ASSIGNMENT NO : 1

Name: Bareerah bint-e- Imran

Course: Educational Research and
Statistics
Semester: Autumn, 2023
Code: 6461
Level: B.Ed
(Units 1-4)
Q.1 Discuss different sources of knowledge, how scientific method is a
unique source of knowledge?

ANSWER:

Sources of Knowledge:

There are many ways to gain knowledge, and some are better than others. As at
several ways of acquiring knowledge, beginning with sources that may not be as
reliable or accurate as scientists might desire. We will then consider sources that
offer greater reliability and ultimately discuss using science as a means of gaining
knowledge.

Superstition:

Gaining knowledge via superstition means acquiring knowledge that is based on

subjective feelings, interpreting random events as nonrandom events, or believing
in magical events. For example, you may have heard someone say “Bad things
happen in threes.” Where does this idea come from? As far as I know, no study has
ever documented that bad events occur in threes, yet people frequently say this and
act as if they believe it. Some people believe that breaking a mirror brings 7 years
of bad luck or that the number 13 is unlucky. Once again, these are examples of
superstitious beliefs that are not based on observation or hypothesis testing. As
such, they represent a means of gaining knowledge that is neither reliable nor
valid.

Intuition:

When we gain knowledge via intuition, it means that we have knowledge of

something without being consciously aware of where the knowledge came from.
You have probably heard people say things like “I don’t know, it’s just a gut
feeling” or “I don’t know, it just came to me, and I know it’s true.” These
statements represent examples of intuition. Sometimes we intuit something based
not on a “gut feeling” but on events we have observed. The problem is that the
events may be misinterpreted and not representative of all events in that category.
For example, many people believe that more babies are born during a full moon or
that couples who have adopted a baby are more likely to conceive after the
adoption.
Authority:

When we accept what a respected or famous person tells us, we are gaining
knowledge via authority. You may have gained much of your own knowledge
through authority figures. As you were growing up, your parents provided you
with information that, for the most part, you did not question, especially when you
were very young. You believed that they knew what they were talking about, and
thus you accepted the answers they gave you. You have probably also gained
knowledge from teachers whom you viewed as authority figures, at times blindly
accepting what they said as truth. Most people tend to accept information imparted
by those they view as authority figures. Historically, authority figures have been a
primary means of information. For example, in some time periods and cultures, the
church and its leaders were responsible for providing much of the knowledge that
individuals gained throughout the course of their lives.

Tenacity:

Gaining knowledge via tenacity involves hearing a piece of information so often

that you begin to believe it is true, and then, despite evidence to the contrary, you
cling stubbornly to the belief. This method is often used in political campaigns,
where a particular slogan is repeated so often that we begin to believe it.
Advertisers also use the method of tenacity by repeating their slogan for a certain
product over and over until people begin to associate the slogan with the product
and believe that the product meets its claims. For example, the makers of Visine
advertised for over 40 years that “It gets the red out,” and, although Visine recently
changed the slogan, most of us have heard the original so many times that we
probably now believe it. The problem with gaining knowledge through tenacity is
that we do not know whether the claims are true. As far as we know, the accuracy
of such knowledge may not have been evaluated in any valid way.

Rationalism:

Gaining knowledge via rationalism involves logical reasoning. With this approach,
ideas are precisely stated and logical rules are applied to arrive at a logically sound
conclusion. Rational ideas are often presented in the form of a syllogism. For
example: All humans are mortal; I am a human; Therefore, I am mortal. This
conclusion is logically derived from the major and minor premises in the
syllogism. Consider, however, the following syllogism: Attractive people are good;
Nellie is attractive; Therefore, Nellie is good. This syllogism should identify for
you the problem with gaining knowledge by logic. Although the syllogism is
logically sound, the content of both premises is not necessarily true. If the content
of the premises were true, then the conclusion would be true in addition to being
logically sound. However, if the content of either of the premises is false (as is the
premise “Attractive people are good”), then the conclusion is logically valid but
empirically false and therefore of no use to a scientist. Logic deals with only the
form of the syllogism and not its content. Obviously, researchers are interested in
both form and content.

