionally control transmission speed,
check
Route for errors,
packets etc. networks
between
Internet

Data link Route data packets within the local area

network
Specify what medium connects two
Physical
nodes, how binary ones and zeros are
differentiated, etc,
Universal Resource Locator
http://www.msu.edu/~urquhar5/tour/active.html

http:// /~urquhar5/tour/active.html
identifies type File Location on Remote Computer
of transfer

www.msu.edu
Domain Name -
name of remote computer
CISC 856 TCP/IP and Upper Layer Protocols

RFC 1034 & RFC 1035

Presented by Neeta Jain

Domain Names
• A domain name is the sequence of labels"" from a node to the root,
separated by dots (“.”s), read left to right
– The name space has a maximum depth of 127 levels
edu gov int mil net org
– Domaincom
names are limited to 255 characters in length
• A node’s domain name identifies its position in the name space

nominum metainfo berkeley nwu nato army uu

west east www

dakota tornado
Subdomains

• One domain is a subdomain of another if its domain

name ends in the other’s domain name
– So sales.nominum.com is a subdomain of
• nominum.com & com
– nominum.com is a subdomain of com
Types of DNS Domain Names
Name Type Description Example
Root domain This is the top of the tree, A single period (.) or a
representing an unnamed level; it is period used at the end of a
sometimes shown as two empty name, such as
quotation marks (""), indicating a “example.microsoft.com.”
null value. When used in a DNS
domain name, it is stated by a
trailing period (.) to designate that
the name is located at the root or
highest level of the domain
hierarchy. Names stated this way
are called fully qualified domain
names (FQDNs).

Top level A name used to indicate a ““.com”, which indicates a

domain country/region or the type of name registered to a
organization using a name. business for commercial
use on the Internet.
Name Type Description Example
Second level domain Variable-length names ““microsoft.com. ”, which
registered to an individual is the second-level domain
or organization for use on name registered to
the Internet. These names Microsoft by the Internet
are always based upon an DNS domain name
appropriate top-level registrar.
domain, depending on the
type of organization or
geographic location where a
name is used.

Subdomain Additional names that an ““example.microsoft.com.

organization can create that ”, which is a fictitious
are derived from the subdomain assigned by
registered second-level Microsoft for use in
domain name. These documentation example
include names added to names.
grow the DNS tree of
names in an organization
and divide it into
departments or geographic
locations.
DNS Top Level Domain Names
DNS Domain Name Type of Organization

com Commercial organizations

edu Educational institutions

org Non-profit organizations

net Networks (the backbone of the Internet)

gov Non-military government organizations

mil Military government organizations

arpa Reverse DNS

“xx” Two-letter country code (i.e. us, au, ca, fr)

DNS
• A domain name server also called DNS server ,
manages a massive database that maps domain
names to IP addresses
• DNS name resolution refers to the process of
resolving(mapping) the domain name to the IP
address.
• On your home network, for example, your router
obtained DNS server addresses from your Internet
Service Provider(ISP). Your router in turn hands
those DNS addresses out to the computers in your
home.
DNS Name Resolution
The Resolution Process

• Let’s look at the resolution process step-by-

step:

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping www.nominum.com.
The Resolution Process
• The workstation annie asks its configured name
server, dakota, for www.nominum.com’s address

dakota.west.sprockets.com

What’s the IP address

of
www.nominum.com?

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping www.nominum.com.
The Resolution Process
• The name server dakota asks a root name server, m, for
www.nominum.com’s address

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

What’s the IP address

of
www.nominum.com?

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping www.nominum.com.
The Resolution Process
• The root server m refers dakota to the com name servers
• This type of response is called a “referral”

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com Here’s a list of the
com name servers.
Ask one of them.

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping www.nominum.com.
The Resolution Process
• The name server dakota asks a com name server, f,
for www.nominum.com’s address
What’s the IP address
of
www.nominum.com?

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping www.nominum.com.
The Resolution Process
• The com name server f refers dakota to the
nominum.com name servers
Here’s a list of the
nominum.com
name servers.
Ask one of them.
m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping www.nominum.com.
The Resolution Process
• The name server dakota asks a nominum.com name server,
ns1.sanjose, for www.nominum.com’s address
What’s the IP address
of
www.nominum.com?

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

ns1.sanjose.nominum.net

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping www.nominum.com.
The Resolution Process
• The nominum.com name server ns1.sanjose
responds with www.nominum.com’s address

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

Here’s the IP ns1.sanjose.nominum.net

address for
www.nominum.com
f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping www.nominum.com.
The Resolution Process
• The name server dakota responds to annie with
www.nominum.com’s address
Here’s the IP
address for
www.nominum.com

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

ns1.sanjose.nominum.net

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping www.nominum.com.
Resolution Process (Caching)
• After the previous query, the name server dakota now knows:
– The names and IP addresses of the com name servers
– The names and IP addresses of the nominum.com name servers
– The IP address of www.nominum.com
• Let’s look at the resolution process again

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping ftp.nominum.com.
Resolution Process (Caching)
• The workstation annie asks its configured name
server, dakota, for ftp.nominum.com’s address

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

What’s the IP address ns1.sanjose.nominum.net

of ftp.nominum.com?

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping ftp.nominum.com.
Resolution Process (Caching)
• dakota has cached a NS record indicating ns1.sanjose is an
nominum.com name server, so it asks it for
ftp.nominum.com’s address
What’s the IP address
of ftp.nominum.com?

