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SOC
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
6

NIJOLE V. BENOKRAITIS
University of Baltimore

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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SOC 6 © 2019, 2017 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Nijole V. Benokraitis
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the following faculty members for their valuable feedback in revising this edition:

Megan Allen     Blue Ridge Community and Technical College Kathleen Lowney   Valdosta State University
David Briscoe      University of Arkansas at Little Rock Timothy McLean   Herkimer College
Ashley Chambers   Blue Ridge Community and Technical College Amanda Miller    University of Indianapolis
Rose De Luca     Emmanuel College Ken Muir      Appalachian State University
Sarah Deward     Eastern Michigan University Jessica Oladapo    Rock Valley College
Steven Fulks     Barton College Jodie Simon     Wichita State University
Jennifer Kunz     West Texas A&M University Viviene Wood    University of Western Georgia
Diane Levy      University of North Carolina at Wilmington Rochelle Zaranek    Macomb Community College

Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01    Print Year: 2018

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BENOKRAITIS

SOC 6 BRIEF CONTENTS

1 Thinking Like a Sociologist 2

2 Examining Our Social World 20

3 Culture 38

4 Socialization 60

5 Social Interaction in Everyday Life 82

6 Groups, Organizations, and Institutions 100

7 Deviance, Crime, and Social Control 118

8 Social Stratification: United States and

Global 138

9 Gender and Sexuality 160

10 Race and Ethnicity 182

11 The Economy and Politics 204

12 Families and Aging 230

13 Education and Religion 254

14 Health and Medicine 282

15 Population, Urbanization,
and the Environment 302

16 Social Change: Collective Behavior, Social

Movements, and Technology 326

References 346
Name Index 387
Subject Index 400
7 pips/Shutterstock.com

BRIEF CONTENTS iii

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
CONTENTS

3-4  Some Cultural Variations 50

Michele Burgess/Alamy Stock Photo; Jeremy Woodhouse/AGE Fotostock; BSIP/Newscom;

3-5  High Culture and Popular Culture 52

vgajic/E1/Getty Images; Jim West/Alamy Stock Photo; John Lund/Getty Images

3-6  Cultural Change and Technology 54
3-7  Sociological Perspectives on Culture 56

4 Socialization 60
4-1  Socialization: Its Purpose and Importance 61
4-2  Nature and Nurture 62
4-3  Sociological Explanations of Socialization 65
4-4  Primary Socialization Agents 69
4-5  Socialization Throughout Life 75
4-6  Resocialization and Total Institutions 79

5 Social Interaction in Everyday

1 Thinking Like a Sociologist 2
Life 82
5-1  Social Structure 83
1-1   What Is Sociology? 3
5-2  Status 83
1-2   What Is a Sociological Imagination? 5
5-3  Role 85
1-3  Why Study Sociology? 5
5-4  Explaining Social Interaction 87
1-4  Some Origins of Sociological Theory 7
5-5  Nonverbal Communication 91
1-5  Contemporary Sociological Theories 13
5-6  Online Interaction 95

2 Examining Our Social

World 20
2-1  How Do We Know What We Know? 21
2-2  Why Is Sociological Research Important in Our
Everyday Lives? 21
2-3  The Scientific Method 22
2-4  Basic Steps in the Research Process 26
Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images News/Getty Images

2-5  Some Major Data Collection Methods 27

2-6  Ethics and Social Research 35

3 Culture 38
3-1  Culture and Society 39
3-2  The Building Blocks of Culture 40
3-3  Some Cultural Similarities 48

iv CONTENTS

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8-2  Social Class in America 142
8-3  Poverty 145
8-4  Social Mobility 148
8-5  Global Stratification 151
8-6  Sociological Explanations: Why There Are Haves and
Have-Nots 154

9 Gender and Sexuality

PG Arphexad/Alamy Stock Photo

160
9-1  Sex, Gender, and Culture 161
9-2  Contemporary Gender Inequality 166
9-3  Sexuality 169
9-4  Some Current Social Issues About
Sexuality 171

6 Groups, Organizations, and 9-5  Gender and Sexuality Across Cultures

9-6  Sociological Explanations of Gender and
173

Institutions 100 Sexuality 175

6-1  Social Groups 101
6-2  Formal Organizations 106
6-3  Sociological Perspectives on Social Groups and
10 Race and Ethnicity 182
10-1  U.S. Racial and Ethnic Diversity 183
Organizations 112
10-2  The Social Significance of Race
6-4  Social Institutions 116
and Ethnicity 183

7 Deviance, Crime, and Social

Control 118
7-1  What Is Deviance? 119
7-2  Types of Deviance and Crime 121
7-3  Functionalist Perspectives on
Deviance 126
7-4  Conflict Perspectives on Deviance 128
7-5  Feminist Perspectives on Deviance 130
7-6  Symbolic Interaction Perspectives on
Deviance 132
7-7  Controlling Deviance and Crime 134

8 Social Stratification: United

Henryk T. Kaiser/Getty Images

States and Global 138

8-1  Social Stratification Systems
and Bases 139

CONTENTS v

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10-3  Our Changing Immigration Mosaic 185
10-4  Dominant and Minority Groups 187
10-5  Some Sources of Racial-Ethnic Friction 189
10-6  Major U.S. Racial and Ethnic Groups 191
10-7  Sociological Explanations of Racial-Ethnic
Inequality 198
10-8  Interracial and Interethnic Relationships 202

11 The Economy and

Politics 204
11-1  Global Economic Systems 205
11-2  Corporations and the
Economy 207
11-3  Work in U.S. Society Today 208
11-4  Sociological Explanations of Work and the
Economy 214
11-5  Global Political Systems 217
11-6  Politics, Power, and Authority 219
11-7  Politics and Power in U.S. Society 221
11-8  Sociological Perspectives on Politics
and Power 225

Masterfile
12 Families and Aging 230
12-1  What Is a Family? 231
12-2  How U.S. Families Are
Changing 235
12-3  Family Conflict and Violence 242
Andrew Lichtenstein/Corbis News/Getty Images

12-4  Our Aging Society 245

12-5  Sociological Explanations of Family
and Aging 249

13 Education and Religion 254

13-1  Education and Society 255
13-2  Sociological Perspectives on Education 255
vi CONTENTS

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13-3  Some Current Issues in U.S. Education 263
13-4  Religion and Society 268
13-5  Religious Organization and Major World
Religions 269
13-6  Religion in the United States 271
13-7  Sociological Perspectives on

US Army Photo/Alamy Stock Photo

Religion 275

14 Health and Medicine 282

14-1  Global Health and Illness 283
14-2  Health and Illness in the United States 283
14-3  Health Care: United States and Global 291
14-4  Sociological Perspectives on Health and
Medicine 293
15 Population, Urbanization,
and the Environment 302
15-1  Population Changes 303
15-2  Urbanization 310
15-3  The Environment 316

16 Social Change: Collective

Behavior, Social Movements,
and Technology 326
16-1  Collective Behavior 327
16-2  Social Movements 335
16-3  Technology and Social Change 340
Lisa S./Shutterstock.com

References 346
Name Index 387
Subject Index 400

CONTENTS vii

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1 Thinking Like a Sociologist

BSIP/Newscom

Jim West/Alamy Stock

Jeremy Woodhouse/
AGE Fotostock

Photo
Michele Burgess/Alamy

vgajic/E1/Getty Images
Stock Photo

John Lund/Getty Images

© Photo Credit Here

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to…

1-1 Explain what sociology is and how it differs from other social
sciences and common sense.

1-2 Explain how and why a sociological imagination helps us After finishing
understand society. this chapter go to
1-3 Identify and illustrate why it’s worthwhile to study sociology. PAGE 19 for
1-4 Describe and explain the origins of sociology, why sociology
developed, and its most influential early theorists.
STUDY TOOLS
1-5 Compare, illustrate, and evaluate the four contemporary
sociological perspectives.

2 SOC

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Texting and emailing are associated with the highest risk of car crashes, and headset
cell phones aren’t much safer than handheld cell phones. Almost 90 percent of U.S.
drivers say that distracted driving is a serious safety threat. However, 70 percent talk
on a cell phone, text, surf the Internet, and even video chat while driving. In 2014
alone, such distractions contributed to 18 percent of all crashes that resulted in death
or severe injury (AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, 2015; AT&T Newsroom, 2015;
National Center for Statistics and Analysis, 2016).

muttered, “Her name is Stupid,” and flung the doll into

W H AT D O YOU T H I N K ?
a corner.
Sociology is basically common sense. Despite some individual differences, identical twins,
you, and I are like other people in many ways. Around
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
strongly agree strongly disagree

True or False?
E V E R Y B O D Y K N O W S T H AT. . .
Why is there such a disconnection between many
Americans’ attitudes and behavior? This chapter exam- 1. The death penalty reduces crime.
ines these and other questions. Let’s begin by consider- 2. Women’s earnings are now similar to men’s,
ing what sociology is (and isn’t) and how a “sociological especially in high-income occupations.
imagination” can give us more control over our lives. 3. People age 65 and older make up the largest
We’ll then look at how sociologists grapple with com- group of those who are poor.
plex theoretical issues in explaining social life. Before 4. There are more married than unmarried U.S.
reading further, take the True or False? adults.
5. Divorce rates are higher today than in the past.
6. Latinos are the fastest-growing racial-ethic
1-1 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? group in the United States.
7. The best way to get an accurate measure of pub-
Stated simply, sociology is the scientific study of human lic opinion is to poll as many people as possible.
behavior in society. Sociologists study behavior patterns 8. Illegal drugs are the biggest health hazard.
that occur between individuals, among small groups
The answers are at the end of 1-1.
(e.g., families), large organizations (e.g., Apple), and
entire societies (e.g., the United States). But, you might
protest, “I’m unique.”

the world, we experience grief when a loved one dies,

1-1a Are You Unique? participate in rituals that celebrate marriage or the birth
Yes and no. Each of us is unique in the sense that you of a child, and want to have healthy and happy lives.
and I are like no one else on earth. Even identical twins, Some actions, such as terrorist attacks, are unpredict-
who have the same physical characteristics and genetic able. For the most part, however, people conform to ex-
matter, often differ in personality and interests. One of pected and acceptable behavior. From the time that we
my colleagues likes to tell the story about his 3-year- get up until we go to bed,
old twin girls who received the same doll. One twin we follow a variety of rules
sociology the scientific study of
chattered that the doll’s name was Lori, that she loved and customs about what human behavior in society.
Lori, and would take good care of her. The second twin we eat, how we drive, how

CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 3

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
common sense notions about economic
success vary considerably across
Marriage without Love? No Way! countries.

