[Lecture Five] [Transmission Impairments]

Lecture Five
Transmission Characteristics of Digital Communication
Systems (Transmission Impairments)

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[Lecture Five] [Transmission Impairments]

This Lecture:
 Transmission Impairments
o Attenuation Distortion
o Delay Distortion
o Noise
 Basics of Information Theory

1. Transmission Impairments:
While the electrical signal is traversing over the medium, the signal will be impaired due
to various factors. These transmission impairments can be classified into three types:
1. Attenuation Distortion
2. Delay Distortion
3. Noise

1.1 Attenuation Distortion:

The amplitude of the signal wave decreases as the signal travels through the medium.
This effect is known as attenuation distortion. To show that a signal has lost or gained
strength, engineers use the unit of Decibel. Sometimes the decibel is used to indicate
power levels measured in milliwatts; in this case we use the unit (dBm). The decibel (dB),
which is negative if the signal, is attenuated and positive if a signal is amplified.

P2
dB  10 log 10
P1

Where P2 is the power at point 2, and P1 is the power at point 1.

dBm = 10 log10 Pm

Where Pm is the power in milliwatts. In terms of voltage, the power is proportional with
the square of voltage therefore, the law becomes:

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V2
dB  20 log 10
V1

Example (1):
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to one-
half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the

power

Example (2):
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times. This means
that P2 = 10P1 . In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated as

One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the changes in
the strength of a signal is that decibel numbers can be added (or
subtracted) when we are measuring several points (cascading) instead
of just two  ( look at the figure below)

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1.2 Delay Distortion

It occurs as a result of different frequency components arriving at different times in the
guided media such as copper wire or coaxial cable.

1.3 Noise
Noise is any undesirable signal that falls within the passband of the desired one. Noise
interfere with the desired signal and inhibit communication. Noise can’t be eliminated but
can be reduced by using the following:
 Reducing signal bandwidth
 Increasing transmitter power
 Using low noise amplifiers

Noise is characterized as random, unpredictable electrical signals from many sources.

Noise can be divided into two types:
1. External, property of channel:
 Atmospheric Noise: called static electricity, caused mainly by lightning,
covers up to 30 MHz.
 Man-made Noise: generated by spark-producing domestic and industrial
electrical equipments.
 Space Noise (sun and stars).
2. Internal, originate within equipments:
Noise is generated in all electronic equipments. Both passive and active devices
can be noise sources. There are many types of internal noise

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 Thermal
 Shot noise
 Intermodulation
 Crosstalk
 Impulse noise

The signal-to-noise-ratio is defined as:

Average Signal Power

SNR =
Average Noise Power

SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR

For example, if we have a signal power of 10mW and a power of noise of 1W, then;

10 mW
SNR= =10000
1W

SNRdB = 10 log10 10000 = 10 log10 104 = 40

For a noiseless channel (ideal state)

signal power
SNR = 


SNRdB = 10 log10  = 

This is an ideal state and it cannot be achieved in real life.

1.3.1 Thermal Noise

Thermal noise occurs in all transmission media and all communication equipment,
including passive devices such as waveguide. It arises from random electron motion and
is characterized by a uniform distribution of energy over the frequency spectrum with a
Gaussian distribution of levels Thermal noise is distributed uniformly across the

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spectrum and hence called white noise. This noise cannot be eliminated and hence, when
designing telecom systems, we need to introduce some method to overcome the ill effects
of thermal noise. Thermal noise for a bandwidth of 1 Hz is obtained from the formula:

NO = KT watt/Hz
…………

Where:
No = is noise power density (watts per Hz )
K = is Boltzmann’s constant. 1.380310-23 (J/K)
T = is temperature (K)

Thermal noise for a bandwidth of B Hz is given by

N=KTB watts

If N is expressed in dB (decibels)

N = 10 log K + 10 log T + 10 log B dB watts

-228.6 +10 log T + 10 log B

Using this formula, thermal noise for a given bandwidth is calculated.

Example (3):
A radio receiver is limited in performance by thermal noise in the receiver 'front-end'. It
is designed to provide an S/N ratio of better than 10 dB to the demodulator input. The
channel bandwidth for the receiver is 25 kHz. What is the minimum received signal level
that can be used to achieve this performance target, assuming the receiver is operating at
a temperature of 280oK?