Empiricism:

Knowledge via empiricism involves gaining knowledge through objective

observation and the experiences of your senses. An individual who says “I
believe nothing until I see it with my own eyes” is an empiricist. The empiricist
gains knowledge by seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching. This
method dates back to the age of Aristotle. Aristotle was an empiricist who made
observations about the world in order to know it better. Plato, in contrast,
preferred to theorize about the true nature of the world without gathering any
data. Empiricism alone is not enough, however. Empiricism represents a
collection of facts. If, as scientists, we relied solely on empiricism, we would
have nothing more than a long list of observations or facts. For these facts to be
useful, we need to organize them, think about them, draw meaning from them,
and use them to make predictions. In other words, we need to use rationalism
together with empiricism to make sure that we are being logical about the
observations that we make. As you will see, this is what science does.

Scientific method is a unique source of knowledge:

Now that we have briefly described what science is, let’s discuss how this
applies to the discipline of psychology. As mentioned earlier, many students
believe that they are attracted to psychology because they think it is not a
science. The error in their thinking is that they believe that subject matter alone
defines what is and what is not science. Instead, what defines science is the
manner in which something is studied. Science is a way of thinking about and
observing events to achieve a deeper understanding of these events.
Psychologists apply the scientific method to their study of human beings and
other animals. The scientific method involves invoking an attitude of
skepticism. A skeptic is a person who questions the validity, authenticity, or
truth of something purporting to be factual. In our society, being described as a
skeptic is not typically thought of as a compliment. However, for a scientist, it
is a compliment. It means that you do not blindly accept any new idea that
comes along. Instead, the skeptic needs data to support an idea and insists on
proper testing procedures when the data were collected. Being a skeptic and
using the scientific method involve applying three important criteria that help
define science: systematic empiricism, publicly verifiable knowledge, and
empirically solvable problems.

Gaining knowledge via science, then, involves a merger of rationalism and

empiricism. Scientists collect data (make empirical observations) and test
hypotheses with these data (assess them using rationalism). A hypothesis is a
prediction regarding the outcome of a study. This prediction concerns the
potential relationship between at least two variables (a variable is an event or
behavior that has at least two values). Hypotheses are stated in such a way that
they are testable. By merging rationalism and empiricism, we have the
advantage of using a logical argument based on observation. We may find that
our hypothesis is not supported, and thus we have to reevaluate our position. On
the other hand, our observations may support the hypothesis being tested.

Q.2 Explain the nature and characteristics of experimental research

method with example from your own context.

ANSWER:

Nature and characteristics of experimental research method:

Experimental research is a scientific research method that is used to establish

cause-and-effect relationships between variables. In an experimental study, the
researcher manipulates one or more independent variables to observe the effect
on a dependent variable. The goal of experimental research is to determine if the
manipulation of the independent variable leads to changes in the dependent
variable.

Experimental research typically involves the following key elements:

Control:

Experimental research involves controlling for extraneous variables that could

potentially influence the results. This is done by using random assignment to
assign participants to different groups, and by using control groups to compare
the effects of the independent variable.
Randomization:

Randomization is an important aspect of experimental research, as it helps to

ensure that the effects of the independent variable are not confounded by other
factors. Random assignment involves assigning participants to groups in a
random manner, which helps to distribute potential biases evenly across groups.

Manipulation:

The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher in order to observe

its effect on the dependent variable. This manipulation helps to establish a
causal relationship between the variables.

Measurement:

Data is collected and measured to assess the effect of the independent variable
on the dependent variable. This is typically done using quantitative measures,
such as surveys, questionnaires, or physiological measurements.