When I ask my students, “Would you marry someone you’re not ▸▸ Much of our common sense is based
in love with?” most laugh, raise an eyebrow, or stare at me in dis- on myths and misconceptions. A
belief. “Of course not!” they exclaim. In fact, the “open” courtship common myth is that living together is
and dating systems common in Western nations, including the a good way to find out whether part-
United States, are foreign to much of the world. In many African, ners will get along after marriage.
Asian, Mediterranean, and Middle Eastern countries, marriages Generally, however, couples who live
are arranged: They forge bonds between families rather than together before marriage have higher
individuals, and preserve family continuity along religious and divorce rates than those who don’t (see
socioeconomic lines. Love isn’t a prerequisite for marriage in so- Chapter 12).
cieties that value kin groups rather than individual choices (see Sociology, in contrast to conventional
Chapters 9 and 12). wisdom, examines claims and beliefs criti-
cally, considers many points of view, and
enables us to move beyond established ways
of thinking. The sociological perspective
we act in different social situations, and how we dress for analyzes how social context influences people’s lives. The
work, classes, and leisure activities. “sociological imagination” is at the center of the socio-
So what? you might shrug. Isn’t it “obvious” that we logical perspective.
dress differently for classes than for job interviews? Isn’t
all of this just plain old common sense?

1-1b Isn’t Sociology Just Common True or False?

Sense?
E V E R Y B O D Y K N O W S T H AT. . .
No. Sociology goes well beyond conventional wisdom,
what we call common sense, in several ways:
All of the answers are false.
▸▸ Common sense is subjective. If a woman 1. States without the death penalty have had con-
crashes into my car, I might conclude, according to sistently lower homicide rates than those with
conventional wisdom, statements that we’ve heard death penalties (see Chapter 7).
over the years, that “women are terrible drivers.” 2. Regardless of education or occupation, women’s
In fact, most drivers involved in crashes are men— earnings are lower than men’s (see Chapters 9
especially teenagers and those age 70 and older and 11).
(Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, 2013). Thus, 3. Children ages 5 and under make up the largest
objective data show that, overall, men are worse group of Americans who are poor (see Chapter 8).
drivers than women.
4. The number of unmarried U.S. adults outnum-
▸▸ Common sense ignores facts. Because common bers those who are married (see Chapter 12).
sense is subjective, it ignores facts that challenge 5. Divorce rates are lower today than they were
cherished beliefs. For example, many Americans between 1975 and 1990 (see Chapter 12).
are most concerned about street crimes, such as 6. Latinos are the largest ethnic group in the
robbery or homicide. FBI and sociological data United States, but Asian Americans are the fast-
show, however, that we’re much more likely to be est growing (see Chapter 10).
assaulted or murdered by someone we know or live 7. What matters in polling is not the number of
with (see Chapters 7 and 12). people polled, but their representativeness in
▸▸ Common sense varies across groups and the population studied (see Chapter 2).
cultures. Many Americans believe that working 8. In the United States and worldwide, tobacco use
harder decreases poverty. In contrast, Europeans is the leading cause of preventable death and
tend to think that poverty is due to forces outside disability (see Chapter 14).
people’s control (see Chapters 3 and 8). Thus,
4 SOC

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1-2 WHAT IS A SOCIOLOGICAL
IMAGINATION?
According to sociologist C. Wright Mills (1916–1962),
social factors such as religion, ethnicity, and politics

Jessica Miglio/Netflix/Everett Collection

affect our behavior. Mills (1959) called this ability to
see the relationship between individual experiences and
larger social influences the sociological imagination.
The sociological imagination emphasizes the connection
between personal troubles (biography) and structural
(public and historical) issues.
Consider unemployment. If only a small group of
people can’t find a job, it’s a personal trouble that may Netflix’s Orange Is the New Black revolves around a
be due, in part, to an individual’s low educational at- white, upper-middle-class woman who’s in prison for
tainment, lack of specific skills that employers want, drug smuggling. For sociologists, the series illustrates
not searching for work, and so on. If unemployment is the connection between micro-level individual behavior
widespread, it’s a public issue because economic prob- (the inmates’ and prison guards’ experiences) and
lems are also the result of structural factors such as mass macro-level factors (social class, family structures, racial
layoffs, sending jobs overseas, technological changes, discrimination, corruption, and prison overcrowding).
and restrictive hiring policies (see Chapter 11). Thus,
people may be unemployed regardless of skills, a college
degree, and job searches. divorce. On a micro level, sociologists study factors like
A sociological imagination helps us understand extramarital affairs, substance abuse, arguments about
how larger social forces impact our everyday lives. It money, and other everyday interactions that fuel mari-
identifies why our personal troubles are often due to tal tension and unhappiness, leading to divorce. On a
larger public issues and policies over which we have lit- macro level, sociologists look at how the economy, laws,
tle, if any, control. A sociological imagination relies on cultural values, and technology affect divorce rates (see
both micro- and macro-level approaches to understand Chapter 12). Examining micro, macro, and micro–macro
our social world. forces is one of the reasons why sociology is a powerful
tool in understanding (and changing) our behavior and
society at large (Ritzer, 1992).
1-2a Microsociology: How People
Affect Our Everyday Lives
Microsociology examines the patterns of individuals’
1-3 WHY STUDY SOCIOLOGY?
social interaction in specific settings. In most of our rela-
tionships, we interact with others on a micro, or “small,” Sociology offers explanations that can greatly improve
level (e.g., members of a work group discussing who will the quality of your everyday life. These explanations can
perform which tasks). These everyday interactions in- influence choices that range from your personal deci-
volve what people think, say, or do on a daily basis. sions to expanding your ca-
reer opportunities.
sociological imagination
1-2b Macrosociology: How Social seeing the relationship between

Structure Affects Our Everyday Lives 1-3a Making individual experiences and larger
social influences.
Informed
Macrosociology focuses on large-scale patterns and microsociology examines
processes that characterize society as a whole. Macro, or
Decisions the patterns of individuals’ social
interaction in specific settings.
“large,” approaches are especially useful in understand- Sociology can help us
ing some of the constraints—such as economic forces make more informed de- macrosociology examines the
and public policies. cisions. We often hear large-scale patterns and processes
that characterize society as a
Microsociology and macrosociology differ concep- that grief counseling is
whole.
tually, but are interrelated. Consider the reasons for essential after the death
CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 5

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
of a loved one. In fact, 4 in 10 Americans are better
off without it. Grief is normal, and most people work
through their losses on their own, whereas counseling
sometimes prolongs depression and anxiety (Stroebe
et al., 2000).

1-3b Understanding Diversity

The racial and ethnic composition of the United States is
changing. By 2025, only 58 percent of the U.S. popula-
tion is projected to be white, down from 76 percent in
1990 and 86 percent in 1950 (Passel et al., 2011; U.S.
Census Bureau, 2012). As you’ll see in later chapters,
this racial/ethnic shift has already affected interpersonal
relationships as well as education, politics, religion, and

Jason Love/Cartoonstock.com
other spheres of social life.
Recognizing and understanding diversity is one
of sociology’s central themes. Our gender, social class,
marital status, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and age—
among other factors—shape our beliefs, behavior, and
experiences. If, for example, you’re a white middle-class
male who attends a private college, your experiences
are very different from those of a female Vietnamese
immigrant who is struggling to pay expenses at a com-
emotional. In contrast, critical thinking involves knowl-
munity college.
edge and problem solving (Paul and Elder, 2007).
Increasingly, nations around the world are in-
Critical sociological thinking goes even further
tertwined through political and economic ties.
because we begin to understand how our indi-
What happens in other soci­eties often has a di-
vidual lives, choices, and troubles are shaped by
rect or indirect impact on contemporary U.S.
race, gender, social class, and social institutions
life. Decisions in oil-producing countries, for
like the economy, politics, and education (Eck-
example, affect gas prices, spur the develop-
stein et al., 1995; Grauerholz and Bouma-
ment of hybrid cars that are less dependent
Holtrop, 2003). Table 1.1 summarizes
on oil, and stimulate research on alter-
some of the basic elements of critical
native sources of energy. Suzanne Tucker/Shutterstock.com
sociological thinking.

1-3c Shaping Social and Public Policies

and Practices
Sociology is valuable in applied, clinical, and policy set- Table 1.1 What Is Critical Sociological Thinking?
tings because many jobs require understanding soci-
ety and research to create social change. According to Critical sociological thinking requires a combination of
a director of a research institute, sociology increased skills. Some of the basic elements include the ability to:
her professional contributions: “I can look at problems ●● rely on reason rather than emotion
of concern to the National Institutes of Health and say
‘here’s a different way to solve this problem’” (Nyseth
●● ask questions, avoid snap judgments, and examine popular
and unpopular beliefs
et al., 2011: 48).
●● recognize one’s own and others’ assumptions, prejudices,
1-3d Thinking Critically and points of view

We develop a sociological imagination not only when we

●● remain open to alternative explanations and theories
understand and can apply the concepts, but also when ●● examine competing evidence (see Chapter 2)
we can think, speak, and write critically. Much of our
●● understand how public policies affect private troubles
thinking and decision making is often impulsive and
6 SOC

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Some well-known people who were sociology majors: Rev. Martin Luther King, Ronald Reagan, Michelle
Obama, Robin Williams, and Joe Theismann. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division[Leffler, Warren K/ LC-DIG-ds-00836]; U.S. National Archives
and Records Administration (NARA); Official White House Photo; Everett Collection/Shutterstock.com; Nate Fine/Getty Images Sport/Getty Images; iStock.com/belterz

