HEAT ENGINE

(1) Define the heat engine and state its classification?

An engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and uses this energy to
produce mechanical work. Engines normally convert thermal energy into mechanical work and, therefore, they are
called heat engines.

Heat engines are broadly classified into:

(a) External Combustion Engines (EC Engines)

(b) Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)

(2) Draw and explain the (P-V) and (T-S) diagram of:
1- OTTO cycle.
2- Diesel cycle.

1- Otto cycle:

2- Diesel cycle:
(3) Explain the Four-stroke SI Engine.

-FOUR-STROKE SPARK-IGNITION ENGINE

In a four-stroke cycle engine, the cycle of operation is

completed in four-strokes of the piston or two
revolutions of the crankshaft. Thus 720°CA (crank
angle) is required to complete a cycle. Figure shows the
movement of the piston and the position of the valves
during each stroke. The individual strokes are:

• Induction or suction stroke

• Compression stroke
• Expansion or power stroke
• Exhaust stroke.

Induction or suction stroke (0-1)

The inlet valve opens at point 0 just before the TDC. As the piston moves from TDC to
BDC, a mixture of air and fuel (charge) is introduced into the cylinder through the inlet
valve. Due to the movement of the piston the pressure in the cylinder is reduced to a
value below the atmospheric pressure and the charge flows through the induction system
because of this pressure difference. Ideally, the inlet valve should close at point 1, but in
fact it does not happen so until the piston has moved part of the way along the return
stroke (point 1').

Compression stroke (1'-2)

With both the valves closed, the charge which is taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke is compressed by the
return stroke of the piston. At the TDC position the charge occupies the volume space above the piston, which is called
the clearance volume. Just before the end of the compression stroke, the spark is timed to occur at a point S. There is a
time delay between S and the actual commencement of combustion. The combustion process occurs mainly at almost
constant volume, and there is a large increase in pressure and temperature of the charge during this process (2-3).

Expansion or power stroke (3-4)

The hot high pressure burnt gases force the piston towards the BDC. Both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. It
appears that this expansion proceeds to completion at point 4, but in order to assist in exhausting the gaseous products
the exhaust valve opens at some point E, which is before the BDC. Power is obtained during this stroke. Both pressure
and temperature decrease during expansion.

Exhaust stroke (4-0)

As the piston further moves from BDC to TDC it sweeps out the burnt gases through the exhaust valve. The inlet valve
remains closed. The pressure during this stroke is slightly higher than the atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve
closes nearly at the end of the exhaust stroke (point 0'). The clearance volume cannot be exhausted and at the
commencement of the next cycle this volume is full of exhaust gas from the previous cycle at about the atmospheric
pressure. The exhaust gases remaining in the clearance space are called the residual gases. The mixture which is further
compressed consists of both the fresh charge and the residual gases. Each cylinder of a four-stroke engine completes all
the operations in two engine revolutions. Thus for one complete cycle, there is only one power stroke while the
crankshaft makes two revolutions.
(4) Compare between Four-stroke Engine and Two-stroke Engine.

Four-stroke Engine Two-stroke Engine

The thermodynamics cycle is completed in four stroke of The thermodynamics cycle is completed in two stroke of
the piston or two revolution of the crank shaft the piston or one revolution of the crank shaft

Four stroke engine have valves and valve actuating Two stroke Engine have not valves but only ports
mechanisms for opening and closing of the intake and
exhaust valves

Volumetric efficiency is more due to more time for Volumetric efficiency is less due to less time for
induction induction

