Synchronous

Generator Review

© SEL 2023

Technical literature supporting this section:

• P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw Hill, USA, 1994.
• B. R. Prentice, “Fundamental Concepts of Synchronous Machines Reactances,” AIEE
Transactions, Vol. 56, 1937 (supplement), pp. 1–21.
• Z. A. Yamayee and J. L. Bala, Electromechanical Energy Devices and Power Systems, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA, 1993.
• E. W. Kimbark, Power System Stability. Volume III: Synchronous Machines, IEEE Press,
USA, 1995.
• P. M. Anderson and A. A. Fouad, Power System Control and Stability, Iowa State University
Press, USA, 1974.
• IEEE Std C37.102-2006, IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection.
• IEEE Std C62.92.2-1989, IEEE Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Electric
Utility Systems Part II − Grounding of Synchronous Generator Systems.
• IEEE Power Engineering Society, IEEE Tutorial on the Protection of Synchronous
Generators, IEEE Catalog Number 95 TP 102, 1995.
• IEEE Std 421.1-2007, IEEE Standard Definitions for Excitation Systems for Synchronous
Machines.
• IEEE Std 1547-2003, IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric
Power Systems.
• IEEE Std C50.12-2005, IEEE Standard for Salient-Pole 50 Hz and 60 Hz Synchronous
Generators and Generator/Motors for Hydraulic Turbine Applications Rated 5 MVA and
Above.
• IEEE Std C50.13-2005, IEEE Standard for Cylindrical-Rotor 50 Hz and 60 Hz Synchronous
Generators Rated 10 MVA and Above.
• IEC 60034-3, Rotating Electrical Machines − Part 3: Specific Requirements for Synchronous
Generators Driven by Steam Turbines or Combustion Gas Turbines, 2007.
• D. Reimert, Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems, Taylor & Francis Group,
New York, 2006.

1
Objectives

1 Review the main

characteristics of
synchronous machines
2 Review the models
and parameters of
synchronous generators

3 Describe synchronous
generator behavior
during power swings

Power generating stations represent approximately half of the capital investment in an

electric power system. Generator outages caused by faults, abnormal operating
conditions, or generator protection misoperations are costly. Synchronous generators
may experience more harmful operating conditions than any other power system
element. A complete generator protection system must include a variety of protection
functions to respond to the many possible faults and abnormal operating conditions.

2
Synchronous
generator design

3
Basic principle of an ac generator
Period
Loop Positive
S1 Rotation Alternation

Time
Axis
N2
Slip Rings N1
Negative
Alternation

Second
S2
Tm
• Magnetic field produced by
Brushes Load N1–S1 and N2–S2 is
G constant
• Output current is ac
One
Revolution

The figure illustrates an elementary version of an alternating current (ac) generator.

The conductor is rotated by an external mover, with an input of mechanical torque, Tm.
According to Faraday’s law, the magnetic field, created by the permanent magnets,
induces a voltage in the conductor as the conductor rotates. This voltage will produce a
current in the load connected to the conductor. The power, in watts, delivered by the
machine and consumed by the load, is equal to the mechanical power provided by the
prime mover minus the friction and ohmic losses.

Notice that for this particular machine the field has four poles or two pairs of poles.

4
Field is produced V

by dc current in
t
the rotor windings
AC Current

– V +

Tm

– – +
DC Source

With a few exceptions, large ac generators do not have a static set of permanent magnets
to create the field. Instead, the field is created by conductors that receive an external dc
current, as shown in the figure.

Rotating the windings leads to field variation that induces ac voltages in the other set of
conductors, which remain static.

5
Rotor and
stator

The moving conductors are wound on a solid piece of iron attached to the machine shaft,
called the rotor. The rotor windings are also called field windings. The static conductors are
wound on another solid piece of iron, called the stator. This static set of windings is also
called the armature windings.

The armature windings need more space than the field windings because of higher voltage
and more demanding insulation characteristics. For this reason, the armature is located in the
stator and the field in the rotor. Ideally, the rotor is moved by an external prime mover at a
constant speed, called the synchronous speed.

The moving rotor field induces voltages in the armature three-phase windings, which have
120 degrees of phase shift between windings. If the machine works as a generator, the
generator load will produce currents in the armature windings. These currents are the three-
phase positive-sequence currents of the machine. These currents produce another magnetic
field that also rotates in the same direction and speed as the field produced by the rotor
winding, but with a spatial angular difference, .

This angular difference enables the rotor field to “push” the armature field, as one magnet
will push another without touching it. The ability of the rotor field to push the armature field
depends on the size of the electrical load.

For a large load, the amount of power the prime mover needs to push the armature field is
substantial, and this is reflected in the angular difference between the two fields. For a small
electrical load connected to the stator circuit, the amount of power necessary from the prime
mover will be small, with a small angle . This angle is called the power angle.

In steady state, the rotating magnetic field the armature currents produce is stationary with
respect to the rotor structure and will not affect the field the rotor winding produces.

6
Stator
Circumferential Bus

Core Lamination

Winding (bars)

The stator core is made up of thin sheets of silicon or grain-oriented steel. As an

example, these sheets can be as thin as 0.014 inches (0.355 mm). They are called
coreplates, punchings, or laminates.

Each laminate is coated with a thin layer of organic or inorganic insulating compound.
The purpose of the interlaminar insulation is to force the induced eddy currents to
circulate within the limits of a single lamination, without bridging into adjacent ones.
This results in an increase of resistance to the circulation of eddy currents, reducing their
magnitude, overall eddy current losses, and associated temperature rise.

The stator windings are made of insulated copper conductors. These conductors are
installed in equally spaced slots that are distributed around the inside periphery of the
stator core. On large machines, like the one shown on the slide, the copper conductors
form a bar (Roebell bar). On smaller size machines, the copper conductors are grouped
to form a coil (form wound coil). On low-voltage machines, the copper conductors are
randomly grouped to form a random wound coil. Each stator slot contains two bars,
which are generally referred to as the top and bottom bars. The top bar is the one nearest
to the slot opening, and the bottom bar is the one at the bottom of the slot.

The stator bars, or coils, are mechanically positioned and electrically connected to result
in a three-phase, wye- or delta-connected winding.

7
Rotor

The rotor shown on the slide is for a two-pole synchronous generator.

The winding slots are cut in diametrically opposite pairs along the longitudinal axis of
the rotor body. The slots are equally pitched over two-thirds of the rotor periphery,
leaving the pole faces without winding slots. This results in a difference of stiffness in
the two perpendicular axes and leads to vibration. Crosscuts or additional axial slots are
machined in the pole faces to prevent this problem from occurring. The additional axial
slots are shallower and wider than the regular winding slots. They are filled with steel
blocks to restore the magnetic properties of the rotor.

The rotor winding is made of multiple turns of copper conductors forming a series-
connected winding. All the turns associated with a pair of slots are considered to be part
of the same coil. The coils are concentrically wound into the slots in corresponding
positions on opposite sides of a pole.

When the copper turns exit a slot, they go through a 90-degree bend, are shaped around
the rotor, go through another 90-degree bend, and then enter the appropriate slot located
on the opposite side of the pole. This region is called the end winding. To support the
end winding region against rotational forces, a retaining ring is installed. Retaining rings
are commonly made of stainless steel.

8
Rotor design

Cylindrical rotor Salient-pole rotor

Synchronous machine rotors can be divided into two groups: cylindrical rotors and
salient-pole rotors. Cylindrical rotors are found in machines with high nominal speeds
(1,800–3,600 rpm at 60 Hz), while salient-pole rotors are common in machines with
lower speeds (1,200 rpm and below at 60 Hz). Some specific applications require
salient-pole rotors to operate at 1,800 rpm (four-pole machine at 60 Hz).