1-3e Expanding Your Career 1-4 SOME ORIGINS OF

Opportunities
A degree in sociology is a springboard for many jobs
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
and professions. A national survey of under-graduate During college, most of my classmates and I postponed
sociology majors found that 44 percent were in ad- taking theory courses (regardless of our major) as long as
ministrative or management positions, 22 percent possible. “This stuff is boring, boring, boring,” we’d grump,
were employed in social service and counseling, 18 “and has nothing to do with the real world.” In fact, theo-
percent were in sales and marketing, and 12 percent rizing is part of our everyday lives. Every time you try to
were teachers (Senter et al., 2014; see also Senter and explain why your family and friends behave as they do, for
Spalter-Roth, 2016). example, you’re theorizing.
What specific skills do sociology majors learn that As people struggle to understand human behavior,
are useful in their jobs? Some of the most important are they develop theories. A theory is a set of statements
being better able to work with people (71 percent), to that explains why a phenomenon occurs. Theories pro-
organize information (69 percent), to write reports that duce knowledge, guide our research, help us analyze our
nonsociologists understand (61 percent), and to inter- findings, and, ideally, offer solutions for social problems.
pret research findings (56 percent) (Van Vooren and Sociologist James White (2005: 170–171) describes
Spalter-Roth, 2010). theories as “tools” that don’t profess to know “the truth”
In other cases, students major in sociology because but “may need replacing” over time as our understand-
it provides a broad liberal arts foundation for professions ing of society becomes more sophisticated. In effect,
such as law, education, and social work. The Medical theories evolve over time because of cultural and tech-
College Admission Test (MCAT) now includes material nological changes. You’ll see shortly, for example, that
from sociology because “Being a good physician is about sociological theories changed considerably after the rise
more than scientific knowledge. It’s about understanding of feminist scholarship during the late 1960s.
people—how they think, interact, and make decisions” Sociological theories didn’t emerge overnight. Nine-
(Olsen, 2016: 72). teenth-century thinkers grappled with some of the same
Even if you don’t major in sociology, developing questions that sociologists try to answer today: Why do
your sociological imagination can enrich your job skills. people behave as they do? What holds society together?
Sociology courses help you learn to think abstractly What pulls it apart? Of the many early sociological theo-
and critically, formulate problems, ask incisive ques- rists, some of the most influential were Auguste Comte,
tions, search for data in the most reliable and up-to-date Harriet Martineau, Émile
sources, organize material, and improve your oral pre- Durkheim, Karl Marx, Max
sentations (ASA Research Department, 2013; Spalter- theory a set of statements that
Weber, Jane Addams, and explains why a phenomenon occurs.
Roth et al., 2013). W. E. B. Du Bois.
CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 7

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1-4a Auguste Comte Martineau, a feminist and strong opponent of
slavery, denounced many aspects of capitalism as
Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined alienating and degrading, and criticized dangerous
the term sociology and is often de- workplaces that often led to injury and death. Mar-
scribed as the “father of sociology.” tineau promoted improving women’s positions in the
Comte maintained that the study workforce through education, nondiscriminatory
of society must be
employment, and training programs. She advocated
empirical. That is,
women’s admission into medical schools and empha-
information should
sized issues such as infant care, the rights of the aged,
be based on ob-
suicide prevention, and other social problems
servations, experi-
Theories = ments, or other data
(Hoecker-Drysdale, 1992).
After a long tour of the United States, Martineau
Tools collection rather
than on ideology,
described American women as being socialized to be
subservient and dependent rather than equal marriage
religion, intuition,
partners. She also criticized American and European re-
or conventional
ligious institutions for expecting women to be pious and
Creata s Image s/Jupi ter Image s wisdom.
passive rather than educating them in philosophy and
He saw
politics. Most scholars, including sociologists, ridi-
sociology as the scientific study of two aspects
culed and dismissed such ideas as too radical.
of society: social statics and social dynamics. So-
cial statics investigates how principles of social
order explain a particular society, as well as the 1-4c Émile Durkheim
interconnections between institutions. Social
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), a French
dynamics explores how individuals and
sociologist and writer, agreed with
societies change over time. Comte’s
Comte that societies are character-
emphasis on social order and change
ized by unity and cohesion because
within and across societies is still
their members are bound together
useful today because many sociolo-
by common interests and attitudes.
gists examine the relationships Hulton Archive/Getty Images
The Father of Sociology— Whereas Comte acknowledged
between education and politics
the importance of using scientific
(social statics), as well as how such Auguste Comte methods to study society, Dur-
interconnections change over time
kheim actually did so by poring over
(social dynamics).
official statistics to test a theory about suicide (Adams
and Sydie, 2001).
1-4b Harriet Martineau
Harriet Martineau (1802–1876), an English author, pub- SOCIAL FACTS
lished several dozen books on a wide range of topics in so- To be scientific, Durkheim maintained, sociology must
cial science, politics, literature, and history. Her translation study social facts—aspects of social life,
and condensation of Auguste Comte’s difficult material external to the individual, that can be
for popular consumption was largely responsible for the measured. Sociologists can determine
dissemination of Comte’s work. “We might say, then, that material facts by examining demo-
sociology had parents of both sexes” (Adams and Sydie, graphic characteristics such as age, place
2001: 32). She emphasized of residence, and population size.
empirical information that is the importance of system- They can gauge nonmaterial
Spencer Arnold/Hulton

based on observations, experiments, atic data collection through facts, like communication
Archive/Getty Images

or other data collection rather than observation and interviews, processes, by observing
on ideology, religion, intuition, or
conventional wisdom.
and an objective analysis everyday behavior and
of data to explain events how people relate to each
social facts aspects of social and behavior. She also pub- other (see Chapters 3
life, external to the individual, that
can be measured.
lished the first sociology re- to 6). For contemporary Harriet Martineau
search methods textbook. sociologists, social facts
8 SOC

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also include collecting and analyzing data on
social currents such as collective behavior and
Figure 1.1 U.S. Suicide Rates, by Sex and Age
social movements (see Chapter 16). Suicide deaths per 100,000 population
38.8
DIVISION OF LABOR Male

One of Durkheim’s central questions was how 29.7

26.6
people can be autonomous and individualistic 24.3
while being integrated in society. Social soli-
darity, or social cohesiveness and harmony, 18.2

according to Durkheim, is maintained by a

division of labor—an interdependence of 9.8
7.2 4.0
different tasks and occupations, characteristic 4.6
5.9
Female
of industrialized soci­eties, that produces social
unity and facilitates change.
15–24 25–44 45–64 65–74 75 and over
As the division of labor becomes more
Age
specialized, people become increasingly de-
pendent on others for specific goods and ser- Source: Based on Curtin et al., 2016, Figures 2 and 3.
vices. Today, for example, many couples who
marry often contract “experts” (e.g., photographers, a complex interplay of depression, substance abuse, ac-
florists, deejays, caterers, bartenders, travel agents, and cess to guns, hopelessness because of terminal illnesses,
even “wedding planners”). and not being “connected” to family, friends, community
groups, and support systems that women tend to develop
SOCIAL INTEGRATION throughout their lives (American Association of Suicidol-
Durkheim was one of the first sociologists to test a the- ogy, 2009; see also Chapters 9 and 12).
ory using data. In his classic study, Suicide, Durkheim
(1897/1951) relied on extensive data collection to test 1-4d Karl Marx
his theory that suicide is associated with social integra- Karl Marx (1818–1883), a German social philosopher,
tion. He concluded that people who experience mean- is often described as the most influential social scientist
ingful social relationships in families, social groups, who ever lived. Marx, like Comte and Durkheim, tried to
and communities are less likely to commit suicide than explain the societal changes that were taking place dur-
those who feel alone, helpless, or hopeless. Thus, many ing the Industrial Revolution.
seemingly isolated individual acts, including suicide, The Industrial Revolution began in England around
are often the result of structural arrangements, such as 1780 and spread throughout Western Europe and the
weak social ties. United States during the nineteenth century. A number
We typically hear about high of technological inventions—like the spinning wheel,
teenage suicide rates, but the steam engine, and large weaving looms—enabled
they’re much higher at later the development of large-scale manufacturing and min-
ages. As in Durkheim’s day, ing industries over a relatively short period. The exten-
men have higher suicide rates sive mechanization shifted agricultural and home-based
than women across all age work to factories in cities. As masses of people migrated
groups (Figure 1.1), and white from small farms to factories to find jobs, urbanization
males age 85 and older are the and capitalism grew rapidly.
Pictorial Press Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo

most likely to take their own lives

(National Center for Health Statis- CAPITALISM
tics, 2015). Unlike his predecessors social solidarity social
Durkheim’s connec- and contemporaries, Marx cohesiveness and harmony.
tion of social integration (1867/1967, 1964) main- division of labor an
to the suicide rate is still tained that economic issues interdependence of different tasks
relevant today. The high produce divisiveness rather and occupations, characteristic of
industrialized societies, that produces
Émile Durkheim suicide rates of older than social solidarity. For
social unity and facilitates change.
white men are due to Marx, the most important
CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 9

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social change was the development of capitalism, an of our humanness.” Instead of collaboration,
economic system in which the ownership of the means of a capitalistic society encourages competi-
production—such as land, factories, large sums of money, tion, backstabbing, and “looking out for
and machines—is private. As a result, Marx saw industrial number one.”
society as composed of three social classes: According to Marx, capitalists are also
▸▸ capitalists—the ruling elite who own the means of alienated. They regard goods and ser-
producing wealth (such as factories) vices as important simply because
they’re sources of profit. Capitalists
▸▸ petit bourgeoisie—small business owners and don’t care who buys or sells their
workers who still have their own means of production products, how the workers feel
but might end up in the proletariat because they’re about the products they make,
driven out by competition or their businesses fail or whether buyers value the
▸▸ proletariat—the masses of workers who depend on products. The major fo-

Roger Viollet Collection/Getty Images

wages to survive, have few resources, and make up cus, for capitalists,
the working class is on increasing
profits as much
CLASS CONFLICT as possible
Marx believed that society is divided into the haves rather than
(capitalists) and the have-nots (proletariat). For Marx, feeling “con- Comstock/Stockbyte/Getty Images

capitalism is a class system in which conflict between nected” to the

products or services Karl Marx
the classes is common and society is anything but cohe-
sive. Instead, class antagonisms revolve around struggles they sell. Every
be­tween the capitalists, who increase their profits by year, for example, companies must recall cars, pharma-
exploiting workers, and workers, who resist but give in ceutical items, toys, and food that cause injuries, illness,
because they depend on capitalists for jobs. or death.
Marx argued that there’s a close relationship be-
tween inequality, social conflict, and social class.
History, he maintained, is a series of class struggles
between capitalists and workers. As wealth becomes
more concentrated in the hands of a few capital-
ists, Marx predicted, the ranks of an increasingly dis-
satisfied proletariat would swell, leading to bloody
revolution and eventually a classless society. The Occupy
Wall Street movement showed that thousands of
Americans are very unhappy about the growing inequal-
ity between the haves and the have-nots, but there hasn’t

Daryl Lang/Shutterstock.com
been a “bloody revolution” in the United States, unlike
some countries in the Middle East.

