Los humanistas renacentistas creen que pueden nutrirse de la propuesta Greco Latina

CONTEXTO SOCIOCULTURAL:
- Aparición de la burguesía- que empieza a acumular dinero
- sustitución teocéntrica para colocar al hombre en el medio: libertad, libre albedrío,
racionalidad y dignidad humana
- Enfatiza de

1. Francisco Petrarca:
- Retoma la importancia de las lenguas grecolatinas
2. Picco de la Mirandula:
- Escribe “El discurso sobre la dignidad del hombre”
- La grandeza y alcances del ser humano
- El hombre desde su libertad puede seguir construyéndose.
3. Erasmus de Rotterdam: the syllabus
4. Nicolás maquiavelo: cuestiona la forma en la que se hace política
5. Tomas Muro: Enrique VIII quiere divorciarse de Catalina de Aragón y eso no le
parecía a Tomas porque según el catolicismo no está permitido y lo manda a matar.

ESPECIALMENTE EN ITALIA. PUES HAY DINERO PARA LA PROYECCIÓN

La palabra reapareció en el RENACIMIENTO ITALIANO COMO UMANISTA en el siglo XIII

1. to describe a group of students of literatura clásica
meanings:
1. Classic literature
2. The new way to understand life.

Renaissance Humanism
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Definition

by Mark Cartwright
published on 04 November 2020
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Virtue Triumphant over Vice by Mantegna

Andrea Mantegna (Public Domain)

Renaissance Humanism was an intellectual movement typified by a revived interest in the

classical world and studies which focussed not on religion but on what it is to be human. Its
origins went back to 14th-century Italy and such authors as Petrarch (1304-1374) who
searched out 'lost' ancient manuscripts. By the 15th century, humanism had spread across
Europe.

Humanists believed in the importance of an education in classical literature and the

promotion of civic virtue, that is, realising a person's full potential both for their own good
and for the good of the society in which they live. The difficulty in defining humanism and its
ever-evolving character have not prevented it being widely regarded as the defining feature of
1400 to 1600 Europe and the very reason why that period can be identified as a Renaissance
or 'rebirth' of ideas.
Defining Humanism
Humanism was a term invented in the 19th century to describe the Renaissance idea that
directly studying the works of antiquity was an important part of a rounded education (but not
the only part). From this position came the idea that the study of humanity should be a
priority as opposed to religious matters (which need not be neglected or contradicted by
humanist studies). Important classical ideals which interested humanists included the
importance of public and private virtue, Latin grammar, techniques of rhetoric, history,
conventions in literature and poetry, and moral philosophy. This education did not create an
all-encompassing philosophy or worldview in its adherents. Someone who had a humanist
education might be a Catholic or a Protestant, for example, and many students went on to
study very different branches of thought such as theology, law, or medicine.

An Introduction to Ancient Roman Literature

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THE IDEA REALLY TOOK OFF THAT THE

ANCIENT WORLD HAD SOMETHING VERY
VALUABLE TO TEACH THE PEOPLE OF THE
15TH CENTURY.

In modern times, the term 'humanism' has gained a different meaning (a rational and
non-religious way of life) and so to safeguard its original purpose, when applied to
1400-1600, it is often clarified as 'Renaissance Humanism'. It is important to remember,
though, that Renaissance thinkers did not themselves use the term humanism, and neither did
they agree on all subjects. Due to these problems of definition, some historians prefer to use
the term studia humanitatis, coined by the Roman statesman Cicero (106-43 BCE) and
revived by the Florentine scholar Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406). Studia humanitatis refers to
studies which, rather than concentrating on religious matters, focus instead on what it is to be
human, and more precisely, consider what is a virtuous individual in its widest sense and how
may that individual fully participate in public life.

The main elements of Renaissance humanism include:

● an interest in studying literature and art from antiquity

● an interest in the eloquent use of Latin and philology
● a belief in the importance and power of education to create useful citizens
● the promotion of private and civic virtue
● a rejection of scholasticism
● the encouragement of non-religious studies
● an emphasis on the individual and their moral autonomy
● a belief in the importance of observation, critical analysis, and creativity
● a belief that poets, writers, and artists can lead humanity to a better way of living
● an interest in the question 'what does it mean to be human'?
Six Tuscan Poets by Vasari

Minneapolis Institute of Art (Public Domain)

Origins of the Classical Revival

The humanist movement can be traced back to a trio of Italian authors who lived before the
Renaissance period had even begun: Dante Alighieri (1265-1321 CE), Petrarch, and
Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375). All three would receive new interest in their work during
the Renaissance when they were recognised as its founding fathers. Dante was the first, and
his Divine Comedy (c. 1319), although a book with a central message on how to reach
salvation, was a subtle shift from entirely religious-focussed works to those considering
humanity's role in God's universe. The Divine Comedy had many overtly classical elements,
from the Roman poet Virgil (70-19 BCE) acting as a guide to the many ancient historical
figures mentioned.