9
Damping windings in salient-pole rotor

Damping windings, or amortisseur windings, consist of several conductors that are

typically conductive bars. The purpose of these types of windings is to “damp down” the
angular speed during rotor oscillations with respect to the rated speed.

As shown in the figure, the damping windings in a salient-pole rotor can be connected
from one pole to the other or disconnected.

10
Damping windings in salient-pole rotor

Photo is courtesy of Integrated Power

Services (IPS) and used with permission

Again, as shown in the figure, the damping windings in a salient-pole rotor can be
connected from one pole to the other or disconnected.

11
Damping windings in solid rotor

Because of the way in which they are constructed, machines with cylindrical rotors do
not need damper windings; the metallic rotor serves as a conductor with the necessary
damping effect.

In some cases, however, manufacturers prefer to use dampers to increase the damping
during mechanical oscillations.

12
Schematic of synchronous generator
including prime mover and exciter
Exciter (DC)
From the
Stator
CTs and
VTs
Generator
To the
Control 1 Power
System
To the
Prime Field
Mover

Fuel,
Water,
or Control 2
Steam

A generation unit has four main parts:

• The prime mover (turbine, engine, etc.)
• The generator
• The exciter, which is a small dc generator that produces the necessary dc source to
excite the generator field
• The control

A synchronous generator has two control loops:

• Control 1: The automatic voltage regulator (AVR), used to control the dc current
in the field winding. The AVR responds to the machine terminal ac voltages and
acts on the reactive power output. Sometimes this control is called the Q-V control
loop.
• Control 2: The speed governor control keeps the rotor at the desired speed. The
speed governor control responds to the frequency of the ac voltages and acts on
the active power output. This control is called the P-f control loop.

13
Schematic of synchronous generator with
electronic (static) exciter
From the
Stator
CTs and
Transf.
VTs
Generator
To the
Exciter Power
System
To the
Prime Field
Mover Control 1

Fuel,
Water,
or Control 2
Steam

Exciters now exist that use power electronic components, so that a controlled rectifier
with only static components supplies the dc. Consequently, there is no need for a dc
generator.

Control 1 controls the voltage of the system. This control loop controls VAR output and
terminal voltage. The governor controls the speed to synchronize with the grid
(Control 2). This control loop controls power output and frequency.

14
Synchronous generator
models and parameters

15
The d and
q axes

The synchronous generator has several sets of windings, including the following:
• Primary/secondary
• Field/armature
• Rotor/stator
• Dampers (not shown in the figure)

We commonly study a synchronous machine by “reflecting,” or transforming, all quantities to

the rotor side. We define two axes for the rotor:
• The d, or direct, axis
• The q, or quadrature, axis

With the transformation to the d and q axes, all a-b-c phase currents, voltages, and reactances
become quantities in the d and q axes. These are called Ed, Eq, Id, Iq, Xd, Xq, etc.

The advantage of this transformation is that the inductances in the new reference, or the dq axis,
are constant, rather than time variant.

The transformation used to achieve this is called the dq0 transformation1 and is out of the scope
of this course. However, be aware of the meaning of the subscripts d and q during the course.
For more information on the dq0 transformation, consult the books and technical articles we cite
in this section.

The selection of the q axis as leading the d axis is purely arbitrary. This convention is based on
the IEEE standard definition2 and is widely used.

1 Also known as Park’s Transformation or Blondel’s Transformation

2 IEEE Std 100-1997, IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms
16
Simplified three-phase representation
When the rotor is moving, self- and mutual inductances are not
constant: Laa = Laa(t); Lab = Lab(t), Lac = Lac(t)
+ Vf – Rotor
If (Field Circuit)
Terminals
MOVING
Ia
n Ib

Ic

Stator Circuit
Re
+ + +
Va Vb Vc
– – –
Neutral g
Grounding
Circuit

The diagram is a simplified three-phase representation of the power electrical circuits of

a generator.

The control devices are not represented.

Notice that there is mutual coupling among all the windings of the machine, located at
the stator and the rotor.

The equivalent mutual inductances, Ed La, Lb, Lc, Lab, Lbc, Lca, are not constant. This
change with time results from the motion of the rotor. However, the inductances
reflected to the rotor, Ld and Lq, are constant.

17
Stator and rotor circuits of
synchronous machines
Rotation

ib
B

q eb
ψa
ψb ia
A
Axis of Phase A
ea

ψc
ec
ic
C
Rotor Stator

A, B, C = Stator phase windings

fd = Field winding
kd = d axis amortisseur winding
kq = q axis amortisseur winding
k = 1, 2, . . . n; n = number of amortisseur circuits
θ = angle by which the d axis leads the magnetic axis of the Phase A winding
d a d b d c
ea = − Ra ia ; e b = − Ra ib ; e c = − Ra ic
dt dt dt

ψa = –laaia – labib – lacic + lafdifd + lakdikd + lakqikq

ia, ib, ic = instantaneous stator currents in Phases a, b, c
ifd, ikd, ikq = field and amortisseur circuit currents
laa, lbb, lcc = self-inductances of stator windings
lab, lbc, lca = mutual inductances between stator windings
lafd, lakd, lakq = mutual inductances between stator and rotor windings
lffd, lkkd, lkkq = self-inductances of rotor circuits
These are the basic equations for phase voltages in terms of phase flux linkages and currents.
ea, eb, ec = Instantaneous stator phase-to-neutral voltage
Ra = Armature resistance
ψa, ψb, ψc = Instantaneous value of the flux linkage
t = time

18
dq0 representation

e d = p d − q pq − Ra id
These equations resulted from the application of the dq0
e q = p q +  d pq − Ra iq transformation to the basic equations for the phase voltages
e o = p o − Ra io shown on the previous slide.

ψqpθ and ψdpθ = Speed voltages (due to flux change in space). The speed voltages are
the dominant components of the stator voltage.

pψq and pψd = Transformer voltages (due to flux change in time)

Under steady-state conditions, pψq = pψd = 0, where p = differential operator d/dt.

On this slide, the instantaneous phase-to-neutral voltages ea, eb, and ec are replaced with
equivalent instantaneous voltages on the d and q axes ed and eq, respectively. The
instantaneous phase currents ia, ib, and ic are replaced with equivalent instantaneous
currents on the d and q axes id and iq, respectively. Park’s transformations, also known as
dq0 transformations, are applied to reflect phase quantities into the d and q axes and vice
versa.

19
Ra ωrq Ll Lfld–Lad
Complete +
– +
+
ifd
d and q axes id i1d
L1d
Lfd

equivalent Ed pd Lad

+ Rfd
+

circuits in p1d R1d +

Efd
pfd

per unit – – –
d Axis Equivalent
– –

Ra ωrd Ll
– +
+ +
iq i1q i2q
L2q
L1q
+
Eq pq Laq
+
R2q p2q
p1q R1q

– – – –
q Axis Equivalent

In general, the behavior of the generator impedances can be summarized as follows: in

the steady state, dc currents flow in the stator (dq) and field windings and the damper
currents are zero. The flux linkages between all windings are constant. The impedance
looking into the stator is therefore the series combination of the mutual and leakage
reactances (Ll + Lad) and (Ll + Laq).

Next, we consider the d axis when the generator is subjected to a fault. Neglecting the
damper windings, it is evident from the previous figure that a current is induced in the
field winding due to the fault. As a result, the impedance looking into the d axis becomes
the parallel combination of the mutual and field inductance over a period determined by
the time constant of the field circuit. Most synchronous generators will either have a
damper winding or will have electrical paths through the rotor iron that mimic the effects
of the damper winding. When the damper circuits are considered, the impedance of the d
axis becomes the parallel combination of the three branches of the equivalent shown
above. This is effective over the period determined by the time constant of the damper
winding circuits. The period during which the damper circuit governs the stator
impedance is called the subtransient and lasts for 2 to 4 cycles. Subsequently, the damper
current decays to zero and the impedance is then governed by the field inductance and is
effective for a period on the order of 1 second, known as the transient period.