ALIENATION
In industrial capitalist systems, Marx (1844/1964) con-
tended, alienation—feeling separated from one’s Occupy Wall Street (OWS) was a protest movement
group or society—is common across all social classes. against corporate greed, corruption, and influence
Workers feel alienated because they don’t own or con- on government. It began in mid-September, 2011,
in New York City’s Wall Street financial district.
trol either the means of
The OWS slogan, “We are the 99%,” referred to
capitalism an economic system production or the prod-
U.S. income and wealth inequality between the
based on the private ownership uct. Because meaningful
of property and the means of wealthiest 1 percent and the rest of the population.
labor is what makes us OWS received global attention and spawned similar
production.
human, Marx maintained, movements worldwide but was short-lived (see
alienation feeling separated our workplace has alien- Chapter 16).
from one’s group or society.
ated us “from the essence
10 SOC

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1-4e Max Weber SUBJECTIVE
UNDERSTANDING
Max Weber (pronounced VAY-ber; 1864–1920) was a
German sociologist, economist, legal scholar, historian, Weber posited that an
and politician. Unlike Marx’s emphasis on economics as a understanding of society
major factor in explaining society, Weber focused on so- requires a “subjective”
understanding of behav-

Hulton Archive/Getty Images

cial organization, a subjective understanding of behavior,
and a value-free sociology. ior. Such understanding,
or verstehen (pronounced
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION fer-SHTAY-en), involves
For Weber, economic factors were important, but ideas, knowing how people perceive
religious values, ideologies, and charismatic leaders the world in which they live.
were just as crucial in shaping and changing societies. Weber described two types
He maintained that a complete understanding of soci- of verstehen. In direct ob-
ety requires an analysis of the social organization and servational under-
interrelationships among economic, political, and cul- standing, the social Max Weber
tural institutions. In his Protestant Ethic and the Spirit scientist observes a
of Capitalism, for example, Weber (1920/1958) argued person’s facial ex-
that the self-denial fostered by Calvinism supported the pressions, gestures, and listens to his/her words. In
rise of capitalism and shaped many of our current values explanatory understanding, the social scientist tries to
about working hard (see Chapters 3 and 6). grasp the intention and context of the behavior.

Is It Possible to Be a Value-Free Sociologist?

Max Weber was concerned about popular professors
who took political positions that pleased many of their
students. He felt that these professors were behaving
Can sociologists
improperly because science, including sociology, must be value free—
be “value free.” Faculty must set their personal values
aside to make a contribution to society. According to a
especially when
sociologist who agrees with Weber, sociology’s weak- they have strong
ness is its tendency toward moralism and ideology:
Many people become sociologists out of an impulse to
feelings about many
reform society, fight injustice, and help people. Those societal issues?
sentiments are noble, but unless they are tempered by
skepticism, discipline, and scientific detachment, they
Should they be ?
can be destructive. Especially when you are morally
outraged and burning with a desire for action, you
need to be cautious (Massey, 2007: B12). shouldn’t apologize for being subjective in their
teaching and research. By staying silent, social scien-
Some argue that being value free is a myth be-
tists “cede the conversation to those with the loudest
cause it’s impossible for a scholar’s attitudes and
voices or deepest pockets . . . people with mega-
opinions to be totally divorced from her or his schol-
phones who spread sensational misinformation” that
arship (Gouldner, 1962). Many sociologists, after all,
deprives the public of the best available data (Wang,
do research on topics that they consider significant
2015: A48).
and about which they have strong views.
Can sociologists really be value free—especially
Others maintain that one’s values should be pas-
when they have strong feelings about many societal
sionately partisan, should frame research issues, and
issues? Should they be?
should improve society (Feagin, 2001). Sociologists

CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 11

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If a person bursts into tears (direct observational and scholarly journals, as well as many
understanding), the observer knows what the person books on the everyday life of urban
may be feeling (anger, sorrow, and so on). An explana- neighborhoods, especially the ef-
tory understanding goes a step further by spelling out fects of social disorganization
the reason for the behavior (rejection by a loved one, and immigration. Much of her
frustration if you lose your smartphone, humiliation if a work contributed to symbolic
boss yells at you in public). interaction, an emerging school
of thought that you’ll read about

Wallace Kirkland//Time Life Pictures/Getty Images

VALUE-FREE SOCIOLOGY shortly. One of Addams’ greatest
One of Weber’s most lasting and intellectual legacies was her em-
controversial views was the notion phasis on applying knowledge to
that sociologists must be as objec- everyday problems. Her pioneer-
tive, or “value free,” as possible ing work in criminology included
in analyzing society. A researcher ecological maps of Chicago
who is value free is one who sep- that were later credited to men
arates her or his personal values, (Moyer, 2003).
opinions, ideology, and beliefs
from scientific research.
Jane Addams with a child
1-4g W. E. B. Du Bois
During Weber’s time, the gov- W. E. B. Du Bois (pronounced
ernment and other organizations at Hull House Do-BOICE; 1868–1963) was a
demanded that university faculty prominent black sociologist, writer,
teach the “right” ideas. Weber encouraged everyone to editor, social reformer, and orator. The author of almost
be involved as citizens, but he maintained that educa- two dozen books on Africans and black Americans, Du
tors and scholars should be as dispassionate as possible Bois spent most of his life responding to the critics and
politically and ideologically. The task of the teacher, detractors of black life. He was the first African American
Weber argued, was to provide students with knowledge to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard University, but once re-
and scientific experience, not to “imprint” the teacher’s marked, “I was in Harvard but not of it.”
personal political views and value judgments (Gerth and Du Bois helped found the National Association for
Mills, 1946). “Is It Possible to Be a Value-Free Sociolo- the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and ed-
gist?” examines this issue further. ited its journal, Crisis. The problem of the twentieth cen-
tury, he wrote, is the problem of the color line. Du Bois
believed that the race problem was one of ignorance,
1-4f Jane Addams and advocated a “cure” for prejudice and discrimination.
Jane Addams (1860–1935) was a social worker who co- Such cures included promoting black political power and
founded Hull House, one of the first settlement houses civil rights and providing blacks with a higher education
in Chicago that served the neighborhood poor. An active rather than funneling them into techical schools.
reformer throughout her life, Jane Addams was a leader These and other writings were unpop­ular at a time
in the women’s suffrage movement and, in 1931, was the when Booker T. Washington, a well-known black educa-
first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace tor, encouraged black people to be patient instead of de-
Prize for her advocacy of negotiating, rather than waging manding equal rights. As a result, Du Bois was dismissed
war, to settle disputes. as a radical by his contemporaries but was rediscovered
Sociologist Mary Jo Deegan (1986) describes Jane by a new generation of black scholars during the 1970s
Addams as “the greatest woman sociologist of her day.” and 1980s. Among his many contributions, Du Bois ex-
However, she was ignored by her colleagues at the Univer- amined the oppressive effects of race and social class,
sity of Chicago (the first sociology department established advocated women’s rights, and played a key role in re-
in the United States in 1892) because discrimination shaping black–white relations in America (Du Bois, 1986;
against women sociologists Lewis, 1993).
value free separating one’s was “rampant” (p. 8). All of these and other early thinkers agreed that
personal values, opinions, Despite such discrimi- people are transformed by each other’s actions, social
ideology, and beliefs from
nation, Addams published patterns, and historical changes. They and other scholars
scientific research.
articles in many popular shaped contemporary sociological theories.
12 SOC

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within which behavior occurs. Education
1-5 CONTEMPORARY structures like colleges, for instance, aren’t
only organized internally in terms of who
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES does what and when, but depend on other
structures like government (to provide fund-
How one defines “contemporary sociological ing), business (to produce textbooks and
theory” is somewhat arbitrary. The mid-twen- construct buildings), and medicine (to en-
tieth century is a good starting point because sure that students, staff, and faculty are
“the late 1950s and 1960s have, in historical healthy).

Hulton Archive/Hulton Archive /Getty Images

hindsight, been regarded as significant years of
momentous changes in the social and cultural life FUNCTIONS AND
of most Western societies” (Adams and Sydie, DYSFUNCTIONS
2001: 479). Some of the sociological per-
Each structure fulfills certain
spectives had earlier origins, but all ma-
functions, or purposes and ac-
tured during this period.
tivities, to meet different needs
Sociologists typically use more than
that contribute to a society’s
one theory to explain behavior. The
stability and survival (Merton,
theories view our social world some-
what differently, but all of them ana- W. E. B. Du Bois 1938). The purpose of education,
for instance, is to transmit knowl-
lyze why society is organized the way it
edge to the young, to teach them
is and why we behave as we do. Four of the most influ-
to be good citizens, and to prepare them for jobs (see
ential theoretical perspectives are functionalism, conflict
Chapter 13).
theory, feminist theories, and symbolic interaction.
Dysfunctions are social patterns that have a nega-
tive impact on a group or society. When one part of
1-5a Functionalism society isn’t working, it affects other parts, generating
Functionalism (also known as structural function- conflict, divisiveness, and social problems. Consider reli-
alism) maintains that society is a complex system of gion. In the United States, the Catholic Church’s stance
interdependent parts that work together to ensure a on issues such as not ordaining women to be priests and
society’s survival. Much of contemporary functional- denouncing abortion and homosexuality has produced
ism grew out of the work of Auguste Comte and Émile a rift between those who embrace or question papal
Durkheim, both of whom believed that human behav- edicts. In other countries, religious intolerance has led
ior is a result of social structures that promote order to wars and terrorism (see Chapter 13).
and integration in society.
One of their contemporaries, English philosopher MANIFEST AND LATENT FUNCTIONS
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), used an organic analogy There are two kinds of func-
to explain the evolution of societies. To survive, Spen- tions. Manifest functions functionalism (structural
cer (1862/1901) wrote, our vital organs—like the heart, are intended and recog- functionalism) maintains that
lungs, kidneys, liver, and so on—must function together. society is a complex system of
nized; they’re present and interdependent parts that work
Similarly, the parts of a society, like the parts of a body, clearly evident. Latent together to ensure a society’s
work together to maintain the whole structure. functions are unintended survival.
and unrecognized; they’re dysfunctions social patterns
SOCIETY IS A SOCIAL SYSTEM present but not immediately that have a negative impact on a
Prominent American sociologists, especially Talcott Par- obvious. group or society.
sons (1902–1979) and Robert K. Merton (1910–2003), Consider the mar- manifest functions purposes
developed the earlier ideas of structure and function. riage ceremony. Its primary and activities that are intended
For these and other functionalists, a society is a system manifest function is to pub- and recognized; they’re present
and clearly evident.
that is composed of major institutions such as govern- licize the formation of a
ment, religion, the economy, education, medicine, and new family unit and to le- latent functions purposes
the family. gitimize sexual intercourse and activities that are unintended
and unrecognized; they’re present
Each institution or other social group has structures, and childbirth (even though
but not immediately obvious.
or organized units, that are connected to each other and both might occur outside of
CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 13