Thermal efficiency is higher Thermal efficiency is lower

Part load efficiency is better Part load efficiency is poor
Used when efficiency is important in vehicles Used when low cost compactness and light weight are
important in vehicles
(5) EXAMPLE 2.1
A gas engine working on the Otto cycle has cylinder bore of 200 mm and stroke length of 250 mm.
The clearance volume is 1570 cm³. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression are
1 bar and 27°C respectively. The maximum temperature of the cycle is 1400°C. Determine the
pressure and temperature at the salient points, the air-standard efficiency, the work done and the mean
effective pressure. (For air, take cv = 0.718 kJ/(kg K) and R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K). Also calculate the
ideal power developed by the engine, if the number of working cycles per minute is 500.
(6) EXAMPLE 2.2
A petrol engine is supplied with fuel having calorific value 42,000 kJ/kg. The pressures in the
cylinder at 5% and 75% of the compression stroke are 1.2 bar and 4.8 bar respectively. Assume that
the compression follows the law pV3 = constant. Find the compression ratio of the engine. If the
relative efficiency of the engine compared with the air standard efficiency is 60%, calculate the
specific fuel consumption in kg/kWh.
(7) EXAMPLE 2.4
In an air-standard Diesel cycle, the compression ratio is 16, the cylinder bore is 200 mm and the
stroke is 300 mm. Compression begins at 1 bar and 27°C. The cut-off takes place at 8 per cent of the
stroke.

Determine:

(a) The pressure, the volume and the temperature at all salient points.

(b) The cut-off ratio

(c) The work done per cycle

(d) The air-standard efficiency

(e) The mean effective pressure

(8) EXAMPLE 2.5
The mean effective pressure of a Diesel cycle is 7 bar, the compression ratio is 12 and the initial
pressure is 1 bar. Determine the cut-off ratio and the air-standard efficiency.
(9) EXAMPLE 2.6
In an engine working on the Diesel cycle, the air-fuel ratio 30:1. The temperature of air at the
beginning of the compression is 27°C, the compression ratio is 16:1. What is the ideal efficiency of
the engine based on the air-standard cycle? The calorific value of the fuel used is 42,000 kJ/kg.
(10) EXAMPLE 4.3
The compression ratio of an engine working on an Otto cycle is 8 and the air/ fuel ratio is 15: 1, the
pressure and temperature at the beginning of a compression stroke being 1 bar and 60°C respectively.
The calorific value of the fuel is 44,000 kJ/kg. Determine the maximum temperature and pressure in
the cylinder, if the index of compression is 1.32 and the specific heat at constant volume of the
products of combustion is given by c, (0.678 + 0.000137) kJ/(kg K). where T is the temperature in
kelvin. Compare this value with that of constant specific heat c. 0.717 kJ/(kg K).
(11) EXAMPLE 4.6
An engine working on an Otto cycle, having a compression ratio of 8, uses octane C 8H18 as a fuel.
The lower heating value of the fuel is 44,000 kJ/kg. The air/fuel ratio is 15:1. Determine the
maximum pressure and temperature reached in the cycle (a) without considering the molecular
expansion and (b) with molecular expansion. Assume cv = 0.71 kJ/(kg K), compression follows the
law pV3 = constant, the pressure and temperature of the mixture at the beginning of compression
being 1 bar and 60°C respectively. Determine the percentage molecular expansion.
(12) In the case of CI engines there is no need for an external means to produce the ignition. Why?
Because of high compression ratio employed, the resulting temperature at the end of the compression process is high
enough to self-ignite the fuel when injected.

(13) Example of Performance 1.1

The cubic capacity of a four-stroke over-square spark-ignition engine is 245 cc. The over-square ratio
is 1.1. The clearance volume is 27.2 cc. Calculate the bore, stroke and compression ratio of the
engine.

(14) Example of Performance 1.2

The mechanical efficiency of a single-cylinder four-stroke engine is 80%. The frictional
power is estimated to be 25 kW. Calculate the indicated power (ip) and brake power (bp)
developed by the engine.
(15) Example of Performance 1.3
A 42.5 kW engine has a mechanical efficiency of 85%. Find the indicated power and
frictional power. If the frictional power is assumed to be constant with load, what will be
the mechanical efficiency at 60% of the load?