On the q axis there is no field circuit. However, the overall effects during a fault are
similarly defined by the two q axis damper circuits.

20
Lfd Rfd
Commonly used dq Ra ωrq Ll
L1d
equivalent circuit (pu) R1d Efd

Ed Lad

E1d

R1q
L1q
Ra ωrd Ll
L2q
R2q E1q

Eq Laq

E2q

This model assumes the mutual inductances Lfd and Lad to be equal. It will be used to
develop the expressions for the operational parameters seen on the next slide.

E1q = E2q = E1d = 0

21
Expressions for standard parameters of
synchronous machines
Lad • L fd • L1d
Ld = Ll +
Lad • L fd + Lad • L1d + L fd • L1d
Lad • L fd 1  L fd • ( Lad + L pl )  Ld
Ld = Ll + Td = •  L1d +  •
Lad + L fd R1d  L + L + L pl  Ld
 ad fd

L
• ( Lad + L fd + L pl ) • d
1
Ld = Ll + Lad Td =
R fd Ld

These d axis expressions are based on the model shown on the previous slide. Also note
that similar equations can be developed for the q axis.

22
Main characteristics of
synchronous generators
Electrical Mechanical
▪ Capacity (power), voltage, and ▪ General construction
frequency ▪ Inertia
▪ Impedances – positive, ▪ Cooling
negative, and zero sequence

The next slides describe the different standard characteristics of synchronous generators.
These characteristics, or parameters, can be classified into two groups: electrical and
mechanical.

23
The synchronous generator in steady state

The three-phase equivalent circuit previously shown can be simplified to the single-
phase per-unit circuit shown in the figure.

These circuits are valid for steady state or for a condition with constant rotor speed,
sinusoidal voltages, and currents in the armature.

The circuit shown in the upper part of the slide is used more for salient-pole machines,
while the circuit shown in the lower part is valid for round rotor machines.

The reactance in series with the ideal voltage source is sometimes called the synchronous
reactance, and the symbol Xg is used.

In both cases, the magnitude of the ideal voltage source (EI or E) “behind” the reactance
is proportional to the dc field current (If):

E = k ⦁ If

We will see later, however, that this does not hold true for large values of If.

24
Electrical
power
output

Using the equivalent circuit shown on the previous page, now consider steady-state
operation disregarding the armature resistance.

The complex power can be calculated as shown in the figure.

Notice that angle , the angle that internal voltage (E) leads the terminal voltage (V) of
the machine, is related directly to the active power output.

Also notice the direct influence of the machine voltage on the reactive power output. We
will see later that  is related to the mechanical input power. Angle  is also known as
the power angle, or torque angle.

Angle  is the traditional power factor angle, where P = S cos .

25
Tm
Electrical
active power
P
Pmax
E •V
P= sin 
Xg

Pm

Power

0  /2  − 0 

For constant magnitudes of E and V, the active power output of the machine can be
plotted as a function of the torque angle, .

As shown in the figure, for a given steady-state condition disregarding losses, the
mechanical power, Pm, is equal to the electrical power output. This sets the torque angle
around a value 0.

The diagram shows two possible values for . The value  - 0 is called the “unstable
equilibrium point angle” and, in practice, the machine cannot operate at that equilibrium.

Also note that the maximum power that can be delivered by the machine is given by

Pmax = E V / Xg

Otherwise, the system will reach an unstable condition for  >  / 2.

26
Example 1
Round Rotor Generator
13.8 kV
68.9 MVA, PF = 0.9
Xg = 1.974 pu Equivalent to
the System

Prime
Mover P + jQ

Assume the generator is delivering its rated power at its rated terminal voltage and 0.9
power factor.

What are the values of the active and reactive powers?

P = 62.01 MW
Q = 30.03 MVAR

What is the current magnitude in each phase of the generator?

I = 2,882.57 A

Using the terminal voltage of the machine as the reference, what are the magnitude and
angle of the internal voltage shown in the equivalent circuit?
E = 20.543.7° kV (phase to neutral)
|E| = 2.572 pu

What is the maximum active power that the generator can deliver, with 1 pu voltage at
the machine terminals? What is the value of d for this condition?
Pmax = 89.9 MW,  = 90°

27
Complex Prime
System
Equivalent Q
Mover Generator
power Overexcitation

P0
Normal Operation

P0
plane P
Q0 Q0

P
System P0 P0
Generator Transformer Q0 Q0
Equivalent
E / Zg ZT Zs

+
I/ − Es 
V /0 / Underexcitation
– Motor Generator

E /

Generator s output complex power in per unit:


S = V • I * = P + jQ = S / = VI cos  + jVI sin 
V /0

I/ −

It is customary to use the simple model of a round rotor machine to analyze a

synchronous generator in steady state. The figures show the convention commonly used
for the current, voltage, and power quantities.

The complex power the generator delivers can be represented in a PQ plane, as shown
on the slide.

Whenever the active power (P) is positive, the machine works as a generator. Otherwise,
it will work as a motor. When the reactive power is positive, the machine is overexcited
and delivers reactive power. If the machine consumes reactive power, Q is negative, and
the machine is underexcited.

We use this terminology because Q is positive for large field currents and negative for
small field currents.

Normal generator operation is in the first quadrant (power factor lagging).

28
Generator capability curve 200
Lagging PF

150
▪ I2R rotor heating 1
100 0.90
▪ I2R stator heating

Q (MVAR)
50
▪ End-core heating for a 2
cylindrical-rotor or stability for 0
50 100 150
a salient-pole generator
-50
0.95
-100 3

Leading PF
-150
P(MW)

Synchronous generators are rated in terms of the maximum MVA output that they can carry
continuously without overheating, at a specified voltage and power factor. As with any electrical
equipment, a synchronous generator has operation limits. If the machine operates outside these
limits, it will sustain damage or lose useful life. Traditionally, the steady-state limits of the machine
are represented in the complex power plane. These curves are called capability curves (GCCs) or
reactive power limiting curves.

The GCC defines the generator operating limits in the PQ plane, as shown in the figure. The
following factors determine the GCC:

The current rating (thermal limit) of the field winding imposes the limit on the generator reactive
power export capability (GCC overexcited region, Segment 1 in the figure).
The current rating (thermal limit) of the stator winding imposes the limit on the generator active
power output at near unity power factor (Segment 2 in the figure).

The generator type determines the GCC underexcited region limit (Segment 3 in the figure):
• Stator end-core heating limit (SECHL) limits the reactive power import of most cylindrical-
rotor generators.
• The current rating (thermal limit) of the stator winding limits the underexcited region of
salient-pole generators. Salient-pole generators with direct-axis synchronous reactance, Xd,
less than 1.0 pu only have two limits (Segments 1 and 2 shown in the figure). However, the
steady-state stability limit (SSSL) is generally more restrictive than the stator winding thermal
limit of the generator and therefore typically defines the generator underexcitation limit.

Manufacturers typically supply the capability curves plotted considering the generator is connected
to an infinite bus (voltage and frequency are constant). Because the limits depend on the type of
cooling in use, as well as the ambient temperature, the manufacturer normally supplies all the data
considering these factors.