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1-5b Conflict Theory
Sociology and Other Social Sciences: In contrast to functionalism—
which emphasizes order,
What’s the Difference? stability, cohesion, and con-
How would different social scien- sensus—conflict theory
tists study the same phenomenon, examines how and why

Mitchell Funk/Photographer’s Choice/

such as homelessness? Criminolo- groups disagree, struggle
gists might examine whether crime over power, and compete
rates are higher among homeless for scarce resources (like
people than in the general popula- property, wealth, and pres-
tion. Economists might measure the tige). Conflict theorists see
Getty Images
financial impact of programs for the disagreement and the re-
homeless. Political scientists might sulting changes in society as
study whether and how government natural, inevitable, and even
officials respond to homelessness. Psychologists might be interested in how desirable.
homelessness affects individuals’ emotional and mental health. Social workers
SOURCES OF
are most likely to try to provide needed services (e.g., food, shelter, medical care,
CONFLICT
and jobs). Sociologists have been most interested in examining homelessness
across gender, age, and social class, and explaining how this social problem dev- The conflict perspective has
astates families and communities. a long history. As you saw
According to sociologist Herbert Gans (2005), sociologists “study everything.” earlier, Karl Marx predicted
There are currently 43 different subfields in sociology, and the number contin- that conflict would result
ues to increase, because sociologists’ interests range across many areas. from widespread economic
inequality, and W. E. B. Du
Bois criticized U.S. soci-
ety for its ongoing and di-
visive racial discrimination.
marriage). The latent functions of a marriage ceremony
Since the 1960s, many sociologists—especially feminist
include communicating a “hands-off” message to suit-
and minority scholars—have emphasized that the key
ors, providing the new couple with household goods and
sources of economic inequity in any society include race,
products through bridal showers and wedding gifts, and
ethnicity, gender, age, and sexual orientation.
redefining family boundaries to include in-laws or step-
Conflict theorists agree with functionalists that
family members.
many societal arrangements are functional. But, conflict
CRITICAL EVALUATION theorists ask, who benefits? And who loses? When cor-
porations merge, workers in lower-end jobs are often laid
You’ll see in later chapters that functionalism is useful
off while the salaries and benefits of corporate execu-
in seeing the “big picture” of interrelated structures and
tives soar and the value of stocks (usually held by higher
functions. Its influence waned during the 1960s and
1970s, however, because functionalism was so focused
on order and stability that it often ignored social change.
For example, functionalism couldn’t explain the many Sociologists
rapid changes sparked by the civil rights, women’s, and
gay movements.
typically use more
A second and related criticism is that functional- than one theory to
ism often glosses over the widespread inequality that a
handful of powerful people create and maintain. Con-
explain behavior
flict theorists, especially, and why society is
conflict theory examines how have pointed out that what’s
and why groups disagree, struggle functional for some privi- organized the way
over power, and compete for
scarce resources.
leged groups is dysfunc- it is.
tional for many others.

14 SOC

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Among other manifest functions, schools transmit
knowledge and prepare children for adult economic
roles. Among their latent functions, schools provide
matchmaking opportunities. What are some other
examples of education’s manifest and latent functions?
skynesher/E+/Getty Images

and 1970s, men—who dominated universities and schol-

arship—were largely “blind to the importance of gen-
der” (Kramer and Beutel, 2015: 17).
Feminist scholars agree with contemporary conflict
theorists that much of society is characterized by tension
social classes) rise. Thus, mergers might be functional
and struggle, but feminist theories go a step further
for people at the upper end of the socioeconomic ladder,
by focusing on women’s social, economic, and political
but dysfunctional for those on the lower rungs.
inequality. The theories maintain that women often suf-
SOCIAL INEQUALITY fer injustice primarily because of their gender, rather
than personal inadequacies like low educational levels
Unlike functionalists, conflict theorists see society not as
or not caring about success. Feminist scholars assert
cooperative and harmonious, but as a system of wide-
that people should be treated fairly and equally regard-
spread inequality. For conflict theorists, there’s a contin-
less not only of their sex but also of other characteristics
uous tension between the haves and the have-nots, most
such as their race, ethnicity, national origin, age, religion,
of whom are children, women, minorities, people with
class, sexual orientation, or disability. They emphasize
low incomes, and the poor.
that women should be freed from traditionally oppres-
Many conflict theorists focus on how those in
sive expectations, constraints, roles, and behavior (see
power—typically wealthy white Anglo-Saxon Protestant
Reger, 2012).
males (WASPs)—dominate political and economic deci-
sion making in U.S. society. This group controls a variety FOCUSING ON GENDER
of institutions—like education, criminal justice, and the Feminist scholars have documented women’s historical
media—and passes laws that benefit primarily people exclusion from most sociological analyses (see, for ex-
like themselves (see Chapters 8 and 11). ample, Smith, 1987, and Adams and
CRITICAL EVALUATION “Sometimes Sydie, 2001). Before the 1960s women’s
movement in the United States, very few
Conflict theory explains how societ-
ies create and cope with disagreements.
the best sociologists published anything about
gender roles, women’s sexuality, fathers,
However, some have criticized conflict man for the or intimate partner violence. According
theorists for overemphasizing competition
and coercion at the expense of order and
job isn’t.” to sociologist Myra Ferree (2005: B10),
during the 1970s, “the Harvard social-
stability. Inequality exists and struggles science library could fit all its books on
over scarce resources occur, critics agree, Author Unknown gender inequalities onto a single half-
but conflict theorists often ignore coop- shelf.” Because of feminist scholars, many
eration and harmony. Voters, for example, researchers—both women and men—now routinely
can boot dominant white males out of office and replace include gender as an important research variable on
them with women and minority group members. Critics both micro and macro levels.
also point out that the have-nots can increase their power Globally, except for some predominantly Muslim
through negotiation, bargaining, lawsuits, and strikes. countries, solid majorities of both women and men
support gender equality and agree that women should
1-5c Feminist Theories be able to work outside
You’ll recall that influential male theorists generally the home. When jobs are feminist theories examine
women’s social, economic, and
overlooked or marginalized early female sociologists’ scarce, however, many
political inequality.
contributions. Until the feminist activism of the 1960s women and men believe

CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 15

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
that men should be given preferen- those women voted for him anyway
tial treatment (“Gender Equality. . .,” “I myself have (Hartig et al., 2016). At least 90 per-
2010). Thus, even equal rights propo-
nents place a higher priority on men’s
never been cent of people vote for their party’s
candidate, but Trump appealed to
economic rights. able to find many white women, particularly
those without a college degree and
LISTENING TO MANY VOICES
out precisely those living in rural areas (Table 1.2).
Feminist scholars contend that what feminism There are many reasons for a pres-
idential candidate’s victory, but some
gender inequality is central to all
behavior, ranging from everyday in-
is; I only know observers have attributed Clinton’s
defeat to many voters’—particularly
teractions to political and economic that people working-class white women’s—frus-
institutions, but feminist theories
encompass many perspectives. For call me a femi- trations about diminished possibili-
ties for their husbands and sons to
example, liberal feminism endorses
social and legal reform to create equal
nist whenever provide for their families, fears about
opportunities for women. Radical I express sen- downward mobility and poverty, con-
cerns about a growing number of
feminism sees male dominance in so-
cial institutions (e.g., as the economy
timents that immigrants, and a scarcity of jobs in
small towns and rural areas (Feath-
and politics) as the major cause of differenti- erstone, 2016; Morin, 2016; Roberts
women’s inequality. Global feminism
focuses on how the intersection of ate me from a and Ely, 2016). In contrast, Trump’s
slogan to “Make America Great
gender with race, social class, and col-
onization has exploited women in the
doormat.” Again” resonated with millions of
voters, especially those without col-
developing world (see Lengermann
and Niebrugge-Brantley, 1992). Most Rebecca West, British lege degrees, who feel economically
disenfranchised.
of us are feminists because we en- journalist
During the 2016 presiden-
dorse equal opportunities for women
tial race, a large majority of mil-
and men in the economy, politics,
lennials (people born after 1980) supported Bernie
education, and other institutions.
Sanders—a 73-year-old senator from Vermont—over
CRITICAL EVALUATION Clinton or Trump. Sanders’ platform called for the most
progressive and drastic changes to the U.S. political
Feminist scholars have challenged employment dis- and economic structures (e.g., free tuition, changes in
crimination, particularly practices that routinely ex- energy policies, and greater equality of wealth). Some
clude women who aren’t part of the “old boy network” analysts believe that millennial enthusiasm for Sanders
(Wenneras and Wold, 1997). One criticism, however,
is an example of a “feminist generation gap” that has
is that many feminists are part of an “old girl net- increased because younger and older feminists have
work” that hasn’t always welcomed different points of different values, convictions, and goals (Norman, 2016;
view from black, Asian American, American Indian, Rosen, 2016).
Muslim, Latina, lesbian, working-class, and disabled Some critics, including feminists, also question
women (Lynn and Todoroff, 1995; Jackson, 1998; whether feminist scholars have lost their bearings by
Sánchez, 2013). concentrating on personal issues like greater sexual
A second criticism is that feminist perspectives of- freedom rather than broader social issues, particu-
ten overlook gender, social class, and generational gaps. larly wage inequality (Chesler, 2006; Shteir, 2013;
Shortly before the 2016 Rosen, 2016).
presidential election, 69
symbolic interaction
theory (interactionism) percent of women voters
1-5d Symbolic Interaction
examines people’s everyday said that Donald Trump,
behavior through the the Republican nominee, Symbolic interaction theory (sometimes called in-
communication of knowledge,
didn’t respect women. teractionism) is a micro-level perspective that examines
ideas, beliefs, and attitudes.
However, 42 percent of people’s everyday behavior through the communication