(16) Example of Performance 1.4

Find out the speed at which a four-cylinder engine using nat- ural gas can develop a brake
power of 50 kW working under following conditions. Air-gas ratio 9:1, calorific value of
the fuel = 34 MJ/m³, Compression ratio 9:1, volumetric efficiency = 70%, indicated
thermal efficiency = 35% and the mechanical efficiency = 80% and the total volume of the
engine is 2 litres.
(17) Example of Performance 1.5
A four-stroke, four-cylinder diesel engine running at 2000 rpm develops 60 kW. Brake
thermal efficiency is 30% and calorific value of fuel (CV) is 42 MJ/kg. Engine has a bore
of 120 mm and stroke of 100 mm. Take pa = 1.15 kg/m³, air-fuel ratio = 15:1 and Tm =
0.8. Calculate (i) fuel consumption (kg/s); (ii) air consumption (m³/s); (iii) indicated
thermal efficiency; (iv) volumetric efficiency; (v) brake mean effective pressure and (vi)
mean piston speed
(18) Example of Performance 1.6
A single-cylinder, four-stroke hydrogen fuelled spark-ignition engine delivers a brake
power of 20 kW at 6000 rpm. The air- gas ratio is 8:l and the calorific value of fuel is
11000 kJ/m³. The compression ratio is 8:1. If volumetric efficiency is 70%, in- dicated
thermal efficiency is 33% and the mechanical efficiency is 90%, calculate the cubic
capacity of the engine.
(19) Example of Performance 1.7
Consider two engines with the following details: Engine I: Four-stroke, four-cylinder, SI
engine, indicated power is 40 kW, mean piston speed 10 m/s. Engine II: Two-stroke, two-
cylinder, SI engine, indicated power is 10 kW. Assume that mean effective pressure of
both the engine to be same. Ratio of bore of the engine I:II = 2:1. Show that the mean
piston speed of engine II is same as that of engine I.
(20) Example of Performance 1.8
A one-liter cubic capacity, four-stroke, four-cylinder SI engine has a brake thermal
efficiency of 30% and indicated power is 40 kW at full load. At half load, it has a
mechanical efficiency of 65%. Assuming constant mechanical losses, calculate: (i) brake
power (ii) frictional power (iii) mechanical efficiency at full load (iv) indicated thermal
efficiency. If the volume de- creases by eight-fold during the compression stroke, calculate
the clearance volume.
(21) Example of Performance 1.9
A four-stroke petrol engine at full load delivers 50 kW. It requires 8.5 kW to rotate it
without load at the same speed. Find its mechanical efficiency at full load, half load and
quarter load? Also find out the volume of the fuel consumed per second at full load if the
brake thermal efficiency is 25%, given that calorific value of the fuel = 42 MJ/kg and
specific gravity of petrol is 0.75. Estimate the indicated thermal efficiency.
(22) Example of Performance 1.10
The indicated thermal efficiency of four-stroke engine is 32% and its mechanical
efficiency is 78%. The fuel consumption rate is 20 kg/h running at a fixed speed. The
brake mean pressure developed is 6 bar and the mean piston speed is 12 m/s. Assuming it
to be a single cylinder square engine, calculate the crank radius and the speed of the
engine. Take CV = 42000 kJ/kg.
(23) What is the function of carburetor? What is carburation?
Carburetor is a device for atomizing and vaporizing the fuel and mixing it with the air in varying
proportions to suit the entire operating range of SI engines. The process of breaking up and mixing the fuel
with the air is called carburetion

(24) Explain the construction and operation of a simple carburetor with the help of a
diagram.

It consists of a fuel jet of small diameter placed in a constricted tube called venturi or choke tube, and a
float chamber having a hollow thin metal float provided with a conical needle valve.