29
GCCs for Q
1
cylindrical-rotor and 0.9 Lagging PF

salient-pole-rotor
generators 2

3 Gas Turbo-Generator
(Cylindrical Rotor)
3 Steam Turbo-Generator
(Cylindrical Rotor)

0.9 Leading PF

3 Hydro Generator
(Salient-Pole Rotor)

As mentioned before, the generator type determines the GCC underexcited region limit.
The figure shows the typical GCCs for cylindrical-rotor and salient-pole-rotor
generators.

Cylindrical-Rotor Generators
SECHL limits the reactive power import of most cylindrical-rotor generators. This limit
is more restrictive in gas turbogenerators than in steam turbogenerators.

Salient-Pole Generators
Salient-pole generators with direct-axis synchronous reactance, Xd, less than 1.0 pu only
have two limits: a) the current rating (thermal limit) of the field winding (GCC
overexcited region, Segment 1 in the figure); b) the current rating (thermal limit) of the
stator winding (Segment 2 in the figure).

However, the steady-state stability limit (SSSL) (not shown in the figure) is generally
more restrictive than the stator winding thermal limit of the generator, and therefore,
typically defines the generator underexcitation limit.

30
200
Effect of coolant H2 Pressure
Lagging
Power

pressure on GCC 150 206 kPa

1 0.60
Factor

0.80
103 kPa 0.85
100 35 kPa 0.90

0.95
50

Q (MVAR)
2

0
50 100 150 200

–50
0.95
0.90
–100 0.80 0.85 Leading
3 0.60
Power
Factor
–150
P(MW)

Synchronous generators can have multiple ratings depending on their cooling, such as
coolant temperature (e.g., ambient air) or coolant pressure (e.g., hydrogen). Generator
manufacturers specify the GCC based on coolant temperature or pressure typically above
and below the generator-rated temperature or pressure, as shown in the figure. The
higher the coolant pressure, the greater the operating range of the generator and vice
versa.

31
Steady-state stability
limit (SSSL)
▪ SSSL is: EI • ER sin δ
Pe =
Xd + XS
– Valid when the automatic
voltage regulator (AVR) is in P Pe
manual mode EI0

– Not valid during transients due EI1

to changes in Xd Pm
EI2
▪ Loss of SSSL rarely occurs
with modern AVRs
0 1 2 = 90° 

Another limit to the power delivered by the generating unit is system stability. Power systems
normally operate close to the nominal frequency. All synchronous machines connected to the
power system operate at the same average speed. The generator speed governors maintain the
machine speed close to its nominal value. There is a balance between generated and consumed
active power under normal power system operating conditions.

Random changes in load and system configuration constantly take place and impose small
disturbances to the power system. The property of a power system to keep the normal operating
condition under these small slow changes of system loading is what we call steady-state
stability or system stability for small perturbations.

For a two-machine power system, the active-power transfer Pe is given by:

EI • ER sin δ
Pe =
Xd + XS
where:
The system power angle δ is the angle between the internal generator voltage EI and the
receiving-end voltage ER
Xd is the generator direct-axis reactance
XS is the power system reactance

The figure depicts three power-angle curves for different values of the internal generator
voltage EI (EI0 > EI1 > EI2). The dashed horizontal line represents the mechanical power Pm
provided by the prime mover to the generator. This ideal lossless system operates at the point
where the mechanical power input to the generator equals the electrical power delivered to the
system (Pm = Pe). Hence, the value of angle δ corresponds to the intersection of the Pm straight
line with the power angle curve.
32
We may increase the load in small steps (Pm increases) until we reach the tip of the
power curve. The system remains stable until the power angle δ = 90°. Beyond the curve
maximum (δ > 90°) a load increase causes a decrease in the transfer power and the
system loses synchronism. The value of Pe for δ = 90° represents the SSSL for this ideal
lossless system. This is the maximum power that the electrical system can transfer.

The power system may also lose synchronism for a fixed value of mechanical power if
the generator internal voltage EI is reduced. This loss-of-synchronism could occur if the
operator reduces generator excitation to absorb reactive power from the system. The
figure shows the effect of reducing the internal voltage from an initial value EI0 to a
lower value EI2: the power angle increases from δ0 to 90°, and the system reaches the
SSSL. Any further decrease of the internal voltage makes the system unstable.

The previous analysis is valid for the case when the AVR is in manual mode. In this
case, the generator excitation remains fixed for each power angle curve in the figure.

Under automatic operation, the AVR rapidly varies the field current in response to
system operating conditions. This changes the maximum value of the power angle curve
upwards or downwards as required by the system. This dynamic response improves the
SSSL as compared to that resulting from manual regulator operation. The effect of AVR
on SSSL depends on the voltage regulator gain, the regulator time constant, and the field
time constant.

33
Generator 50 Rotor-Winding
operation may 40
Thermal Limit

be limited by 30
Stator-
Winding
end-core heating 20 Limit

MVAR
or SSSL 10
31.8°
0 (Pfnominal = 0.85)
– Stator-End Iron Limit
– Steady-State
– Stability Limit

– 0 20 40 60 80
MW

The generator operation in the GCC underexcited region may be limited by end-core
heating or the SSSL.

Cylindrical-Rotor Generators
In strong power systems, the operation of a cylindrical-rotor generator in the
underexcited region is typically limited by the end-core heating, as shown in the figure.

In weak power systems, the SSSL curve may fall inside the GCC and becomes the
limiting factor.

Salient-Pole Generators
For these generators, the SSSL curve typically falls inside the GCC, which in the
underexcited region is defined by the current rating (thermal limit) of the stator winding.
In this case, the SSSL is the limiting factor for the generator operation in the
underexcited region.

As mentioned before, manufacturers typically supply the capability curves for their
generators. The steady state stability limit is not part of the manufacturer issued
capability curve.

34
Underexcitation limiter 200
H2 Pressure (kPA) Lagging PF
150
▪ UEL acts to increase VT set point to 206
103
prevent generator underexcitation 100 35 0.90

▪ UEL should coordinate with SSSL

Q (MVAR)
50
and end-core heating
0
50 100 150
▪ UEL can change based on:
–50 UEL
– VTK, where K = 0, 1, or 2 0.95
–100
– Coolant pressure/temperature
Leading PF
–150
P(MW)

Underexcitation Limiter
The automatic voltage regulator (AVR) systems of modern machines come with a special
protection function that prevents the operation of the machine at low values of excitation
current. This underexcitation limiter (UEL) varies among different manufacturers and
generators.

UELs were introduced in the late 1940s when power system stability became a major concern.
UELs were intended to prevent generator operation beyond the SSSL or SECHL. Therefore, the
UEL characteristic should be set according to the SSSL or SECHL, whichever is more
restrictive. The impact of VT on the UEL setting depends on the AVR manufacturer. Some
UEL characteristics are not affected by changes in VT, while others are a function of VT.

If SECHL is the most restrictive curve, the UEL characteristic may be set to follow this
characteristic with minimal margin (e.g., 5 percent to 10 percent of rated MVA). A brief
excursion beyond the limit may be allowable. In the unlikely event that the calculated SSSL is
used as the basis for the UEL setting, margin may not be necessary because of the conservative
method used for calculating this limit.

AVR Redundancy
As discussed previously, the excitation system typically has two operating modes: automatic
and manual. A failure of the AVR or one of its inputs (a VT fuse failure, for example) usually
causes the excitation system to failover from automatic to manual mode. Under automatic
operation, the SSSL does not apply but, because of the possibility of failover, it has been typical
to coordinate the UEL characteristic with the SSSL characteristic. This coordination restricts
generator underexcited operation even in automatic mode. Redundant AVRs have been
implemented recently on some generators. Because of the low probability of both AVRs failing,
the SSSL may rarely be the operative limit.
35
UEL should 150
coordinate
100
with SSSL and
end-core heating 50
UEL

MVAR
0
Stator-End
Heating Limit
–

SSSL
–
– 0 50 100 150 200 250
MW

As mentioned before, the UEL characteristic should be set according to the SSSL or
SECHL (whichever is more restrictive).