16 SOC

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Table 1.2 How Women Voted in the 2016 Presidential Election, by Selected Characteristics
PERCENTAGE WHO VOTED FOR…

HILLARY CLINTON DONALD TRUMP

(DEMOCRAT) (REPUBLICAN) OTHER/NO ANSWER

White women 42 53 5

Black women 94 4 2

Latinas 68 26 6

College-educated white women 51 45 4

White women without a college degree 34 62 4

Rural white women 34 62 4

Sources: Based on Huang et al., 2016; Levinson, 2016; Malone, 2016; Mohdin, 2016; Morin, 2016.

of knowledge, ideas, beliefs, and attitudes. Whereas a colleague in the hall, or addressing an audience at a
functionalists, conflict theorists, and some feminist theo- professional conference.
ries emphasize structures and large (macro) systems, For symbolic interactionists, society is socially con-
symbolic interactionists focus on process and keep the structed through human interpretation (O’Brien and
person at the center of their analysis. Kollock, 2001). That is, meanings aren’t inherent but are
There have been many influential symbolic inter- created and modified through interaction with others.
actionists, whom we’ll cover in later chapters. In brief, For example, a daughter who has batting practice with
George Herbert Mead’s (1863–1931) assertion that her dad will probably interpret her father’s behavior as
the human mind and self arise in the process of social loving and involved. In contrast, she’ll see batting prac-
communication became the foundation of the symbolic tice with her baseball coach as less personal and more
interaction schools of thought in sociology and social goal-oriented. In this sense, our interpretations of even
psychology. Herbert Blumer (1900–1987) coined the the same behavior, such as batting practice, vary across
term symbolic interactionism in 1937, developed Mead’s situations and depend on the people with whom we
ideas, and proposed that people interpret or “define” interact.
each other’s actions, especially through symbols, instead
of merely reacting to them. SYMBOLS AND SHARED MEANINGS
Erving Goffman (1922–1982) enriched these earlier
Symbolic interaction looks at subjective, interpersonal
theories by examining human interaction in everyday sit-
meanings and how we interact with and influence each
uations ranging from jobs to funerals. Among his other
other by communicating through symbols—words, ges-
contributions, Goffman used “dramaturgical analysis” to
tures, or pictures that stand for something and that can
compare everyday social interaction to a theatrical pre-
have different meanings for different individuals.
sentation (see Chapter 5).
After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, many Americans dis-
played the flag on buildings, bridges, homes, and cars to
CONSTRUCTING MEANING show their solidarity and pride in the United States. In
Our actions are based on social interaction in the contrast, some groups in the Middle East burned the U.S.
sense that people take each other into account in their flag to show their contempt for U.S. culture and policies.
own behavior. Thus, we act differently in different social Thus, symbols are powerful forms of communication that
settings and continuously adjust our behavior, includ- show how people feel and interpret a situation.
ing our body language, as we interact (Goffman, 1959; To interact effec-
Blumer, 1969). A woman’s interactions with her hus- tively, our symbols must social interaction a process
in which people take each other
band differ from those with her children. And she will have shared meanings, or
into account in their own behavior.
interact still differently when she is teaching, talking to agreed-on definitions. One

CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 17

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
of the most important of these shared meanings is the arrangements and practices benefit those in power. For
definition of the situation, or the way we perceive real- instance, people are usually powerless when corpora-
ity and react to it. Relationships often end, for example, tions transfer jobs overseas or cut the pension funds of
because people view emotional closeness differently retired employees.
(“We broke up because my partner wanted more sex. Some also believe that interaction theory is flawed
I wanted more communication.”). We typically learn because it ignores the irrational and unconscious as-
our definitions of the situation through interaction with pects of human behavior (LaRossa and Reitzes, 1993).
significant others—especially parents, friends, relatives, People don’t always consider the meaning of their
and teachers—who play an important role in our social- actions or behave as reflectively as interactionists as-
ization (as you’ll see in Chapters 4 and 5). sume. Instead, we often act impulsively or say hurt-
ful things without weighing the consequences of our
CRITICAL EVALUATION actions or words.
Unlike other theorists, symbolic interactionists show
how people play an active role in shaping their lives on a 1-5e Other Theoretical Approaches
micro level. One of the most common criticisms is that Table 1.3 summarizes the major sociological perspec-
symbolic interaction overlooks the widespread impact of tives that you’ve just read about. However, new theoreti-
macro-level factors (e.g., economic forces, social move- cal perspectives arise because society is always changing.
ments, and public policies) on our everyday behavior and For example, postmodern theory analyzes contemporary
relationships. During economic downturns, for example, societies that are characterized by postindustrialization,
unemployment and ensuing financial problems create consumerism, and global communications.
considerable interpersonal conflict among couples and Sociology, like other social sciences, has subfields.
families (see Chapters 11 and 12). Symbolic interaction The subfields—such as socialization, deviance, and so-
rarely considers such macro-level changes in explaining cial stratification—offer specific theories that reinforce
everyday behavior. and illustrate functionalist, conflict, feminist, and inter-
A related criticism is that interactionists some- actionist approaches. No single theory explains social
times have an optimistic and unrealistic view of life completely. Each theory, however, provides differ-
people’s everyday choices. Most of us enjoy little flex- ent insights that guide sociological research, the topic
ibility in our daily lives because deeply embedded social of Chapter 2.
Lane Oatey/Blue Jean Images/Getty Images

José Nicolas/Sygma/Getty Images

For many people, a diamond, especially in an engagement ring, signifies love and commitment. For others,
diamonds represent Western exploitation of poor people in Africa who are paid next to nothing for their
backbreaking labor in mining these stones.

18 SOC

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Table 1.3 Leading Contemporary Perspectives in Sociology
THEORETICAL SYMBOLIC
PERSPECTIVE FUNCTIONALISM CONFLICT FEMINIST INTERACTION
Level of
Analysis Macro Macro Macro and Micro Micro
Key Points ●● Society is composed ●● Life is a continuous ●● Women experience ●● People act on the basis
of interrelated, struggle between widespread inequality in of the meaning they
mutually dependent the haves and the society because, as a group, attribute to others.
parts. have-nots. they have little power. Meaning grows out of the
●● Structures and ●● People compete for ●● Gender, ethnicity, race, age, social interaction that we
functions maintain limited resources sexual orientation, and social have with others.
a society’s or group’s that are controlled class—rather than a person’s ●● People continuously
stability, cohesion, by a small number of intelligence and ability—explain reinterpret and reevaluate
and continuity. powerful groups. many of our social interactions their knowledge and
●● Dysfunctional ●● Society is based on and lack of access to resources. information in their
activities that threaten inequality in terms of ●● Social change is possible only everyday encounters.
a society’s or group’s ethnicity, race, social if we change our institutional
survival are controlled class, and gender. structures and our day-to-day
or eliminated. interactions.
Key ●● What holds society ●● How are resources ●● Do men and women ●● How does social
Questions together? How does distributed in a experience social situations in interaction influence our
it work? society? the same way? behavior?
●● What is the structure ●● Who benefits when ●● How does our everyday ●● How do social interactions
of society? resources are limited? behavior reflect our gender, change across situations
●● What functions does Who loses? social class, age, race, ethnicity, and between people?
society perform? ●● How do those in sexual orientation, and other ●● Why does our behavior
power protect their factors? change because of our
●● How do structures
and functions privileges? ●● How do macro structures beliefs, attitudes, values,
contribute to social ●● When does conflict (such as the economy and the and roles?
stability? lead to social change? political system) shape our ●● How is “right” and
opportunities? “wrong” behavior defined,
●● How can we change current interpreted, reinforced, or
structures through social discouraged?
activism?
Example ●● A college education ●● Most low-income ●● Gender affects decisions about ●● College students succeed
increases one’s job families can’t afford a major and which college to or fail based on their
opportunities and to pay for a college attend. degree of academic
income. education. engagement.

STUDY TOOLS 1
READY TO STUDY? IN THE BOOK, YOU CAN: decisions and evaluate the data that shape this social
□□ Check your understanding of what you’ve read with the Test experience.
Your Learning Questions provided on the Chapter Review □□ Analyze: Critically examine your basic assumptions and
Card at the back of the book. compare your views on social phenomena to those of your
□□ Tear out the Chapter Review Card for a handy summary of classmates and other MindTap users. Assess your ability
the chapter and key terms. to draw connections between social data and theoretical
concepts.
ONLINE AT CENGAGEBRAIN.COM WITHIN MINDTAP YOU CAN: □□ Create: Produce a video demonstrating connections between
□□ Explore: Develop your sociological imagination by your own life and larger sociological concepts.
considering the experiences of others. Make critical □□ Collaborate: Join your classmates to create a capstone project.

CHAPTER 1: Thinking Like a Sociologist 19

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
2 Examining Our Social World

Franck Boston/Shutterstock.com

© Photo Credit Here

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to…

2-1 Compare knowledge based on tradition, authority, and research.

After finishing
2-2 Explain why sociological research is important in our everyday lives.
this chapter go to
2-3 Describe the scientific method.
PAGE 37 for
2-4 Describe the basic steps of the research process.
STUDY TOOLS
2-5 Compare and illustrate the five most common sociological data collection methods, including
their strengths and limitations.

2-6 Explain why ethics are important in scientific research.

20 SOC

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Spring break is all about beer fests, wet T-shirt contests, frolicking on the beach,
and hooking up, right? Maybe not. A national survey found that 70 percent of college
students stay home with their parents, and 84 percent of those who throng to
vacation spots report consuming alcohol in moderation (The Nielsen Company, 2008).
If you suspect that these numbers are too high or too low and wonder how the survey
was done, you’re thinking like a researcher, the focus of this chapter.