The fuel pump delivers fuel from the fuel tank to the float chamber. When sufficient fuel enters the float
chamber, the float is lifted due to buoyancy and the conical needle valve engages with a similarly shaped
seating in the petrol pipe union, and thus shuts off the fuel. In this way the fuel level in the float chamber is
always maintained constant. If the fuel level tends to fall, the float drops and thereby opens the needle
valve, thus admitting more fuel. The height at which the fuel is maintained in the float chamber is governed
by the level required in the discharge jet. This level should stand a little below the orifice at the tip of the
jet to prevent spilling. The float chamber is vented to atmosphere through a small hole in the cover, hence
the pressure on the surface of the fuel remains constant and equal to that of the atmosphere.
(25) Example 9.1

A simple jet carburetor is required to supply 5 kg of air per minute and 0.4 kg per minute of
fuel of density 780 kg/m³. The air is initially at 1.013 bar and 27°C. Calculate the throat
diameter of the choke for an air flow velocity of 90 m/s. Take the velocity coefficient for
the venturi to be 0.80 and the coefficient of discharge of the main fuel jet to be 0.6. Assume
isentropic flow and the flow to be compressible. If the pressure drop across the fuel
metering orifice is 0.75 of that at the choke, calculate the orifice diameter.
(26) Example 9.2
A four-stroke petrol engine of 2 litre capacity is required to develop maximum power at 4500 rpm.
The volumetric efficiency at this speed is assumed to be 75% and the air/fuel ratio is 14:1. Two
carburettors are to be fitted and it is expected that at peak power the air speed at the choke will be 100
m/s. The coefficient of discharge for the venturi is assumed to be 0.85 and that of the main petrol jet is
0.66. An allowance should be made for the emulsion tube, the diameter of which can be taken as 0.4
of the choke diameter. The petrol surface 6 mm below the choke at this engine condition. Calculate
the size of a suitable choke and that of the main jet. The specific gravity of petrol is 0.75.

The atmospheric pressure and temperature are 1.013 bar and 15°C respectively.
(27) Example 9.3

A four-cylinder four-stroke spark ignition engine with 80 mm bore and 90 mm stroke runs at 4000
rpm and uses a fuel having 84% carbon and 16% hydrogen by mass. The volumetric efficiency of the
engine at that speed is 80%. The ambient conditions are: pressure = 1.0 bar, temperature= 25°C. The
depression at the venturi throat is 0.06 bar. The actual quantity of air supplied is 0.95 of the
stoichiometric value. Calculate the fuel flow rate, the air velocity at the throat and the throat diameter.

Take R (air) = 287 J/ (kg K); R (fuel vapour) 98 J/(kg K).

(28) Example 9.4
A four-stroke four-cylinder spark-ignition engine having a bore of 100 mm and stroke of 120 mm and
running at 3000 rpm has a carburetor venturi with a 35 mm throat diameter. The volumetric efficiency
of the engine at this speed is 80%, the coefficient of discharge of air flow is 0.82. The ambient
pressure and temperature are 1.013 bar and 25°C respectively. The air/fuel ratio is 15. The top of the
jet is 5 mm above the petrol level in the float chamber. The coefficient of discharge for fuel flow is
0.7. Determine the depression at the throat and the diameter of the fuel jet of a simple carburetor. The
specific gravity of petrol is 0.75.
(29) What do understand by normal combustion?
Normal combustion occurs when the fuel/air mixture ignites in the cylinder and burns progressively with a normal
pressure increase, producing maximum pressure immediately after the piston passes top dead center of the compression
stroke. compression and expansion take place during 180" of crank rotation and combustion takes place instantaneously
at TDC. During combustion the volume remains constant and there is a sudden pressure rise.
(30) Explain the stage of combustion in the SI engine

There are three stages of combustion in SI engine as given below:

Preparation phase AB
The preparation phase is also called a period of ignition lag. the first stage is mainly a chemical process and depends
on the nature of the fuel, temperature and pressure of the fuel-air mixture, the concentration of the residual from the
previous cycle present in the cylinder and the chemical reaction rate.