Overall, experimental research is a powerful method for testing hypotheses and

determining causality in scientific research. By carefully controlling for
extraneous variables, manipulating the independent variable, and measuring the
effect on the dependent variable, researchers can gain insight into the
underlying mechanisms of behavior and phenomena.

1: Pre-experimental research:
A pre-experimental research study is an observational approach to performing
an experiment. It's the most basic style of experimental research. Free
experimental research can occur in one of these design structures:

One-shot case study research design:

In this form of experimental research, experimenters subject a single group to a

stimulus and test them at the end of the application. This allows researchers to
gather results for performance by individuals or entities subject to the stimuli
being tested.

One-group pretest-posttest design:

In this type of research, researchers apply a test both before and after the
application of the stimuli. This provides a comparison of performance with and
without application for researchers to make judgments about the effects of the
stimuli on the subjects.

Static group comparison design:

In a static group comparison, researchers assess two different groups, with only
one group receiving the stimuli the researchers are assessing. Testing occurs at
the end of the process, allowing the researchers to compare the results from the
subjects who received the stimuli against those who didn't.

2. Quasi-experimental research:
Quasi-experimental research is similar to true experimental research, and
experimenters can apply it in similar ways. The primary distinction between the
two is a lack of randomization when assigning participants to groups in a quasi-
experimental study. This usually occurs because of rules or regulations that
prevent researchers from applying random allocations in some settings, such as
a research study at a university.

True experimental research:

True experimental research is the main method of applying untested research to

a subject. Under true experimental conditions, participants receive randomized
assignments to different groups in the study. This removes any potential for bias
in creating study groups to provide more reliable results. There are a few design
structures a researcher may use when performing experimental research, which
differ based on the number and style of groups used:

Posttest-only control group design:

In this design structure, a researcher divides participants into two groups at

random. One group acts as a control and doesn't receive the stimuli being tested,
while the second group does receive the stimuli researchers are assessing.
Researchers perform tests at the end of the experiment to determine the practical
results of being exposed to the stimuli.

Pretest-posttest control group design:

Under this structure, researchers provide tests to the participants both before and
after the non-control group receives exposure to the stimuli. Researchers test
groups twice, so this structure provides multiple methods of assessing the
results.
Experimenters can examine changes in performance for the non-control group,
and they may also determine if any changes occur due to participants
undergoing the same test twice. They may do this by checking if the control
group has also changed, which researchers can then use to make adjustments as
needed when analyzing the data.

Solomon four-group design:

This is the most comprehensive design structure for an experimental research

project. Under the Solomon four-group design, participants receive an
assignment to one of four randomly allocated groups. These groups provide all
four possible permutations for both control and non-control groups and post-test
or pre- and post-test control groups. Having a comprehensive set of data with
multiple ways of differentiating between groups can enhance researchers'
abilities to reach conclusions based on the resulting data.

Example from my own context:

In my psychology research lab, we conducted an experiment to study the effects

of meditation on stress levels. We recruited participants and randomly assigned
them to either a meditation group or a control group. The meditation group was
asked to meditate for 20 minutes every day for two weeks, while the control
group did not engage in any meditation practice.

Before and after the two-week period, we measured the participants' stress
levels using a validated questionnaire. The results showed that the meditation
group had significantly lower stress levels compared to the control group. This
suggested that meditation had a positive effect on reducing stress.

Overall, experimental research allows researchers to systematically investigate

and establish causal relationships between variables, providing valuable insights
into the underlying mechanisms of a particular phenomenon.

When one does experimental research, that experiment can be about anything.
As the variables and environments can be controlled by the researcher, it is
possible to have experiments about pretty much any subject. It is especially
crucial that it gives critical insight into the cause-and-effect relationships of
various elements.
Q.3 Explain the meaning and importance of literature a review. As a
researcher, which steps will you follow to review the literature?