W H AT D O YOU T H I N K ? 2-2 WHY IS SOCIOLOGICAL

People can find data to support any opinion they have. RESEARCH IMPORTANT
1 2
strongly agree
3 4 5 6 7
strongly disagree
IN OUR EVERYDAY LIVES?
In contrast to knowledge based on tradition and author-
ity, sociological research is important in our everyday
lives for several reasons:
2-1 HOW DO WE KNOW WHAT 1. It counteracts misinformation. Blatant dishon-
esty and misinformation spread rapidly through
WE KNOW? digital communication. In 2015, violent crimes were
77 percent below their 1993 level, but 70 percent
Much of our knowledge is based on tradition, a hand- of Americans believe that the rate has increased
ing down of statements, beliefs, and customs from gen- (Gramlich, 2016; Truman and Morgan, 2016). Such
eration to generation (“The groom’s parents should pay unfounded fears—fueled by mass shootings, the
for the wedding rehearsal dinner”). Another common media’s focus on crime, powerful lobby groups
source of knowledge is authority, a socially accepted such as the National Rifle Association, and Donald
source of information that includes “experts,” par- Trump’s false claim that “inner city crime is reach-
ents, government officials, police, judges, and religious ing record levels”—are partly responsible for the
leaders (“My mom says that . . .” or “According to the growth of gun ownership in the past 20 years (Cohn
American Heart Association . . .”). et al., 2013; see also Chapter 7).
Knowledge based on tradition and authority simpli- 2. It exposes myths. According to many newspapers
fies our lives because it provides us with basic rules about and television shows, suicide rates are highest during
socially and legally acceptable behavior. The information the Christmas holidays. In fact, suicide rates are
can be misleading or wrong, however. Suppose a 2-year- lowest in December and highest in the spring and fall
old throws a temper tantrum at a family barbecue. One (but the reasons for these peaks are unclear). Another
adult comments, “What that kid needs is a smack on the myth is that more women are victims of domestic
behind.” Someone else immediately disagrees: “All kids violence on Super Bowl Sunday than on any other
go through this stage. Just ignore it.” day of the year, presumably because men become
Who’s right? To answer this and other questions, intoxicated and abusive. In fact, intimate partner
sociologists rely on research methods, organized violence rates are high, and consistent, throughout
and systematic procedures to gain knowledge about a the year (Romer, 2011; “Super Bull Sunday,” 2015).
particular topic. Much research shows, for example,
that neither ignoring a problem nor inflicting physical 3. It helps explain why people behave as they do. A
punishment (like spanking) stops a toddler’s bad behav- recent study predicted that older drivers, particularly
ior. Instead, most young children’s misbehavior can be those age 70 and older,
curbed by having simple rules, being consistent in disci- would be more likely research methods organized
than younger drivers and systematic procedures to gain
plining misbehavior, praising good behavior, and setting knowledge about a particular topic.
a good example (see Benokraitis, 2015). to have fatal crashes,

CHAPTER 2: Examining Our Social World 21

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The cocking hook is an ingenious device found on American
shotguns and many variations of it are, of course, used on the
different makes of arms. The Parker gun is provided with a hook
working a slide, thus pulling the hammers to cock. In the Baker, a
bent arm is pivoted to the breech to serve the same purpose.
Another example of American ingenuity may be noted in the lug-
cocking devices used on the Ithaca and Fox guns. This simple
arrangement is made by connecting the toe of the hammer directly
with the lug, which is an integral part of the barrel. The hammer is
thus made to act as its own lever, for as the toe portion rises when
the barrel is opened, the striker falls back until it is caught in the
notch of the sear.
To guard against the possibility of accidental discharge of the
hammerless gun, in which type of gun the hammer must be always
at full cock, a safety trigger bolt is utilized. This bolt is affixed in the
frame in a vertical position by pivoting it, and to the upper part of the
lever is attached a slide placed on top of the tang immediately back
of the top lever which opens the barrels. As this safety slide is
pushed, the lower end of the lever is brought close up against the
triggers, blocking them, and thus prevents them from moving while
the safety is in the “on” position. To discharge the gun, the slide must
be pushed forward to the “off” position, which moves the lower end
away from the triggers. This type of safety is of the nonautomatic
variety and can only block the triggers when the slide is operated by
the shooter.
The automatic type of safety consists of a block, or bar, fitted in
the frame and extending from the safety bolt to the post of the top
lever. When the top lever is pushed to one side to open the barrels,
this block, or bar, pushes the safety bolt over the triggers,
automatically blocking them and preventing accidental discharge.
The triggers must be pressed to withdraw the automatic safety bar.
The Rotary Bolt, an American Invention, Is Strongest Device Known for
Locking the Barrels to the Frame

To make the shotgun less likely to go off in the hands of the

careless gunner, the tumbler safety has been incorporated into the
mechanism of a few American weapons. The tumbler safety is a bar,
automatically operated by the triggers, and interposed between the
strikers and their firing pins. This device makes it impossible for the
arm to be discharged by the hammer jarring off when dropped, for
the tumbler bar occupies its position between the strikers and firing
pins until the triggers are pulled.

The Three-Bolt Mechanism Is One Form of the Rotary-Bolting Principle Used

by Many Gun Builders

The practical value of both the automatic safety and the tumbler
type of bolt is questioned by practically all experienced gunners. Its
presence is designed to make the arm less dangerous in the hands
of careless and ignorant sportsmen. This it may serve to do, but
since there should be no excuse for tolerating the latter, most
handlers of the scatter gun fail to see the utility of the former. The
novice should lose no time in acquiring the knack of handling his
chosen weapon, and if he will but exercise a little care, he will find
the hand-operated safety quite sufficient, for he will not be troubled
through accidental discharge of his gun. By far the larger portion of
accidents occur through careless handling of the gun and by the
untimely pulling of the trigger, either by dragging the gun through the
brush or by nervousness, and it is impossible to make use of a
safety device to prevent the accidental discharge.

The Fore End Is an Extension of the Stock beyond the Triggers and the
Frame

The Barrels of a Shotgun

Between 15 and 20 years ago shotgun barrels were made by

combining bars of iron and steel and welding them together to form
barrels of the proper diameter or bore. When these strips of metal
were twisted to make a spiral tube they were welded together to
make the familiar “twist,” “laminated,” and “Damascus” barrels.
Sometimes three, four, and five strips of iron and steel were twisted
together to make the “three-stripe,” “four-stripe,” and “five-stripe”
Damascus barrels. This old type of a barrel was strong and flexible,
but being comparatively soft, it was easily damaged by denting.
The Comparative Sizes of a 20-Gauge and a 12-Gauge Repeating Shotgun

The modern compressed-steel barrels are fashioned from solid

drawn steel, are very hard, will stand much higher pressure than the
Damascus type, and since the process of manufacture is simpler, a
first-class steel barrel may be produced at one-quarter the cost of
the old type. The several manufacturers have adopted trade names
to distinguish the various grades of steel barrels. Various trade
names come from abroad, and those of American manufacture are
labeled “nitro-steel,” “armor steel,” “high-pressure steel,” etc. While
differences very likely exist in the quality of the different barrels sold
under the several names, all the barrels used by reputable gun
builders will be found amply strong to resist any pressure exerted by
ordinary charges of powder, hence the cheaper guns are perfectly
safe and will stand many years of hard shooting.

Locking the Barrels to the Frame

In the early models of the breech-loader the barrels were locked to

the frame with a bolt operated by a lever placed under the fore end.
All modern guns have the top-lever action. In this device a “lump” is
fastened to the under side of the barrels near the breech, forming a
hinged joint to which the fore end is attached when fitting the barrel
and stock together. When closed, the breech end of the barrels is
held down to the action and tight up against the breech by a slide, or
bolt, which fits into the “lump” attached underneath the barrels.
Different makers use various forms of top-lever bolting devices, as
the “hook rib” or “extension rib,” otherwise known as the “doll’s
head,” and the cross bolt first used by Greener, the celebrated
English gun builder. All of these devices are satisfactory on a good
grade of gun, but the strongest mechanism is an American invention,
known as the Smith rotary bolt. This rotary bolt is tapered and is
pushed through an opening in the rib by means of a strong spring.
Mechanically this locking device is all that can be desired, and it
cannot loosen through manipulation, because of its compensating
feature, that is, the spring forces the bolt farther in as the bearings
become worn through much service. Many of our well-known
builders use this splendid fastening.

Shotgun Stocks

Walnut is exclusively used for gunstocks, and the several grades

are termed plain American walnut, fine American walnut, English
walnut, selected English walnut, fine English walnut, Italian walnut,
and Circassian walnut. The plain American walnut is simply a
common quality of black walnut, oiled and varnished, and fitted on
the cheaper guns. Fine American walnut is of better quality, darker in
color, and of better grain. It is strong and durable, and when well
oiled and polished by hand, it makes a neat stock for the inexpensive
gun. The selected English walnut is of good color and with good
grain. When oiled and hand-polished it makes an attractive stock for
the knockabout gun. Fine English walnut is usually fitted to guns
selling at a higher price, and is generally made to order. Italian
walnut is a dark wood with a fine grain and is usually supplied to
order on the finest guns. Circassian walnut is the finest wood
obtainable, of a rich dark color and a fine curly grain. It is therefore
expensive and only finished to order and fitted to the most expensive
guns.

The Fore End

The fore end is an extension of the stock beyond the triggers and
frame and affords a grip for the extended hand—protecting it from
the hot barrel—serves to lock the barrel to the frame, and likewise
holds the ejector mechanism. The Deely & Edge, and Snal fore ends
are both used on American guns, and they are so well designed and
made that it is practically impossible for the modern types to loosen
even when the arm has been subjected to long, hard service. Hence
this detail of the shotgun need not be considered when selecting an
arm.

Self-Ejector Mechanism

Although a great many shooters do not use the self-ejector, this

handy device will many times prove of great value in the field, for
when the birds are coming fast and the shooter happens to score a
miss, the self-ejector throws out the empty shell and enables him to
shove in a fresh load to bring down the following bird. The
nonejecting arm is plenty good and quick enough for trap use, for
when shooting “clays,” plenty of time is given each man to reload
between shots, but for upland-bird and for duck shooting, the
automatic ejector is a desirable addition to the double-barreled gun.