Flame propagation phase BC

This stage is called the main stage. It corresponds to propagation of the flame practically at a constant speed. The
starting point of the second stage is taken as point B, where the first measurable pressure rise against the motoring
curve is observed. The end of the second stage is marked with point C, where the maximum pressure is attained. This
stage is both a physical and a chemical process. The heat release depends on the chemical composition and on the
prevailing temperatures and pressures and the degree of turbulence in the cylinder.

After burning CD
This stage is called afterburning. Although the point C indicates the completion of the flame travel, it does not follow
that the whole of the heat of the fuel has been liberated at this point. During this stage the flame speed decreases and
the rate of combustion is slow. Since the expansion stroke starts before this stage with the piston moving away from
TDC, there will be pressure fall during this stage.
(31) Explain the stage of combustion in the CI engine

1. Ignition Delay Period

2. Period of Uncontrolled Combustion
3. Period of Controlled Combustion
4. After Burning

1. Ignition Delay Period

At this first stage of combustion in the CI engine, the fuel from the injection system sprayed in the combustion chamber
in the form of a jet. Due to atomization and vaporization, this fuel disintegrates at the core which is surrounded by a
spray of air and fuel particles.
2. Period of Uncontrolled Combustion
This is the second stage of combustion in the CI engine. After the above-mentioned delay period is over, the air and fuel
mixture will auto-ignite as they have achieved their self-ignition temperature.
3. Period of Controlled Combustion
When the accumulated fuel during the delay period completely burned in the period uncontrolled combustion, the
temperature and pressure of the mixture in the cylinder are so high that new injected fuel from the nozzle will burn
rapidly due to the presence of sufficient oxygen in the combustion chamber.
4. After Burning
This is the last stage out of the four stages of combustion in CI engine. Naturally, the combustion process is completed
at the point when the maximum pressure is obtained in the combustion chamber at point E as shown in the figure.
(32) What are the problems associated with carburettors? And its solution?
1- Ice Formation

When a volatile liquid evaporates, the temperature around is lowered. Applied to the fuel jet of a carburettor this
evaporation lowers the temperature of the intake air and if the air contains any moisture, some of it will be condensed.
If the outside temperature is low, as in winter the moisture in the air will tend to form ice on all internal surfaces exposed
to the mixture stream. Moisture in the intake air tends to form ice on the throttle blade and on the parts of the carburettor
barrel near to the blade. By time the whole of the top edges become coated and the air flow is restricted, therefore at low
throttle openings the engine may cease to operate.
Solution:
Heating the intake air
Heating the metal surface

The use of ice preventives or inhibitors.

2- Vapour Lock in Fuel Systems

Due to vaporization of the fuel in the petrol pipes, fuel feed pump, carburettor float chamber and the jet walls. After a
car engine has been used for a road journey and is left to idle, the cooling system becomes less efficient due to lack of
cooling air, and therefore the bonnet temperature rises. A few minutes after stopping the car, but with the engine idling,
the carburettor and the cooling water temperatures usually rise considerably. Vapour lock can occur under these
conditions. The formation of fuel vapour in the carburettor may result in a weak mixture. The vapour will occupy a
greater volume than the liquid and therefore the amount of fuel flow will be reduced. The reduction will cause either a
loss in power or else complete stoppage of the engine.

Solution:

The heat insulation of the fuel pump and the carburettor flanges by non-conducting type gaskets will often prevent vapour
lock

3- Backfiring or Popping in the Carburettor

Backfiring or popping in the carburettor is an occasional weak explosion in the inlet pipe and carburettor. It occurs due
to too weak mixture or insufficient heating. The mixture is so weak that the explosion flame travels very slowly through
it with the result that inflammation occurs not only during the firing and exhaust strokes, but also continues when the
inlet valve opens again. It often happens in cold weather at starting.

Solution:
The remedy is to increase the fuel supply or reduce the air supply, and to look for extraneous sources of air leakage.
(33) Draw the PV diagram of actual SIE and CIE cycle.