36
Synchronous generator impedances

▪ Positive-sequence impedances
– d axis reactances
– q axis reactances
– Time constants
▪ Negative-sequence impedance
▪ Zero-sequence impedance

37
Short circuit on terminals of
synchronous generator

Transient current has more than one time constant

and more than one frequency

When a short circuit takes place on the terminals of a synchronous generator, the current
wave shape is not the same as for a simple generator with only simple RL elements.

The synchronous generator is a very complex machine whose transient behavior during a
short circuit requires the solution of more than ten differential equations. The generator
short-circuit current has several time constants and dc offset, and also some double-
frequency components.

38
Stator fault
current
with offset

This figure shows the typical generator stator phase currents during a fault. The currents
contain dc offset components of different polarities because the fault inception represents
different point‐on‐wave instants for the three phases.

39
Stator symmetrical fault current

This figure shows the result of extracting the symmetrical component from the A-phase
stator current shown on the previous slide. The symmetrical current is not perfectly
sinusoidal: it contains a time‐varying envelope that reflects the fact that the generator
impedance varies during the fault. The impedance variation from an initial minimum
value to a steady-state high value is a continuous process.

To simplify the analysis, we typically make a step-wise approximation of the process,

which results in three transient components, as shown in the equation above:
• Subtransient component: The time constant is Td″ and it lasts around two cycles
• Transient component: The time constant is Td′ and it lasts around 10 to 20 cycles
• Steady-state component

40
Short-circuit i(t ) = 2 • ( I d − I d ) • e−t /Td + ( I d − I d ) • e−t /Td + I d 
current
envelope

We achieve the step-wise approximation by studying the envelope of the symmetrical ac

fault current. This figure shows how it is possible to determine the different components
of the envelope by inspection of the measured current.

41
Definitions
Symmetrical three-phase short-circuit current
without dc offset

i (t ) = 2 • ( I d − I d ) • e −t /Td + ( I d − I d ) • e −t /Td + I d  • sin (t +  )

E E E
I d = ; I d = ; Id =
X d X d Xd
 1 1  −t /Td  1 1  −t /Td 1 
i (t ) = 2 • E •  −  • e +   − •e +  • sin (t +  )
 X d X d   Xd Xd  Xd 

The transient reactances of the direct axis of the machine are related to the different
terms of the envelope, according to the formulas shown on the slide.

42
Equivalent
circuits

These are the equivalent circuits for the three states and the formulas commonly used to
determine the direct axis reactances of the machine.

If we apply the short circuit with the machine previously running at no load (I = 0), this
implies E″ = E′ = E = induced voltage at the machine terminals before application of the
short circuit.

43
Synchronous generator reactances (pu)

Hydro Generators Turbo Generators

X d 0.15–0.35 0.12–0.25
Td0 0.01–0.05 s 0.02–0.05 s
X d 0.2–0.5 0.15–0.4
Td0 1.5–9.0 s 3.0–10.0 s
Xd 0.6–1.5 1–2.3

The table shows ranges of values of the reactances for round rotor and salient-pole
generators.

44
Example 2 8,000

Short circuit at 6,000

terminals of 4,000
69 MVA, 13.8 kV

iac (Amperes)
2,000
generator
0

–
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time in seconds (0.5 seconds/division)

The figure shows the ac symmetrical current (dc removed) measured for a three-phase
short circuit at the terminals of a round rotor, 13.8 kV, 69 MVA synchronous generator.
A short circuit was applied with the machine running at no load and a field current so
that the terminal voltage was 4,600 V line to line.

Question: What is the value of E in this example?

Answer: E = 4,600 V / √3 = 2,655.8 V

45
Example 2
Envelope 8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
iac (Amperes) 4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
2I d = 689.4 A
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (Seconds)

The graph shows the envelope of the current.

Question: What is the approximate per-unit value of the steady-state reactance Xd?

Answer:
E ( pu )
X d ( pu ) =
I d ( pu )
2,655.8 V
E ( pu ) = = 0.3333 pu
(13,800 / 3) V
Sbase = 69 MVA
Vbase = 13.8 kV
69 MVA
I base = = 2,886.75 A
3 •13.8 kV
689.4
I d ( pu ) = = 0.1689
2 • 2,886.75
0.3333
X d ( pu ) = = 1.9733 pu
0.1689

46
Physical interpretation of reactances
Two-pole synchronous generator scheme

As mentioned earlier, we can study a synchronous machine by reflecting, or

transforming, all the stator quantities into the rotor axes (d and q). This allows analysis
of a synchronous machine without the help of computers, because the reactances are
approximately constant, as seen in the d and q axes. This is not true for the a-b-c self-
and mutual reactances.

The figure presents the typical textbook axial scheme of a two-pole, salient-pole
machine. The magnetic axes of the stator phase windings are shown. The d and q axes
are moving, but they are fixed with respect to the rotor.

In steady state, the rotor moves at synchronous speed, which is 3,600 rpm in a two-pole
machine.

47
Mechanical visualization of machine axes

© IEEE 1998 used with permission

The figure is a three-dimensional representation of the familiar simplified scheme of the

two-pole machine. It serves to show the relative position of the rotor axes with respect to
the stator winding axes.

We see also how the circular coordinates can be avoided by using equivalent
longitudinal coordinates.

The image on this slide is used with permission from IEEE and is from the following
technical paper:
L. Yingli, Z. Jianhua, C. Xiqiang, L. Xiaofang, M. Bo, L. Lianguang, Q. Henan,
“Visualization and Interactive Experiment of Some Electromagnetic Problems
Considering Cognitive Features of Chinese Students,” proceeding of the 28th Annual
Frontiers in Education Conference, Tempe, AZ, November 1998.

48
Reactances Xd″ and Xq″
(a) (b)
Stator mmf Wave

Direct

Quad
Axis

Axis
(Changing)
Flux Flux

Damper
Winding

Xd Xq

The subtransient reactances Xd″ and Xq″ are important in short-circuit studies during the
first two cycles after the initial disturbance.

Again, suppose that the synchronous machine is rotated at synchronous speed with a
short-circuited field circuit, and this time a positive-sequence source is applied to the
armature windings. Consider now the effect of the damper windings (shown in the
figures), because their effect is important during the first two cycles. Two scenarios are
given:
• The d axis coincides with the mmf maximum. The resulting inductance presented
during the first two cycles (t < 2 cycles) is Ld″ = Xd″ / ω.
• The q axis coincides with the mmf maximum. The resulting inductance presented
during the first two cycles (t > 2 cycles) is Lq″ = Xq″ / ω.

As seen in both figures, the flux follows paths through the air and the iron, and the effect
of the dampers is such that the reluctance of the flux path for the d axis test is smaller.
Therefore Xq″ > Xd″. However, it is evident that Xd >> Xd′ > Xd″.

Note: The reactances associated with the rotor q axis are used in steady state only for
salient-pole machines. However, in transient studies, they are also considered for round
rotor machines. The output power of a salient-pole rotor synchronous generator has a
different expression than the formula used for the round rotor machine. As a general
rule, for round rotor machines, the following is true: Xd ~ Xq >> Xq′ ~ Xd′ > XXq″ ~ Xd″.
The following applies to salient-pole machines: Xq = Xq′ > Xq″ > Xd″.

49
Reactances Xd′ and Xq′
(a) (b)
Stator mmf Wave

Direct

Quad
Axis

Axis
(Changing)
Flux Flux
Stator
Winding

Short-
Circuited
Field Winding

Xd Xq

The transient reactances, Xd′ and Xq′, are important in stability studies and short-circuit
studies several cycles after the initial disturbance.