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Solution:
The average power of thermal noise for this case is given by:

Nav = kTB = 1.38  10–23  280  25000

= 9.66  10–17 W or –130 dBm (dB relative to 1 mW.)

NOTE:
To achieve an S/N ratio of 10 dB, the received signal power must therefore be in
excess of (–130 + 10) = –120 dBm.

Example (4):
What is the average thermal noise power at a temperature of 17oC measured in a
bandwidth of 20 kHz?

Solution:
The average power of thermal noise for this case is given by:
Nav = kTB = 1.38  10–23  (273 + 17)  20000
= 8.0  10–17 W or –131 dBm (dB relative to 1 mW).

NOTE:
oC must be converted to oK

1.3.2 Intermodulation Noise:

When two signals of different frequencies are sent through the medium, due to
nonlinearity of the transmitters, frequency components such as f1 + f2 and f1 – f2 are
produced, which are unwanted components and need to be filtered out. Here are some
examples of Intermodulation products (harmonics):

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 2nd order products F1±F2

 3rd order products 2F1±F2 ; 2 F2±F1
 4th order products 2F1±2F2 ; 3F1±F2

1.3.3 Crosstalk
Unwanted coupling between signal paths is known as crosstalk. In the telephone network,
this coupling is quite common. As a result of this, we hear other conversations. Crosstalk
needs to be eliminated by using appropriate design techniques. There are 2 types of
crosstalk:
1. Intelligible, where at least four words are intelligible to the listener.
2. Unintelligible, crosstalk resulting from any other form of disturbing effects of
one channel on another.

1.3.4 Impulse Noise

Impulse noise is non-continuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise spikes of short
duration and of relatively high amplitude. These spikes are often called hits, and each
spike has a broad frequency bandwidth. This is caused by external electromagnetic
disturbances such as lightning. This noise is unpredictable.

2. Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)

For consecutive symbols, spreading causes part of the symbol energy to overlap with
neighboring symbols, causing inter symbol interference (ISI).

2.1 Generation of Eye Diagrams

The eye diagram is a convenient visual method of diagnosing problems with data
systems. An eye diagram is generated conventionally using an oscilloscope connected to
the demodulated, filtered data stream which forms an ‘eye’ pattern on the screen. From
the eye diagram it is possible to make an engineering judgment on the likely performance
and sources of degradation in a data communications link. Shown here are examples of
eye diagrams for various types of distortion.

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3. Basics of Information Theory

Claude Shannon laid the foundation of information theory in 1948. His paper "A
Mathematical Theory of Communication" published in Bell System Technical Journal
is the basis for the entire telecommunications developments that have taken place during
the last five decades. A good understanding of the concepts proposed by Shannon is a
must for every budding telecommunication professional.

3.1 Entropy of an Information Source:

Shannon proposed a formula to measure information. The information measure is called
the entropy of the source. If a source produces N symbols, and if all the symbols are
equally likely to occur, the entropy of the source is given by:

H = log2 N bits/symbol

The information source may not produce all the symbols with equal probability. if a
source produces (i) symbol with a probability of P(i), the entropy of the source is given
by:

H = -  pi log 2 pi 

bits/symbol

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Example (4):
A given source produces English letters, and all symbols will be produced with equal
probability, Calculate the entropy of the source?
H = log2 N = log2 26 = 4.7 bits/symbol

Example (5):
A given source produces four symbols {A, B, C, D} with probabilities of 1/2, 1/4, 1/8,
and 1/8, and all symbols are independent of each other. Calculate the entropy of the
source.