Next came Petrarch, who was an equally religious man but in his work criticised some
elements of the Catholic Church such as its corruption and excessive love of show. Petrarch
rejected scholasticism which grimly held on to Church dogma and created endless rounds of
fruitless debate amongst scholars. He made perhaps his greatest contribution to the study of
antiquity by finding manuscripts which had become 'lost' in obscure monastic libraries.
Amongst his famous discoveries were several works and letters by Cicero.

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GREEK SCHOLARS FLED THE COLLAPSING

BYZANTINE EMPIRE & BROUGHT CLASSICAL
TEXTS WITH THEM TO EUROPE.

Petrarch believed that a new golden age of thought and politics could be achieved by
returning to the ideals of antiquity and by permitting poets and scholars to lead a revolution in
education. His idea that the period in which he lived was an intermediary period between
antiquity and this new dawn, what he called disparagingly 'a slumber' was latched onto by
later Renaissance thinkers and did much to foster the idea that the Middle Ages was
somehow a period of cultural darkness. Further, Petrarch's work with ancient manuscripts
encouraged the scholarship of non-religious subjects with humanity at its centre, and this
became a legitimate activity for intellectuals. Consequently, Petrarch is often cited as the
father of humanism.
Giovanni Boccaccio also searched out 'lost' manuscripts relevant to antiquity. In addition, his
Decameron (Ten Days), a collection of tales compiled between c. 1348 and 1353, appealed to
later humanists because it dealt with everyday human experiences in great detail. Bocaccio
also created works that were of great use to humanist scholars such as his Ancestry of the
Pagan Gods.

Cicero

Mary Harrsch (Photographed at the Capitoline Museum) (CC BY-NC-SA)

All three of these writers promoted the use of the Tuscan vernacular (at least in poetical
works), and this eventually led to the dominance of Latin being challenged. Humanists,
though, continued to favour Latin for scholarly purposes and modelled their Latin on that of
Cicero for prose and Virgil for poetry. The arrival of the printing press in Europe in 1450 was
another boost to the trio of authors mentioned above and the democratisation of knowledge.
Renaissance humanism gave great importance to invention, and here, again, Dante with his
creation of terza rima (poems formed of stanzas of three rhyming lines) and Boccaccio's
innovative promotion in written form of the ottava rima (where stanzas are formed of eight
11-syllable lines) fit that sentiment perfectly.

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The Classical Ideal

After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, many Greek scholars fled the collapsing Byzantine
Empire and brought classical texts with them to Europe, especially Italy. These were a very
welcome addition to the Latin texts scholars like Petrarch had found in monastic libraries.
Consequently, by 1515 the works of all major classical authors were available in print.
Looking at these works as a whole, one idea which especially interested Renaissance thinkers
was virtus (virtue or excellence) and civic duty. Petrarch had studied this half a century
before but now the idea really took off that the ancient world had something very valuable to
teach the people of the 15th century. Renaissance humanists now wanted to use, analyse, and
critique ancient sources to improve one's public life in service of the state. Theoretical
knowledge was not enough, what was gained from study had to be put into practice for the
good of the state and all who lived in it. Consequently, the great question, what does it mean
to be human that preoccupied Renaissance scholars provoked answers that included religious,
philosophical, scientific, and artistic considerations.

It today seems rather odd that scholars took such an interest in ancient sources which might
be considered outdated and irrelevant to contemporary society. For humanist thinkers,
though, antiquity, as seen in so many newly discovered manuscripts, presented a fresh and
vibrant alternative to the stagnant pool of thought so jealously guarded by the medieval
church. The new horizons offered by these texts and the seemingly unbiased approach of
ancient scholars in discussing and explaining the world without any preconceived ideas made
the whole Renaissance process seem, like its very name indicates, an intellectual rebirth.
Humanist scholars were not uncritical of ancient sources, on the contrary, just like many
ancient thinkers, they approached any subject with critical analysis. Further, to approach a
given subject objectively, one must be intellectually free and with this idea came that of the
free-thinking individual, one unrestrained by religious or political bias. There were even
those who thought that God had given humanity the world as a test, to make of it what they
will and apply their virtue into making it a better place. In this way, humanism was not in
opposition to religion for many thinkers, but it did lead to the idea of a morally-autonomous
individual, which in turn led to individualism.

16th Century CE Flemish Book Printer

The British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA)

There was yet another reason to admire the ancients: their eloquence of argument. Cicero was
taken as the example par excellence of superb writing in Latin. Rhetoric - another term that
modernity has twisted out of all recognition from its original meaning - was then the art of
presenting eloquent argument. Further, this was not merely a trick to be used by scholars in
their writing, this was a tool to be used in everyday life. In other words, rhetoric is
persuasion, and with persuasion comes power. Rhetoric could become the means by which
humanists spread their ideas, persuading everyone from a literate merchant to the ruler of a
dukedom that theirs was the best way to be educated, live, work, and rule.