Suppose that the synchronous machine is operated at synchronous speed with a short-
circuited field circuit when a positive-sequence source is applied suddenly to the
armature windings. It is possible to disregard the effect of the damper windings, because
their effect is noticed during the first two cycles.

Two scenarios are presented:

• The d axis coincides with the mmf maximum. The resulting inductance presented
during the first several cycles (t > 2 cycles) is Ld′ = Xd′ / ω.
• The q axis coincides with the mmf maximum. The resulting inductance presented
during the first several cycles (t > 2 cycles) is Lq′ = Xq′ / ω.

As seen in both figures, the flux follows paths through the air and the iron. Therefore, Xd′
and Xq′ have similar magnitudes even for salient-pole machines. However, it is evident
that Xd >> Xd′.

50
Reactances Xd and Xq
(a) (b)
Stator mmf Wave

Direct

Quad
Axis

Axis
(Steady State)
Flux Flux
Stator
Winding

Xd Xq

The figure shows the magnetic flux paths one would obtain from measuring the positive-
sequence reactance of the machine in steady-state conditions. Typically, you would
apply a positive-sequence source to the equipment, and the relationship between the
phase voltages and currents would produce a desirable result.

When a synchronous generator is operating at synchronous speed with its field circuit
open (windings not shown) and with a three-phase set of positive-sequence currents
applied to the armature windings, the currents produce a magnetic field. The resulting
magnetomotive force (mmf) will excite the magnetic circuit. The figure shows the
magnetic flux path associated with the armature winding magnetic field and the
fundamental sine wave that represents the magnetomotive force (mmf) produced by the
same stator currents.

The figure shows the magnetic flux path for two operating conditions:
• The rotor is positioned so that its direct axis coincides with the maximum value of
the mmf. In this case, the reluctance is at a minimum, because the flux path is
mainly through the iron core of the rotor. Therefore, the flux is at a maximum. The
inductance measured in the stator will be:

Ya (t) / ia (t) = Yb (t) / ib (t) = Yc (t) / ic (t) = constant = Ld = Xd / ω

This provides the necessary d axis steady-state reactance.

51
• The rotor is positioned so that its quadrature axis coincides with the maximum
value of the mmf. In this case, the reluctance is at a maximum because only a part
of the flux path goes through the rotor iron core. Therefore, the flux is at a
minimum. The inductance measured in the stator will be as follows:

Ya (t) / ia (t) = Yb (t) / ib (t) = Yc (t) / ic (t) = constant = Lq = Xq / ω

This provides the necessary q axis steady-state reactance.

In general, Xd > Xq, because the inductance is inverse to the reluctance. For round rotor
machines, Xd ~ Xq, because there is not much difference in the reluctance of the flux
paths for different rotor positions.

52
Negative- and zero-sequence reactances

X d + X q
X2 =
2

X 0 = X SELF , AVG − 2 X MUTUAL, AVG

The negative-sequence reactance is calculated as the average between the subtransient

direct-axis reactance Xd″, and the subtransient quadrature axis reactance Xq″.

Because the inductance of the armature winding is permanently changing, the average is
used to calculate the zero-sequence reactance. The zero-sequence reactance is calculated
with the formula shown on the slide, where
XSELF,AVG =  Lsa
XMUTUAL,AVG =  Lma
Lsa = average self-inductance of the armature winding in henrys per phase
Lma= average mutual inductance of the armature winding in henrys per phase

53
Machine 1.4 2.8

saturation 1.2 2.4

and reactance

Short-Circuit Current (pu)

No-Load Saturation

No-Load Voltage (pu)

1 2
Voltage Curve, Vs

0.8 1.6

0.6 1.2

0.4 0.8

0.2 0.4

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Field Current, If (pu)

The nonlinear characteristic of the stator and rotor iron has an important effect on synchronous
generator behavior. This effect can be considered in detailed simulations that use complex
models of the iron or saturation curves such as those shown in the graph. These curves are
obtained from tests and measurements on the generator. Three curves are of interest:
• The no-load saturation voltage curve, which gives the induced voltage at the machine
terminal at no-load conditions for different values of the excitation current. The induced
voltage is proportional to the field current up to some value. After that value, the
nonlinear characteristic of the iron becomes evident. For relatively large values of
excitation current, the machine reactance, Xd, is different than that for relatively low
values of field current.
• The no-load air-gap line. This is the same curve as described previously, but this curve
disregards the iron saturation effect. The curve looks like a straight line, because, unlike
the iron, the air-gap reluctance is constant. The relationship can be written as Eag = k • If.
• The short-circuit saturation curve. We obtain this curve by taking measurements of the
steady-state, Id, short-circuit current in the machine stator windings for different values of
field current. This curve can also be approximated with a straight line that can be written
as ISC = k′ • If.

The three curves are used to determine the saturated and unsaturated reactances of the machine.
The unsaturated machine direct-axis steady-state reactance, Xdu, is obtained from the air-gap
curve as Xdu = Eag / ISC where (ISC, Eag) is any point of the Eag vs. ISC straight line.

Notice that Xdu = Eag / ISC = k / k′.

The saturated machine direct-axis steady-state reactance is obtained as Xds = Vsn / ISC =
Vsn / (k′ • If.), where Vsn is the rated phase-to-neutral voltage of the machine obtained from the
saturation curve. The next slide illustrates this reactance with a numerical example.
54
Real-world example
OC and SC curves for
a 520 MVA/18 kV 20 40
generator Nominal Voltage

Armature Voltage in kV

Armature Current in kA
(18 kV)
15 30

Nominal
10 Current 20
(16.68 kA)

IFSI = 1,820 A
IFG = 1,920 A
Xd = IFSI / IFG
5 = 0.938 10

0 0
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Excitation Current in DC Amperes

The direct-axis synchronous impedance can be derived from the results of the open-
circuit saturation test and the short-circuit saturation test. The synchronous impedance in
per unit is equal to the ratio of the field current at the base armature current, from the
short-circuit test to the field current at the base voltage on the air-gap line.

In terms of the quantities identified, synchronous impedance can be calculated using the
following equation:
I FSI
Zd = = X d per unit
I FG

where
Zd = Synchronous impedance
Xd = Synchronous reactance
IFSI = Field current corresponding to base armature current on the short-circuit
saturation curve
IFSG = Field current corresponding to base voltage on the air-gap line

55
Field Current Terminal Voltage Field Current Armature Current
(A dc) (kV) (A dc) (kA)
0 0.196 2213 20.9
20 0.226 1952 17.98
149 1.768 1711 15.95
327 3.53 1480 13.92
522 5.278 1264 12.02
725 7.037 1013 9.8
925 8.792 802 7.9
1123 10.58 590 5.98
1337 12.308 351 3.82
1560 14.081 118 1.62
1806 15.842 57 1.02
1948 16.831 0 0.173
2154 17.993
2155 18.014
2293 18.709
2447 19.406
2689 20.34
2979 21.251
3110 21.601

56
Electromechanical transients

57
Active power transfer

In a lossless system, active power transfer depends on the voltage magnitudes, the series
reactance, and the angle between the voltages, or the power angle . The direction of
active power depends on the sign of : power flows from the line end that has the
leading voltage to the line end that has the lagging voltage.

To increase the power transfer capability of the power system, you can raise the system
voltage level, reduce the series reactance, or apply a combination of both. The reactance
can be reduced by adding interconnecting lines or connecting series capacitors in
transmission lines.