Solution:

 pi  log pi  = - 12 log 1 1 1

H=- 2 2 2- log2 4 - log2 8- log2 8
4 8 8

1 1 1 1 7
=- (1) - (2) - (3) - (3) = bits/symbol
2 4 8 8 4

3.2 Channel Capacity

In 1944 Claude Shannon introduced the concept of channel capacity, the limit at which
data can be transmitted through a medium. The errors in the transmission medium depend
on the energy of the signal, the energy of the noise, and the bandwidth of the channel.
Conceptually, if the bandwidth is high, we can pump more data in the channel. If the
signal energy is high, the effect of noise is reduced. According to Shannon, the
bandwidth of the channel and signal energy and noise energy are related by the formula

C = B log2 (1+ S ) bps

N
bpsbits/symbol
Where C is channel capacity in bits per second (bps), B is bandwidth of the channel in
Hz, S/N is the signal-to-noise power ratio (SNR). SNR generally is measured in dB using
the formula
(S/N)dB = 10 log (Signal Power / Noise Power)

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Data Rate Limits:

A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in
bits per second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Two theoretical formulas are used to calculate the data rate, one formula by Nyquist for a
noiseless channel and the other formula by Shannon for a noisy channel.

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

The Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate

Bit rate = 2  bandwidth  log2 L

The bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel and L is the number of signal levels used
to represent data.

Example (6):
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000Hz transmitting a signal levels.
Calculate the bit rate. If the channel used four signal levels, calculate the bit rate.
Solution:
When using 2 signal levels:

Bit rate = 2  3000 log2 2 = 6 Mbps

When using 4 signal levels:

Bit rate = 2  3000 log2 4 = 12 Mbps

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Example (7):
We need to send 256 Kbps over a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 20KHz. How
many signal levels do we need:
Solution:
256000 = 2  20000  log2 L

log2 L =6.625 L = 26.625 = 98.7 Levels

Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

In real life, we cannot have a noiseless channel; there is always noise. Shannon formula is
used to determine the theoretical data rate for a noisy channel.

C = B log2(1+SNR)

In case of an extremely noisy channel the SNR is equal to zero, then the channel capacity
is:

C = B log2(1+SNR) = B log2(1+0) = B log21 = B0 = 0

This means that the capacity of the channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth of the
channel. In another words we cannot receive any data through this channel.

Example (8):
Calculate the channel capacity of a telephone channel, with a bandwidth of 3000Hz, and
a SNR of 3162.

Solution:

C = B log2(1+SNR) = 3000 log2(1+3162) = 300011.62 = 34860 bps

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3.3 Measuring of Network Performance:

3.3.1 Bandwidth:
One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth. In Networking we
use the term bandwidth in two contexts:
 The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a composite
signal or the range of frequencies that a channel can pass.
 The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit transmission
in a channel or link.

3.3.2 Throughput:
The Throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send the data through a
network. A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can send only T bps, where T is
always less than B.

Example (9):
A network with a bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12000 frames per
minute, with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of
this network?

Solution:
12000 10000
Throughput = = 2Mbps
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The throughput is one fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

3.3.3 Latency (Delay):

The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive
at the destination. The Latency is made up of four components:

Latency = Propagation Time + Transmission Time + Queuing Time + Processing

Delay

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1. Propagation Time: It is the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the
destination
Dis tan ce
Propagation Time=
Pr opagation Speed

For example, using a propagation speed of 2.4108 m/s in a distance of 12000 Km

in a cable, the propagation time is
12000 1000
Propagation Time = = 50 ms
2.4 10 8
2. Transmission Time: In data communications we don’t send just a bit, but we
send a message. The first bit may take time to reach the destination, and the last
bit may also take the same amount of time. The time of transmission of a message
depends on the size of the message and the bandwidth of the channel.

Message Size
Transmission Time =
Bandwidth

Example (10):
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-
mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution:

Note that in this case, because the message is short and the bandwidth is high, the
dominant factor is the propagation time, not the transmission time. The transmission time
can be ignored.
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Example (11):
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 5-Mbyte message (an
image) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution:

Note that in this case, because the message is very long and the bandwidth is not very
high, the dominant factor is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The
propagation time can be ignored.

3. Queuing Time: it is the time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold
the message before it can be processed. The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it
changes with the load imposed on the network. When there is heavy traffic, the
queuing time increases. An intermediate device such as a router queues the
arrived messages and processes them one by one. If there are many messages,
each message will have to wait.

3.3.4 Bandwidth-Delay Product:

The bandwidth-Delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.

3.3.5 Jitter:
Jitter is introduced in real-time data by the delay between packets. For example if we are
sending real time audio/video, if the receiver starts playing the first packet and the next
packet has not yet arrived , then there will be a gap between the packets as the video is
viewed in the destination. This phenomenon is known as jitter.

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