ANSWER:

Meaning and importance of literature a review:

A literature review is an essential component of any research project or
academic paper. It serves several important purposes:

Provides context:

A literature review helps to situate your research within the existing body of
knowledge on a particular topic. It shows that you are familiar with the relevant
literature and allows you to establish the significance of your research in
relation to what has already been done.

Identifies gaps in the research:

By reviewing the existing literature, you can identify areas where there is a lack
of research or conflicting findings. This can help you to refine your research
question and design a study that addresses these gaps.

Helps to develop a theoretical framework:

Literature reviews can help you to develop a theoretical framework for your
research by synthesizing existing theories and concepts. This can provide a
theoretical basis for your study and guide your data collection and analysis.

Guides the methodology:

A literature review can help you to decide on the most appropriate research
methods and data collection techniques for your study. By examining how
previous studies have been conducted, you can learn from their strengths and
weaknesses and make informed decisions about your own methodology.

Helps to build your argument:

A literature review can provide evidence to support your research hypothesis or

argument. By referencing existing studies, you can show that your research is
grounded in a solid foundation of knowledge and demonstrate the credibility of
your work.
Overall, a literature review is a critical part of the research process that helps to
establish the context for your study, identify gaps in the research, develop a
theoretical framework, guide your methodology, and build your argument. It is
essential for demonstrating the significance and originality of your research and
for ensuring that your study contributes to the existing body of knowledge in
your field.

Inform research design:

A literature review can help you determine the most suitable research methods
and theoretical frameworks for your study. It can also help you avoid repeating
previous mistakes or oversights.

Support your arguments:

A literature review provides evidence to support your arguments and findings. It

demonstrates that your research is grounded in existing knowledge and
contributes to the scholarly discourse.

Enhance credibility:

A well-conducted literature review demonstrates your expertise and

understanding of the field. It helps establish your credibility as a researcher and
adds depth and legitimacy to your work.

Steps in the Literature Review Process:

Identify a topic or research question:

The first step in the literature review process is to identify a topic of interest or a
specific research question that you want to explore. This can be based on your
own interests or it might be specified by an instructor or supervisor.

Search for relevant literature:

Once you have identified your topic or research question, you will need to
search for relevant literature that has been published on the topic. This can
involve searching through academic databases, journals, books, and other
sources of scholarly information.
Evaluate the literature:

As you find relevant literature, you will need to critically evaluate each source
to determine its credibility, relevance, and quality. Consider the author's
credentials, the publication date, the research methods used, and the overall
contribution of the source to your research.

Organize the literature:

Once you have collected and evaluated relevant sources, you will need to
organize them in a way that makes sense for your literature review. This can
involve categorizing sources by theme, methodology, or other relevant factors.

Analyze and synthesize the literature:

After organizing your sources, you will need to analyze and synthesize the
information in each source to identify key themes, trends, and findings. This
involves comparing and contrasting different sources to understand the current
state of research on your topic.

Write the literature review:

Finally, you will need to write your literature review, which involves
summarizing and synthesizing the key findings from the sources you have
collected. Make sure to use clear and concise language, and provide citations for
all sources used in your review.

These steps are:

i) Identify key terms to use in your search for literature.

ii) Locate literature about a topic by consulting several types of materials and
databases, including those available at an academic library and on the Internet.

iii) Critically evaluate and select the literature for your review.

iv) Organize the literature you have selected by abstracting or taking notes on
the literature and developing a visual diagram of it.

v) Write a literature review that reports summaries of the literature for inclusion
in your research report.
Q.4 Describe major sources of selection of topic and explain process
of refining and stating research problem.

ANSWER:

Major sources of selection of topic:

Social Problems:

Social Problems Within social sciences the first way to find out your research
problem is to observe and critically think about the social phenomenon
happening around and trying to identify a researchable problem. We hear news
and we keep coming to know about current social, psychosocial, political,
educational and economic issues.