58
Active power transfer depends on power angle

Power systems normally operate close to the nominal frequency. All synchronous
machines connected to the power system operate at the same average speed. The
generator governor maintains the machine speed close to its nominal value. There is a
balance between generated and consumed active power under normal power system
operating conditions.

Random changes in load and system configuration constantly take place and impose
small disturbances to the power system. The ability of a power system to maintain
normal operating conditions during these small, slow changes of system loading is called
steady-state stability or system stability for small perturbations.

The figure depicts the power-angle curve. The transfer power P is a sine function of the
power angle . We operate the system at a given angle 0, corresponding to a transfer
power P0.

The load can be increased in small steps until the tip of the power curve is reached. An
increase of the transfer power P follows each increase in the load demand power P0.
Beyond the curve maximum ( > 90°), a load increase causes a decrease in the transfer
power and the system loses synchronism. PMAX represents the steady-state stability limit
for an ideal lossless system. This is the maximum power that the power system can
transfer.

59
Simplified dynamics of synchronous
generator steady-state operation
Power System
Prime Equivalent
Mover Tm

P
d m
J =  Torques = Tm − Te − T f  0 Equilibrium
dt

Law of Torques
The dynamics of a generation unit connected to a power system respond to the law of
torques.

The inertia multiplied by the angular acceleration must equal the algebraic sum of all
torques. The acceleration is the variation of the angular, or mechanical, speed, ωm, with
respect to time. The mechanical torque delivered in the prime mover, Tm, is transformed
into electrical energy, with an equivalent electrical torque, Te, and friction losses.

During perfect equilibrium, this sum must be zero. This means that the speed of the
machine is constant.

60
Simplified dynamics of synchronous
generator disturbance
Power System
Prime Equivalent
Mover Tm Disturbance

d m
J =  Torques = Tm − Te − T f  0 Equilibrium Lost
dt

Any disturbance in the power system will take the system out of equilibrium, producing
a change (oscillation, or swing) in angular speed. For light disturbances, the machine
controls will return the machine to equilibrium, and the system is said to be stable. For a
severe disturbance, such as a fault, the controls likely will be unable to return the
machine to an acceptable equilibrium, and machine speed will reach a point where the
machine sustains damage.

To preserve system stability after a severe line fault, it is necessary that the automatic
protection system quickly change the topology of the power system network, taking the
faulted line out of service. With this new condition (topology), the controls can return
the system to equilibrium.

In a multimachine system, the situation is similar to that described for the single machine
system, except that there will be several machines oscillating during system
disturbances.

The mechanical angular speed is commonly measured with respect to a synchronously

moving reference, which is a rotating reference whose speed equals the rated
synchronous speed of the generator.

Then, instead of wm, a speed wr is used, defined as ωr = ωm – ωs.

Note that ws is a constant equal to the rated speed of the machine (for example,
3,600 rpm). Therefore, dωr / dt = dωm / dt .

The mechanical rotor angle, qm, is the integral of ωm, as shown on the next slide.

61
Stable and unstable swings
Angular speed vs. time

The figure shows the approximate behavior of the machine speed for two situations.

The stable situation corresponds to the situation for which the fault, a severe disturbance,
is cleared quickly by the protection system. The angular speed returns to the rated value,
thanks to the change in topology produced by the protection system and thanks to the
action of the machine controls.

The unstable situation occurs when the protection system does not operate with the
required speed. A relatively long clearing time can lead to an unstable situation because
the control system will not be able to recover if the machines accelerate beyond a given
point.

The angular speed does not commonly appear in electrical calculations that use phasors.
Therefore, it is more convenient to use the electrical torque angle. This angle, with some
simplification, equals the angle by which the induced voltage of the generator leads the
synchronously rotating reference, such as the equivalent voltage used to represent the
power system.

62
Rotor angle

Assume there is a reference rotating at the synchronous speed ωs, as indicated by the figure.
The relative mechanical speed of the rotor with respect to this reference can be expressed as:
ωr = ωm – ωs or ωm = ωs + ωr (1)

This can be written as:

dqm / dt = ωs + dm / dt (2)

In this last equation, m is known as the mechanical torque angle and, by definition,
dm / dt = ωr (3)

As the rotor moves, the angular position of a given point on the rotor changes permanently
according to:
qm = ωs t + m +  (4)

Equation 4 is obtained by direct integration of Equation 2. The angle  is an arbitrary

integration constant used to denote the initial position of the rotor.

The mechanical speed of the rotor and the electrical frequency of the induced voltages in the
machine stator windings are proportional. The proportionality depends on the number of
machine poles, p, as follows:
ω = 2  60 = (p / 2) ωm; therefore: dω / dt = (2 / p) dωm / dt = (2 / p) d2qm / dt2 =
(2 / p) d2m / dt2

If the electrical torque angle  is defined as:

d / dt = ω, then dωm / dt = (2 / p) dω / dt = (2 / p) d2 / dt2

This allows you to write the torque equation in terms of the electrical torque angle.
63
Swing equation in terms of torque angle

d m
J =  Torques = Tm − Te − T f
dt

P = T

d 2
M 2 =  Powers = Pm − Pe − Pf (per unit)
dt

We obtain the torque equation in terms of the electrical torque angle and the powers in
per unit (instead of torques in N-m) by manipulating the original dynamic equation.

Now, electrical disturbances in the system networks are reflected in the electrical power
Pe which makes the machine leave equilibrium.

NOTE 1: This development can be found in power system textbooks. See additional
references listed at the end of this manual.

NOTE 2: The simplifications and assumptions we make in this section correspond to

common simplifications for explaining the fundamentals of power system stability. In
most practical cases, a more rigorous treatment is required, and more complete models
must be used.

NOTE 3: M = angular momentum

64
Inertia constant

2H  s2 
M=
sync  rad 

kinetic energy  Joule 

H=  MVA 
MVAbase

(1/ 2) J sync
2
s MW 
H=  MVA 
Sbase

There are several symbols and definitions for the inertia constant.

The most common definition is the inertia constant H (units in seconds or seconds ⦁
MW/MVA).

H is defined as the kinetic energy at synchronous speed divided by the base power,
MVAbase.

This parameter has a normal value that ranges from 2 to 10 s for the group turbine-
generator, depending on the type of generation unit.

65
Stable and unstable power swings

The figure shows the angular behavior of stable and unstable power systems. In a stable
system,  oscillates in a damped mode around a final value. The system reaches a new
steady-state operation point.

In an unstable system,  grows monotonically, and the machines lose synchronism.

Unstable operation is undesirable, as it creates high currents and power flows, as well as
unusual voltages. Unstable operation also causes severe generator torque oscillations.
Voltage fluctuations may also affect the power station auxiliaries, which may need to be
tripped.

Unstable system oscillations need to be detected and the appropriate tripping decisions
need to be made in order to divide the system into electrical islands.

66
Steady-state
1
normal operation

67
Stable swing
2

68
Unstable swing
3

69
Oscillations for an out-of-step condition

The figure shows voltage and current waveforms for an out-of-step system condition that
evolves to a three-phase fault at Cycle 30.

Notice the oscillations in the system voltage and current during this out-of-step condition
and that the voltage is at its minimum level when the current is at its maximum level.
The measurements are taken at a point away from the system electrical center. For this
reason, the voltage does not fall to zero when  = 180°.

70
Two-area power system

▪ Pre-fault state
▪ Fault state
▪ Fault state with
Breaker 1 open
▪ Post-fault state

Power system faults, line switching, generator disconnection, and the loss and
application of large blocks of load result in sudden changes of the electrical power,
whereas the mechanical power input to the generators remains relatively constant.