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The Spread of Humanism

The printing press helped spread humanist ideas from their origins in Italy to the north of
Europe. Indeed, the most celebrated humanist scholar of his day was Desiderius Erasmus of
Rotterdam (c. 1469-1536). Erasmus believed that education was the answer to the Catholic
Church's problems (and not a radical Reformation). To this end, he compiled editions of
classical authors and provided a new Latin and Greek translation of the New Testament.
Erasmus' sharp and critical examination of original texts to produce this, his textual analysis
of current versions, and his interest in philology would be influential on other Renaissance
scholars.

Although early humanists were often Christians, the movement's emphasis on critical inquiry
did lead to an inevitable clash with Church authorities who depended on mass and uncritical
acceptance of secondhand interpretations of doctrine. That some humanist scholars became
champions of pagan texts was another bone of contention.
Desiderius Erasmus by Matsys

Quentin Matsys (Public Domain)

In the north of Europe, humanist scholars were more interested in religious reforms compared
to elsewhere, hence their brand of humanism is often called Religious Humanism. Sir
Thomas More (1478-1535), the English scholar and statesman, was one figure in this
movement. A defender of the Catholic Church against the Reformists, he famously wrote
Utopia in 1516 about an ideal society set on an imaginary island. More likely intended the
work as a thinly-veiled criticism of the reign of Henry VIII of England (r. 1509-1547), but
its radical presentation of a society where everyone works for the common good and shares
equally in its success rang a note of recognition in the minds of humanist scholars elsewhere.
The obvious link with Plato's Republic was another point of favour with the classical-loving
humanists.
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A Humanist Education
Erasmus was important in one other area: education for everybody. It was all very well for
scholars to debate the ideals of education in theory but more practical offerings were needed
to achieve the humanist goal of widening education. Erasmus, therefore, wrote many
textbooks such as his hugely popular On Copia (1512), which taught students how to argue,
revise texts, and produce new ones. His 1521 On Writing Letters taught how to best write
letters, aim for specific audiences, and employ eloquent expressions. Erasmus even produced
guides for those wishing to establish a school and compiled recommended syllabuses.

Humanists emphasised the importance of an education which covered the liberal arts of
rhetoric, moral philosophy, grammar, history, and poetry. Physical exercise, just like in
ancient Greece, was also considered an essential part of a rounded education that resulted in
young people being able to realise their potential and become good citizens. In addition, a
humanist education continued for life, and it was never too late to learn its benefits,
especially so for rulers.

Humanism in Science
Observing, analysing, and categorising the world around us was an important part of
humanist thought, just as it had been in antiquity. For this reason, science made great leaps
forward during the Renaissance, powered at first by developments in mathematics. The
Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed that the solar system was
heliocentric, amongst other innovative ideas, in his On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, published in 1543. Copernicus was a classic Renaissance scholar as he studied the
works of antiquity, observed what he could in the world personally, collated all that had been
studied thus far in his field, and then came up with a new view of the subject at hand. Perhaps
the greatest contribution humanism made to science was its thirst for answers and the
confidence that they could be found through human endeavour.

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The School of Athens by Raphael

Raphael (Public Domain)

Humanism in the Arts

Rulers like Federico da Montefeltro (1422-1482 in Urbino and Cosimo I de' Medici
(1519-1574) in Florence were great admirers of antiquity and built up impressive humanist
libraries. They were, too, collectors of ancient art such as sculpture, sarcophagi, relief
panels, and coins. Both men also became great patrons of the arts, encouraging humanist
artists. This was a pattern imitated by rulers across Europe.

Renaissance painters and sculptors became very interested in classical mythology, sometimes
even combining it with Christian themes such as subtly representing Venus as the Virgin
Mary. Ancient thinkers were directly represented in art, perhaps most famously in the School
of Athens fresco in the Vatican by Raphael (1483-1520).

There was, too, an appreciation of the skill of ancient artists, especially sculptors and their
ability to capture reality in bronze or marble. Renaissance artists were keen to capture this
reality themselves, a process going back as early as Giotto (b. 1267 or 1277 - d. 1337) and
culminating with the hyper-realistic portraits by late Renaissance Netherlandish artists. Just
like Renaissance writers, artists wanted not only to emulate the classical tradition but also to
improve upon it. Consequently, the correct use of perspective became an ever-more precise
endeavour for Renaissance artists. Artists were also convinced that their ancient counterparts
had somehow discovered mathematical secrets of proportion, especially related to the human
body.

Artists now gave emphasis to the human experience in their art. Portraits, for example, might
include a classical book next to the sitter to emphasise their humanist tendencies. Even
religious works of the period have a focus on the human figures and their story within the
scene. Just as humanist writers knew full well the powerful effect of their words, so, too,
artists knew the power they had to create a lasting aesthetic impression on the viewer.
Perhaps there is no better example of this wow-factor than Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel
ceiling. Finally, the emphasis on the individual within humanism found expression in the way
artists now viewed themselves - superior artisans who used their intellect to study art and
create masterpieces that would carry their fame for generations to come.