For instance, one of the social problems at many homes is husband-wife

conflict. One way to study this problem is under the umbrella of
“Phenomenology”. If you may wish to draft a problem statement that can be to
find out the reasons of husband-wife conflicts in a particular population. You
cannot draw a random sample but you can do this study through snow ball
sampling, simply beginning with someone you know who is facing this
problem. Or you can go into the field to ask people if they have experienced this
conflict and what are the major reasons of conflict between spouses.

Personal Interest and Experience:

It is not very easy to look around and think critically but it is even more difficult
to build your research problem around your own experiences and interests. We
tend to be biased in our personal experiences and try to build arguments around
our own beliefs and values. That is not much appreciated in the empirical
research world. Ethnographies and auto-ethnographies are vast fields of
research where people have produced authentic data to support their argument
about a certain issue or problem. If you may wish to develop a research study
around your own interests and experiences, then you need to read and write a lot
about the problem even before you draft your research statement. For instance, I
am a child who faced parental conflict and both of my parents were seemingly
reasonable persons, what have I been learning through this experience is much
important and worthy research problem for both the fields of education and
psychology.
Refining Previous Research:

Another way of reaching the research problem through literature review is when
you find the previous researches giving some conclusions and warrants that are
either outdated or not applicable to a geographical or cultural context. In such
situations replication of previous studies for the purpose of clarification of
contradictory research results or refinement of already known results is
necessary. For example, if I carry forward the research problems we have
explored this section I might find previous researches conducted almost 15
years ago in Pakistan showing the causation of spouse conflict among working
men and house wives but I would want to study this problem further knowing
that after a period of 15 years in Pakistan many urban households have both
men and women working while they still have severe conflicts.

Past Researches and Literature Review:

It is highly unlikely that the social problems around us may be so unique and
novel that no previous researches had been conducted. Once we have a problem
at hand we can look into previous studies literature to find out what and how
other researchers have been exploring around this particular problem.
Sometimes the researchers only have an interest area and they begin to study
literature to identify a problem. For instance, a student of educational
psychology while studying the literature finds two different studies one about
the educational qualification in relation to spouse conflict and the other about
personality traits of children facing parental conflict. Now the new problem can
be identified as the educational achievements of the children facing parental
conflict in various combinations of parents’ educational qualifications.

Theory Deduction:

Sometimes the social phenomenon that we identified are already studied by

some scholars of the field and they have given a theory about it. For instance, if
we keep in mind the above example someone might have given a list of reasons
and one of them is given as level of education. But the theorists have not given
ample data to prove their assumptions. So is to identify the role of educational
qualifications of both partners you can develop a problem statement about what
is the role of educational qualifications in spouse conflict. Now the study will
have a different design. You will have to select a purposive sample, so that
through the data of multiple combinations of qualifications you can analyze the
intensity variation of conflicts.
Refining And Stating The Research Problem:
Compiling and analyzing previous research will always reveal something to
you. If you are interested in a particular topic, a literature review may reveal
simply that little or no research exists on that topic. Let’s say you wanted to
study the effects of learning strategies on state competency test scores. You are
likely to find very little on that subject, but if you look at research generally on
the outcomes of learning strategies, you will find quite a bit. You might further
discover that while there is a lot on learning strategies, there is little specifically
on test taking. So you see, by searching and analyzing the literature, you may
pinpoint a particular area where research is needed. The online research guide at
the University of South Carolina (2018) presents some very important and
simple guidelines regarding statement of the problem which are as following:

The purpose of a problem statement is to:

1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader
is oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions,
hypotheses, or assumptions to follow.

2. Place the topic into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is
to be investigated.

3. Provide the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is
probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will
present this information.

There are four general conceptualizations of a research problem in the social

sciences:

1. Casuist Research Problem — this type of problem relates to the

determination of right and wrong in questions of conduct or conscience by
analyzing moral dilemmas through the application of general rules and the
careful distinction of special cases.