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

ns1.sanjose.nominum.net

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping ftp.nominum.com.
Resolution Process (Caching)
• The nominum.com name server ns1.sanjose
responds with ftp.nominum.com’s address

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

Here’s the IP
address for ns1.sanjose.nominum.net
ftp.nominum.com
f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping ftp.nominum.com.
Resolution Process (Caching)
• The name server dakota responds to annie with
ftp.nominum.com’s address
Here’s the IP
address for
ftp.nominum.com

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

ns1.sanjose.nominum.net

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com
ping ftp.nominum.com.
DNS Name Resolution Example
Introduction

1. What is the IP
address of
udel.edu ?

It is 128.175.13.92

1. What is the
host name of
128.175.13.74

It is strauss.udel.edu

88
There are 3 components:
• Name Space:
Specifications for a structured name space and data
associated with the names
• Resolvers:
Client programs that extract information from Name
Servers.
• Name Servers:
Server programs which hold information about the structure
and the names.

89
Name Space

90
Resolvers

A Resolver maps a name to an address and vice

versa.

Query

Response

Resolver Name Server

91
Iterative Resolution
a.root
server

a3.nstl a.gtld-
d.com server
5
udel ns1.goo
server gle.com
3 iterative response (referral)7
“I don't know. Try a.root-servers.net.”
iterative response (referral) 9
“I don't know. Try a.gtld-servers.net.”
1 iterative response (referral)
iterative response (referral)
“I don't know. Try a3.nstld.com.”
2 4 “I don't know. Try ns1.google.com.”
6 iterative response
8 “The IP address of www.google.com
client 10 is 216.239.37.99.”
iterative request
“What is the IP address of
92
www.google.com?”
Recursive Resolution
root
server
edu 3 com
server server
7 4
udel 2 8 google
serve server
6 5
r
9

1
10 recursive request
“What is the IP address of
www.google.com?”
client recursive response
“The IP address of www.google.com is
216.239.37.99.”
93
Name Server

Architecture: Zone
From data
Name Server Process
disk file
Authoritative Data Master
Zone transfer server
(primary master and
slave zones)
Cache Data
(responses from
other name servers)
Agent
(looks up queries
on behalf of resolvers)

94
Name Server (cont’d)

Authoritative Data:
Name Server Process
Authoritative Data
(primary master and
slave zones) Response

Cache Data
(responses from
other name servers)
Agent
(looks up queries Resolver
Query
on behalf of resolvers)

95
Name Server (cont’d)

Using Other Name Servers:

Name Server Process

Authoritative Data
(primary master and
slave zones)
Response
Cache Data
Response
(responses from
Arbitrary
other name servers)
name
Agent Query server
(looks up queries Resolver
Query
on behalf of resolvers)
96
Name Server (cont’d)

Cached Data :
Name Server Process
Authoritative Data
(primary master and
slave zones) Response

Cache Data
(responses from
other name servers)
Agent
(looks up queries Query Resolver

on behalf of resolvers)

97
Block Diagram

Query Query

Foreign
User Name
Resolver
Program Server
Response
Response

Reference
Addition

Cache

98
How to make a web page

• Define the two basic steps required in

making a web page.
Two Basic Steps

• Create an HTML File

• Upload file to server
– Saving to P: drive eliminates this step
.html
• Web documents are text files with .html
extension
• These text files have HTML “tags” in them
HTML Tags

• Each opening HTML tag has a closing

HTML tag that matches it.
– <P> for begin paragraph is followed by </P>
for end paragraph
– <P> goes at beginning of paragraph
– </P> goes at end of paragraph
Example of Tags

• <P>Here is the paragraph about

something</P><P>Here is the second
paragraph</P>

What it will look like:

Here is the paragraph about something.
Here is the second paragraph.
Essential HTML Tags

• <HTML> begins HTML document

• <BODY> begins body of document
• <H1>Here’s a header in big type</H1>
• <P>Here’s a paragraph</P>
• </BODY> ends body
• </HTML> ends HTML document
Browser Output of Page

If you opened that page in Netscape Navigator, it would look

like this:
http://www.msu.edu/course/lbs/126/lectures/viewsource.html

Here’s a header in big type

Here’s a paragraph
View Page Source

• Using “View Page Source” allows you to

see the HTML behind a page
• When we get into advanced HTML pages,
this can be really important for learning
how someone did something
• http://puffin.bird.audubon.org/
File Transfer Protocol
• FTP Program (also called FTP client) used to
transfer files from your computer to your public
web directory housed on the MSU computers

• WS_FTP LE is a good, free FTP program

• In MSU Labs, can directly save stuff in your AFS

space, on the P: drive, in the web directory
Your personal web space
• Http://www.msu.edu/~pilotname/index.html

• Three steps:
– Make your pilot web space public (in advanced
features)
– Create a file named index.html
– Use FTP to transfer a file named index.html into your
web directory
Netscape Composer

• Netscape Composer allows WYSIWYG

(what-you-see-is-what-you-get) editing of
web pages
• Controls similar to Microsoft word – font
formatting, colors, etc.
Macromedia Dreamweaver

• Excellent Site Building Tool

• Allows organization of files, ftp, and
WYSIWYG editing all-in-one
Microsoft Front Page

• All-in-One program like Dreamweaver

• Uses “proprietary tags” that can’t be read by
some browsers (Netscape)
• Uses non-standard HTML, style sheets, etc