These major system disturbances cause severe oscillations in machine rotor angles and
severe swings in power flows. Transient stability (or stability for large perturbations) is
the ability of a power system to return to synchronous operation following a large
disturbance, such as a fault. A transiently unstable system will lose synchronism as a
result of the disturbance, with groups of machines accelerating or decelerating away
from the synchronous speed.

The simplified two-machine power system shown presents the basic concepts of
transient stability. Four power system states are identified as a result of a fault in the
system. In the pre-fault state, both lines are in service, the equivalent transfer reactance X
has the minimum value, and the system power transfer capability has the maximum
value. When the fault occurs, the transfer reactance X suddenly increases and reduces the
power transfer capability of the system.

Tripping of Breaker 1 does not clear the fault, but it reduces the fault’s severity for the
power system. As a result, the transfer capability increases. Finally, Breaker 2 trips and
clears the fault. The system reaches the post-fault state with the faulted line out of
service. The system power transfer capability recovers to a level that is lower than the
prefault power transfer capability.

Each of the system changes (fault inception, Breaker 1 tripping, and Breaker 2 tripping)
causes the system rotor angles to oscillate. A transiently stable system moves from the
prefault to the post-fault steady state through stable, damped oscillations.
71
Equal-area criterion
Pre-Fault

The figure depicts the equal-area criterion used to assess transient stability in two-
machine power systems.

The figure shows the power-angle curves corresponding to the four states of the power
system presented on the previous slide. In our analysis, we will consider the left-side
machine on the previous slide to be the equivalent generator and the right-side machine
to be the equivalent motor. In the pre-fault state, the mechanical input power P0 to the
generator, the mechanical output power from the motor, and the electrical transfer power
P are all equal (for this ideal, lossless system).

Upon fault inception, the transfer reactance X suddenly increases, and the power-angle
curve moves from the curve labeled “Pre-fault” to the curve labeled “Fault” (see the
figure). The fault reduces the system power transfer capability (trajectory from Point 0 to
Point 1). The mechanical power has not changed and is greater than the transfer power
(P0 > P), so the generator accelerates, the motor decelerates, and the angle  increases
(trajectory from Point 1 to Point 2).

When protection operates and Breaker 1 opens, the power-angle curve moves from the
curve labeled “Fault” to the curve labeled “Fault (one breaker open).” The system
recovers power transfer capability (trajectory from Point 2 to Point 3). The mechanical
power continues to be greater than the transfer power (P0 > P), so the angle  continues
to increase (trajectory from Point 3 to Point 4).

When Breaker 2 opens, the power-angle curve moves from the curve labeled “Fault (one
breaker open)” to the curve labeled “Post-fault.” The system recovers power transfer
capability (trajectory from Point 4 to Point 5). Area A1 in the figure represents the kinetic
energy stored in the generator rotor during the period when P0 > P.
72
Now, the transfer power is greater than the mechanical power (P > P0) and the generator
decelerates, but the angle  continues to increase because the generator speed is greater
than the synchronous speed. The angle  increases up to a value for which Area A2,
which represents the kinetic energy drawn from the generator rotor during the period
when P > P0 equals Area A1.

The system is stable in this example because A1 = A2. In cases where A1 > A2, the power
system loses synchronism.

73
Slow fault clearing time
Unstable system
Pre-Fault

The figure depicts an unstable system (A1 > A2). Slow fault clearing causes a large
accelerating area A1, which cannot be compensated for by a corresponding decelerating
area A2.

74
Fast fault clearing time
Stable system
Pre-Fault

Fast fault clearing reduces the accelerating area A1, making the system stable (A1 = A2)
for the same fault as on the previous slide. The slide shows the importance of applying
fast relays and breakers in power systems.

75
Area under the power-angle curve

δf

Stability Condition:  ( Pm − Pe ) d  0
δ0

δf

Just at the Stability Limit:  ( Pm − Pe ) d = Net Area = 0

δ0

If the acceleration energy of the machine is permanently positive, the machine will
accelerate indefinitely until it reaches an unstable condition.

To make sure that the machine decelerates until it reaches an equilibrium in the post-
fault period, the clearing time must be short enough that the total energy is less than or
equal to zero (non-positive).

This is stated in terms of the time integral of the acceleration power, which is
proportional to the integral of the acceleration energy with respect to angle delta, as
shown on the slide. This integral defines the area under the curve, Pm – Pe versus .

If this area under the power vs. delta curve is equal to or less than zero, the system will
be stable (the generator will recover synchronism). At the limit (when the net area equals
zero), the machine is at a critical angle, which defines the critical clearing time.

76
Critically stable system
Area 1 = Area 2

At the limit, when Area 1 and Area 2 are equal, the clearing time angle is equal to the
critical clearing angle.

This diagram is well known and is used often to determine the critical clearing angle and
the critical clearing time.

The critical clearing angle is obtained with the following formula:

 Pm 
 c = acos  − cos  0 + ( − 2 0 )
 Pmax 

77
Critical
clearing
time

Recall the previous figure illustrating typical behavior of the electrical torque angle for
the stable and unstable case. If fault clearing occurs after a given critical clearing angle,
the system will be unstable.

Note that the critical clearing time corresponds to a given value of delta, often called the
critical clearing angle.

78
Example 4
Out-of-step condition
Critical clearing time: 345 kV Power System
Bus Equivalent
tc = 0.164 s Prime
Mover Tm

Fault

A three-phase short circuit occurs on the transmission substation bus. This substation has
a breaker-and-a-half circuit breaker arrangement, and the bus differential protection
completely clears this fault.

The system has the following data:

• The machine is rated at 13.8 kV and 69 MVA with H = 4 s, and the machine was
delivering P = 0.9 pu to the system, at PF = 0.9, before the fault.
• The voltage at the system bus is kept at 1.0 pu. The excitation current of the
generator is fixed, and the internal voltage of the generator is 1.1 pu.
• The power system can be represented by a source at 1.0 pu in series with a
reactance of 0.5 pu on a 100 MVA base. The generator transient reactance is
Xd′ = 0.26 pu and the reactance of the 13.8/345 kV, 69 MVA transformer is
X = 15 percent.
• Disregard all the resistances and friction.

The system study shows that the critical clearing time is 0.164 s.

79
Example 4
Clearing time: 0.15 s

The graph shows the computer simulation result corresponding to a fault clearing time of
0.15 seconds.

Because this time is less than the critical clearing time, the machine returns to a stable
equilibrium point. In other words, it does not lose synchronism.

80
Example 4
Clearing time: 0.18 s

If the fault is cleared at 0.18 seconds (several milliseconds more than the critical clearing
time), the system becomes unstable. This means that the machine will lose synchronism
(delta will reach a value larger than 180 degrees).

81
Review

▪ What is the main function of the

damper windings?
▪ What is the reason for the
dq0 transformation?
▪ What is a generator capability curve?

82
Review

▪ Which rotor components determine

the values of Xd′ and Xd″ ?
▪ Under which conditions a generator
can lose synchronism?
▪ What is the critical clearing time?

83
Summary

▪ In steady state, the generator

can be represented by a simple
equivalent circuit that uses the
synchronous impedance
▪ The generator delivered power
depends on the power angle ,
which compares a rotor axis to a
synchronously rotating reference

84
Summary

The capability curve represents

generator operational limits in
steady state
▪ Stator heating limit
▪ Rotor heating limit
▪ Stator end iron heating limit
▪ Steady-state stability limit

85
Summary

▪ In transient state, a machine

behaves according to the electrical
or electromechanical dynamic
interactions of its components
▪ The machine reactances will
change according to the nature
of the disturbance

86
Summary

▪ Machines can lose synchronism

if a system disturbance is not
cleared quickly
▪ Critical clearing time can be
calculated through use of
appropriate models and simulations

87
Questions?

88