2. Difference Research Problem — typically asks the question, “Is there a

difference between two or more groups or treatments?” This type of problem
statement is used when the researcher compares or contrasts two or more
phenomena. This a common approach to defining a problem in the clinical
social sciences or behavioral sciences.
3. Descriptive Research Problem — typically asks the question, "what is...?"
with the underlying purpose to describe the significance of a situation, state, or
existence of a specific phenomenon. This problem is often associated with
revealing hidden or understudied issues.

4. Relational Research Problem — suggests a relationship of some sort

between two or more variables to be investigated. The underlying purpose is to
investigate qualities/characteristics that are connected in some way.

Q.5 Discuss the use of computer for literature review. Also

explain the concept of citation and referencing in research.
ANSWER:
Use Of Computer In Literature Review:
In the past, and sometimes even today, researchers had to go to their libraries
and search manually for information related to their research topic. Doing a
manual search requires that you first decide what key words (or descriptors)
best fi t your topic and then look at the periodicals on the library shelves to find
those most likely to include your area of interest. Using your key terms, seek
your topic through the periodicals’ indexes to locate relevant articles. Make
sure that you note at this time all relevant bibliographic details— author, title,
journal name, data, volume number, and pages. However, manual searching of
this kind is time-consuming and inefficient.

Currently, most universities and colleges and many public and private libraries
subscribe to indexing and abstracting periodicals that are incorporated into
several databases that can be searched by computer. Computers can search for
many topics simultaneously and combine them, using logical concepts known
as Boolean logic (from the logic system developed by the 19th-century English
mathematician George Boole). The essence of Boolean logic lies in the use of
three terms—AND, OR, and NOT—which are used to tell the computer how
the investigator wants it to deal with the various constructs relevant to the study.

For example, if you are interested in the outcome of different methods of

teaching spelling to early primary students, you would start by finding all
appropriate descriptors for spelling instruction and for primary grades. If you
connect these with AND, you will only get documents that have both
descriptors. If, instead, you use OR, you will get a flood of information about
spelling instruction in all grades together with a second flood about primary
grades not necessarily confined to the teaching of spelling. So as not to get
drowned in useless information, you can narrow your search by adding
descriptors to either side of your OR

equation. Thus, think of OR as an inclusive operation and AND as a selective

operation. The third option, NOT, is an exclusive operation. If you wished your
search to be only of U.S. publications, you would add NOT foreign countries.
Thus, your search string would read Spelling Instruction AND Primary Grades
NOT Foreign Countries. In practice, it is likely that you will have more
descriptors, and you will have to think carefully whether they should be linked
with AND or OR.

Another free database to search is Google Scholar. It provides a way to broadly

search for literature across many disciplines and sources, such as peer-reviewed
papers, theses, books, abstracts, and articles from academic publishers,
professional societies, universities, and other scholarly organizations. The
articles identified in a Google Scholar search provide links to abstracts, related
articles, electronic versions of articles affiliated opportunities to purchase the
full text of the article opportunities to purchase the full text of the article.

Steps:
The use of a computer for a literature review can greatly enhance the efficiency
and organization of the process. Here are some steps to effectively utilize a
computer for conducting a literature review:

Research Keywords and Databases:

Start by identifying relevant keywords related to your research topic. Use

these keywords to search for articles, books, and other resources in reputable
academic databases such as Google Scholar, JSTOR, or PubMed.

Digital Library Management:

Utilize citation management software like Mendeley, Zotero, or EndNote to

store, organize, and cite your sources. These tools help you easily manage
and sort your literature collection, making it easier to review and analyze the
material.
Online Archives and Repositories:

Explore open-access repositories like ResearchGate, Academia.edu, or arXiv

for additional sources that may not be available through traditional academic
databases.

Full-Text Access:

Many databases provide full-text access to articles, which allows you to read
and analyze the content directly from your computer. This saves time and
effort in searching for physical copies of articles.