Repeating and Automatic Shotguns

While a good double-barreled gun in the hands of the average

shot will very likely bag as many birds as the shooter is entitled to—
and it may be depended on to do this when fitted with a good
automatic ejector—many shooters prefer the repeating gun. The
hand-operated, sliding fore arm, trombone-action, or pump gun is so
well-known that no recommendation is needed. It will suffice to
mention that it will do everything that a double-barreled gun can
perform, and considering that every pump gun is self-ejecting, and
its cost less than an equal grade of double gun equipped with an
ejecting device, it is not difficult to understand its popularity. So far as
accuracy is concerned, the repeater will shoot rather more steadily
than the double-barreled gun in the hands of the average man, and
after two shots have been fired, there remain four more in the
magazine. Rapid firing is not always an advantage, of course, but
when after ducks, the third shot is often wanted in the interval that is
required to load the double-barreled gun.
The Shells are Started About One-Quarter Inch in the Regular Way Before the
Ejector Kicks Them Out

The automatic, or self-loading, shotgun is the logical development

of the repeater, and while its mechanism is necessarily more
complicated, it has some merits peculiarly its own. The devotee of
the double barrel is inclined to believe that the repeater and the
automatic shotgun do not balance so well as his favorite weapon,
and the man who swears by the pump gun is inclined to think that
the automatic arm is balanced like a club and prone to get out of
order. Both factions can put up plenty of argument to support their
opinions, but to the unprejudiced gunner, both the repeater and the
self-loader will prove very fine guns after the shooter has become
familiar in handling them. The double-barrel is a mighty fine gun, so
is the repeater and again the automatic; so let the gunner pick out
the type he likes best.

The Automatic Ejector Mechanism Enables the Gunner to Shove in a Fresh

Load for the Following Bird
A Self-Loading Shotgun in the Positions of the Action Open and Closed

How to Select a Shotgun

The Measurements are Taken of the Drop at the Comb and Heel, and of the
Stock from the Butt to the Forward Trigger

That the shooter may not be handicapped by using a misfit gun, it

is well to make a selection at one of the larger dealers’ where guns
of various sizes, weights and lengths, as well as drops in stocks,
may be tried until one is found that fits the gunner the best. A good
shot can pick up almost any gun and do fairly accurate shooting with
it, but he can do better work with a gun fitting him properly. The chief
measurements of a gunstock are the length and drop of the stock,
and the drop and shape of the comb. The ordinary thickness of the
grip will suit the average hand, but in the case of unusually large or
small hands, this must be taken into consideration. For the average
man these measurements will probably be about right: Length of
stock, from forward trigger to center of butt plate, A-A, 14 to 14¹⁄₂ in.,
drop at comb, B-B, 1¹⁄₂ to 1⁷⁄₈ in., which will give corresponding drop
at the heel, C-C, from 2¹⁄₂ to 3 in. A fairly straight stock of good
length may be reckoned an advantage for trap shooting, but for use
in the field, a somewhat crooked stock with more drop at the comb,
say, 1⁵⁄₈ in. with 2⁵⁄₈-in. drop at the heel, will more fully meet the
average shooter’s idea of a well-balanced gun. However, as men
differ, and there are as many faces and eyes as there are men,
every shooter must decide this question for himself. So far as the
circumference of the grip is concerned, the size of the shooter’s
hand and the length of his fingers will decide this detail. For a small
hand, a 7-in. grip is about right, while a grip of 7¹⁄₂ in. will probably fit
the large hand well. The question of straight or pistol grip is purely a
matter of personal taste, for one is as good as the other so far as
accurate handling of the gun is concerned.
A Repeating Shotgun and the Position of Its Different Parts When Cocked
and After Firing

The Gauge, or Size of Bore

The 10-gauge may be occasionally useful for long-range duck and

goose shooting, but for ordinary duck and upland use the 12-gauge
is plenty large enough. The larger the gauge the greater will be the
killing zone, and up to their ranges the small bores may, for all
practical purposes, be regarded as shooting quite as accurately and
with as much power as the heavier gauges, that is, the small bores
will shoot to kill if held correctly. The standard 12-gauge gun is fitted
with 30-in. barrels, weighs 7 to 8 lb., and the standard load for the
field is 3 dr. of powder and 1¹⁄₈ oz. of shot. This gives a killing range
up to 40 yd. The standard 16-gauge, with 30-in. barrels, weighs from
6¹⁄₂ to 7¹⁄₄ lb., and the standard load is 2¹⁄₂ dr. of powder and 1 oz. of
shot, with a killing range up to 35 yd. The standard 20-gauge, with
28-in. barrels, weighs from 5 to 6¹⁄₂ lb. and the standard load is 2¹⁄₄
dr. of powder and ⁷⁄₈ oz. of shot. Best killing range up to 30 yards.
For an all-purpose gun, suitable for wild fowling as well as upland
shooting, the 12-gauge is the best choice although the 16-gauge will
be found a hard-hitting weapon. For the good shot, the 20-gauge will
prove a fine little arm for upland work, only the gunner must shoot
well with the small bore to kill his bird clean. Contrary to the notion,
the large bore, not the small gauge, will bring the most game to the
novice’s bag.
Mission Candlestick
Even though a candlestick is one of the simplest of the smaller
household furnishings, it nevertheless can be made a very attractive
feature.
For the illustrated mission design, a base, 4 by 4 by ⁷⁄₈ in., should
be provided. This is cut, with the grain, for a ¹⁄₂-in.-wide groove, ¹⁄₄ in.
deep and extending from one side to within ¹⁄₂ in of the opposite
side. In this groove is to fit the handle, which is made from a piece of
¹⁄₂ by 2¹⁄₄ by 3³⁄₄-in. stock. It is provided with a finger-grip hole ³⁄₄ by
1¹⁄₄ in. at one end. Its upper edge should be marked off from the
center pedestal and fitted to it. The pedestal can be made from stock
1⁷⁄₈ by 1⁷⁄₈ by 5 in. A tenon, ¹⁄₄ in. long by 1¹⁄₄ in. square, is formed
on the lower end. This tenon is to fit a mortise in the center of the
base. A slot ¹⁄₂ in. wide is cut centrally in the pedestal, and 2 in.
above the lower end, to fit the handle. The upper end of the pedestal
is cut straight for ¹⁄₄ in. and squared off to 1¹⁄₈ in. This is to serve as a
tenon to fit a corresponding mortise in the ¹⁄₂ by 2-in. square top. The
sides of the pedestal are evenly tapered off from the 1⁷⁄₈-in. square
base to the lower end of the 1¹⁄₈-in. square tenon, at the top.
Mission Candlestick of Pleasing Design, That will Appear Well with Other
Furniture of This Class

The parts, before assembling, should be thoroughly sandpapered,

as considerable difficulty would otherwise be experienced. No nails
or screws need be used, as good glue will keep the parts together
equally well. When completely assembled, a hole should be drilled
through the top and into the pedestal, to fit the size of candle to be
used. A carefully applied mission stain and varnish will give a proper
finish to the candlestick.—Contributed by G. Crossley, Erie, Pa.
Pin Setter for the Home Tenpins
All the Tenpins are Quickly Set, and Each in Its Proper Place
Bowling with a set of small tenpins, which can be purchased at a
department store, is a very interesting game. The chief drawback,
however, is the setting of the pins. With a little rack like the one
shown in the illustration, the interest in the game may be increased
considerably. It not only helps in setting the pins rapidly, but insures
a good setting with the proper spacing between the pins. It is very
simple to make, as it consists of a triangular piece of wood with ten
holes bored into it at the proper places, the dimensions of which will
be governed by the size of the pins, and three supports. The pins are
dropped in the holes and the rack lifted from them.—Contributed by
F. K. Howard, Los Angeles, California.
Magically Naming a Written Card
This experiment consists in requesting anyone of a company of
spectators to name a card and write it on a piece of paper,
whereupon the performer instantly names the card written.
Two persons are necessary, the performer and his assistant. The
performer leaves the room while the spectator writes the name of the
card on the paper, the assistant supplying the paper and pencil.
When the name of the card is written, the paper is folded by the
spectator and handed to the assistant with the pen or pencil. The
assistant lays the pencil and paper on a table in certain positions to
designate the name of the card. Previous to this test, the performer
and the assistant must have the positions of the paper and pencil
mentally fixed in their minds. Referring to the sketch, the four sides
of the table represent the card suits, viz., spades, hearts, clubs, and
diamonds; and an imaginary circle divided into twelve parts indicates
the number of the card, 1 standing for ace, 2 for deuce, and so on.
The Markings are Memorized so That Only Positions of Pencil and Paper will
be Seen

The assistant, knowing what has been written on the paper, places
the paper to indicate the suit, and the pencil is laid so that it points to
the number on the imaginary circle, or dial. The one shown in the
sketch is designating the four of hearts.
Dry-Cleaning Mixture
An emulsion of gasoline and water is much used by dry cleaners
for removing grease, tar, and paint spots from clothing. It is in the
form of a thick, white sirup, which evaporates entirely and is not
injurious to any fabric or color. The directions for preparing this
emulsion should be followed out carefully.
Dissolve, in 1 qt. of boiling water, ¹⁄₂ oz. of pure castile soap, and
¹⁄₄ oz. of gum arabic. Allow this to cool, and then add 1 oz. glycerin,
1 oz. strong aqua ammonia, 1¹⁄₂ oz. chloroform, and 2 oz. sulphuric
ether. Shake well, and pour enough of the mixture into a quart bottle
to fill it for ³⁄₄ in. On top of this, pour not more than ¹⁄₄ in. of gasoline,
and shake until creamy. Repeat the addition of gasoline, shaking
each time, until full. The cleaning mixture will then be ready for use,
and may be applied with a rag, or small brush.
If, on adding the first lot of gasoline and shaking, the mixture does
not become emulsified, it proves that too much gasoline has been
added. In this case, allow it to stand for a few minutes, and pour off
the excess gasoline which comes to the top. Shake well, and add a
smaller quantity of gasoline. When the bottle is half full, larger
quantities of gasoline may be added at a time.
It is interesting to note that the more gasoline is added, the thicker
the emulsion becomes, and if the addition of gasoline and shaking is
prolonged, a semisolid jelly is formed, which will not run from a
bottle.—Contributed by H. E. Zschiegner, Wellsville, N. Y.