Note-Taking and Annotation:

Use digital note-taking tools like OneNote, Evernote, or Google Docs to take
notes on the literature you review. These tools also allow you to annotate the
text directly, making it easier to highlight important points and create
summaries.

Collaboration:

If you're working on a literature review with a team, utilize cloud-based

collaboration tools like Google Drive or Microsoft Teams to share
documents, notes, and ideas in real-time.

Citation Generators:

To ensure accurate and consistent citation formatting, use online citation

generators like Cite This For Me, BibMe, or EasyBib. These tools can save
you time and reduce the risk of errors in your literature review.

Data Visualization:

Use software like Excel, Tableau, or R to create visual representations of

your findings, such as graphs or charts. This can help you identify patterns
and trends in your literature more effectively.

Backup and Security:

Regularly save your work and ensure it is backed up on a secure platform,

such as a cloud storage service like Dropbox or Google Drive. This helps
protect your work from potential data loss due to hardware failure or other
issues.
Proofreading and Editing:

Utilize grammar and spell-checking tools like Grammarly or Hemingway

Editor to refine your writing. This ensures your literature review is well-
written, clear, and professional.

By following these steps, you can effectively use a computer to streamline and
enhance your literature review process.

Citation and referencing in research:

As an academician, terms such as citations, references and bibliography might
be a part of almost every work-related conversation in your daily life. However,
many researchers, especially during the early stages of their academic career,
may find it hard to differentiate between citations, references and bibliography
in research papers and often find it confusing to implement their usage. If you
are amongst them, this article will provide you with some respite. Let us start by
first understanding the individual terms better.

Documenting your Sources:

In your lab reports you will typically use information from sources such as your
textbook, lab manual, a reference book, and articles published in a science or
engineering journal. When you use information from sources, you need to tell
the readers where the information came from and where the readers can locate
the sources. This is what citations and references are for.

Citation

Citation tells the readers where the information came from. In your writing, you
cite or refer to the source of information.

Reference

Reference gives the readers details about the source so that they have a good
understanding of what kind of source it is and could find the source themselves
if necessary. The references are typically listed at the end of the lab report.

Citation in research papers:

A citation appears in the main text of the paper. It is a way of giving credit to
the information that you have specifically mentioned in your research paper by
leading the reader to the original source of information. You will need to use
citation in research papers whenever you are using information to elaborate a
particular concept in the paper, either in the introduction or discussion sections
or as a way to support your research findings in the results section.

Reference in research papers:

A reference is a detailed description of the source of information that you want

to give credit to via a citation. The references in research papers are usually in
the form of a list at the end of the paper. The essential difference between
citations and references is that citations lead a reader to the source of
information, while references provide the reader with detailed information
regarding that particular source.

The name-and-year system:

Citations:

When you cite the source of information in the report, you give the names of the
authors and the date of publication. Jenkins and Busher (1979) report that
beavers eat several kinds of herbaceous plants as well as the leaves, twigs, and
bark of most species of woody plants that grow near water. Beavers have been
shown to be discriminate eaters of hardwoods (Crawford, Hooper, and Harlow
1976).

References:

The sources are listed at the end of the report in alphabetical order according to
the last name of the first author, as in the following book and article. Crawford,
H.S., R.G. Hooper, and R.F Harlow. 1976. Woody Plants Selected by Beavers
in the Appalachian and Valley Province. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of
Agriculture.

The alphabet-number system:

Citations:

When you cite the source of information in the report, you give a number in
parentheses that corresponds to the number of the source in the alphabetical
listing in the "References." Jenkins and Busher report that beavers eat several
kinds of herbaceous plants as well as the leaves, twigs, and bark of most species
of woody plants that grow near water. Beavers have been shown to be
discriminate eaters of hardwoods.
References:

The sources are listed in alphabetical order and numbered accordingly, as in the
following book and article. Crawford, H.S., R.G. Hooper, and R.F Harlow.
1976. Woody Plants Selected by Beavers in the Appalachian and Valley
Province. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture.