3.

SYLLABUS

UNIT 1: Vectors

Specific Objectives:
2 3
1. To learn the nature of vectors and their basic properties in R and R .
2 3
2. To be familiar with the basic operations of vectors in R and R .

3. To learn the differentiation and integration of vectors with respect to a scalar variable.
2 3
4. To apply the vector method to solve problems on the resolution and reduction of a system of forces in R and R .
2
5. To apply the vector method to solve some kinematic problems in R .

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

1.1 Basic Knowledge 1 The fundamental concept of vector may have been dealt with in Secondary 5
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Definition and notation of Physics. Students are able to identify intuitively vectors as physical quantities that
vectors, magnitude and possess both magnitude and direction. Teachers should lay emphasis on the difference
direction of vectors, equal between scalar and vector quantities. Examples should be given to clarify the concepts.
vectors, parallel vectors and Students are expected to classify physical quantities into vectors (such as displacement,
unit vectors. velocity, acceleration, force, impulse etc) and scalars (such as temperature, energy,
volume, mass etc). At this stage, it should be emphasized that a vector quantity will
change when either its magnitude or direction is changed. (An object travelling in uniform
circular motion is a good practical example to illustrate the latter.)
It is also essential that students should be acquainted themselves with the
representation of a vector geometrically by a directed line segment.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

G
The current notations of vectors (such as AB , AB, a , a) and their magnitudes
G
(such as | AB |, |AB|, | a |, |a|) should be introduced.

Students are also expected to get the concepts of free vectors (e.g. wind velocity
vector) and line-localized vectors (e.g. force vector).

With the help of vector diagrams, teachers can guide students to grasp the essential
features of equal vectors, parallel vectors and unit vectors. At the same time, teachers
should remind students of the difference between equal vectors and parallel vectors. In
the former, the vectors must have the same direction and equal magnitude, but in the
latter, the vectors may have opposite directions and their magnitudes may not be equal.
In case of unit vector, teachers should indicate that since its magnitude is 1, it is usually
G G
used to specify direction. Therefore, a =| a | aˆ where â is the unit vector in the
G
direction of a .
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1.2 Vector Addition 3 Triangle law

(a) Triangle law and
parallelogram law

G
Teachers should remind students that the end-point of the vector a must be
G
coincident with the initial point of vector b . Moreover, it should be noted that, in general,
| AB | + | BC | ≠ | AC | . Teachers should also indicate that if the points A, B and C above
are collinear, the triangle law is still valid although the triangle ABC has vanished. (Refer
to the figure below.)
Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

In this case, | AB | + | BC | = | AC |

Parallelogram law
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With the help of the above figure, teachers should again remind students that the
G G
initial points of the two vectors a and b must be coincident. The equivalence of the
triangle law and the parallelogram law is worth discussing.
G
In either of the above cases, students should know that c is called the resultant of
G G
a and b .

It is worthwhile for students to note that the triangle law is convenient for adding free
vectors. However, we may apply the parallelogram law to add up line-localized vectors,
when the lines of action are taken into account. Actually, in the above figure, the line AD
is the line of action of the resultant of AB and AC .

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Example 1
Addition of free vectors

AB + BC + CD + DE + EF = AF

Example 2
Addition of line-localized vectors
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G G G
a + b + c = PR
Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching
G G G
This example shows the addition of 3 coplanar vectors a , b and c . In the
G G G G
figure, AD = a , AB = b , AC = a + b , and AC is the line of action of the resultant of
G G G G G G G G
a and b . Also, PS = a + b , PQ = c , PR = a + b + c , and PR is the line of action
G G G
of the resultant of a , b and c.

(b) Properties of vector Teachers may make use of simple vector diagrams to illustrate these properties.
addition
(i) Commutative law: Commutative law
G G G G
a+b =b+a
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(ii) Associative law: Associative law of addition

G G G
(Ga + bG ) +Gc
= a + (b + c )

1.3 Zero Vector, Negative 2 Students should note that any vector of magnitude equals zero is a zero vector,
G G
Vector and Vector which is denoted by 0 . Teachers should emphasize that 0 is different from 0. The
Subtraction
former is a vector while the latter is a scalar. Also, students are expected to recognize
that a zero vector may assume any direction. At this stage, students should have no
G G G G
problem to deduce the relations AB + BC + CA = AA = 0 and a + 0 = a for any vector
G
a.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Intuitively, students can see that negative vectors are vectors having equal
G G
magnitude but opposite directions. With this concept, the vector subtraction a − b can
G
be introduced by considering it as the vector sum of the vector a and the negative of
G G G
the vector b , i.e. a + ( −b ) . The relative velocity is a practical application of the vector
subtraction. .

Example
G G
An observer in a train moving at v1 kmh− due north sights a car moving at v 2 kmh−
1 1

G −1
due east. Then, the velocity of the car relative to the train, v 21 kmh , is given by
(velocity of car − velocity of train) as shown in the figure.
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At this stage, detailed discussion of relative motion is not necessary. It may be left to
Section 3.4.

1.4 Scalar Multiple and its Again, teachers may employ simple vector diagrams to illustrate the meaning of
Properties scalar multiple and the related laws. The following are two examples.
(a) Associative law 1. Scalar multiple
G G
(αβ)a = α(β a )
Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching
(b) Distributive laws 2. Distributive law of scalar multiple
G G G G
α(a + b ) = αa + αb
G G G
(α + β)a = αa + βa

After understanding the concept of scalar multiple, students should have no difficulty
to deduce the following result.
G G G G G G
If a = αb , then a is parallel to b for α ≠ 0 . For α = 0, a = 0 .
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2
1.5 Components of Vectors 2 The resolution of vectors in R can be introduced with the following example.
(a) Resolution of vectors

G G G
In the example, r is resolved into two components 3a and 4b in the directions
G G G G G G G
of a and b respectively. This can be generalized to r = αa + β b where a and b
G G G G G G G
are non-collinear vectors in R and r = αa + β b + γc where a , b and c are
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non-coplanar vectors in R , for scalars α, β and γ.

3

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

G G G
(b) The unit vectors i , j and The unit vectors in the directions of the positive x-, y- and z-axis are denoted by i ,
G G G 2 3
k (also denoted as iˆ , j and k respectively. Any vector in R or R can be expressed in the form
G G G G
ĵ and k̂ ) and the r = a i + b j + ck .
resolution of vectors in Students are required to be familiar with the following properties of vectors in terms of
G G G
the rectangular i , j and k :
coordinate system. G G G
| ai + bj + ck | = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ;

G  G  n G  G
n n n

∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
G G     
( x r i + y r j + zr k ) =  x r i +  yr  j +  zr  k ;
     
r =1  r =1   r =1   r =1 
G G G G G G
λ(ai + bj + ck ) = (λa )i + (λb ) j + (λc )k

G G G G
(c) Direction ratios and Students should be reminded that the two vectors r1 = a1i + b1 j + c1k and
direction cosines G G G G G G
r2 = a2i + b2 j + c2k are parallel if r1 = αr2 or a1 : b1 : c1 = a2 : b2 : c2. A numerical
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example can help the teachers easily achieve the purpose. From this, students can be
guided to discover that the direction (relative to the axes) of the vector
G G G G
r = ai + bj + ck is completely defined by the ratio a : b : c which is called the direction
G G
ratios of r . In the figure below, the angles α, β, γ determine the direction of r relative
G
to the axes. cos α, cos β and cos γ are called the direction cosines of r .
Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

The concept of direction cosines can be clearly illustrated by using a model of

rectangular cuboid as shown below.

Students are also expected to deduce the following relations.

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cos2 α + cos 2 β + cos2 γ = 1

G G G G
r
G = cos α i + cos β j + cos γ k
|r |

1.6 Position Vectors and 2

Students are required to represent a point P in space by its position vector OP
Vector Equation of a
Straight Line where O is the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system. They should note that if P is a
point on the line segment AB where AP : PB = λ : µ, then

λOB + µOA
OP =
λ+µ

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Teachers should lead students to recognize that a straight line can be fully specified
when the position of a point on the line and the direction of the line are known. Basing on
G G G
this idea, students should be able to deduce the vector equation of a line ( r = a + λb for
a scalar λ) from the following figure.

At this stage, teachers are advised to emphasize to students the meanings of the
G G
vectors a and b . (The former represents the position of the given point P on the line
while the latter the direction of the line.) Once the concepts are clarified, students should
G G G G G G
have no problem to see that the two lines r1 = a1 + λb1 and r2 = a2 + λb2 are

G G
1. parallel if b1 is parallel to b2 ;
G G
2. perpendicular if b1 is perpendicular to b2 ,

G G G G
and the lines intersect each other if there exist λ’ and µ’ such that a1 + λ' b1 = a2 + µ' b2 .
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G G
Also, the fact that the angle between the lines is equal to the angle between b1 and b2
is obvious.

1.7 Scalar Product 2

(a) Definition In introducing the definition, teachers should point out to students that the name
‘scalar’ is used because the product defined in this way gives a scalar quantity. Students
are also expected to know the other name for scalar product, i.e. dot product. Hence,
G G G G
a ⋅ b is read as ‘ a dot b ’.
Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching
(b) Properties of scalar
product Students are expected to be familiar with the following commutative law and
distributive law of scalar product.
G G G G
a⋅b = b⋅a
G G G G G G G
a ⋅ (b + c ) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c
The former can be easily proved from the definition while the latter can be illustrated by
using the following figure.
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(c) Scalar product in

Cartesian components Students are expected to verify themselves:
G G G G JG JG
i ⋅i = j ⋅ j = k ⋅k =1
G G G JG JG G
i ⋅ j = j ⋅k = k ⋅i = 0
Afterwards they can be asked to prove themselves that the scalar product of two vectors
is given by the sum of the products of their corresponding components, i.e.
G G
a ⋅ b = x1x2 + y1y 2 + z1z2
G G G JG G G G JG
where a = x1i + y1 j + z1k and b = x2 i + y 2 j + z2 k

(d) Orthogonality
At this stage, teachers can ask students what happens to the scalar product of two
vectors if they are orthogonal. The following answers are expected.
G G
a⋅b = 0
x1x2 + y1y 2 + z1z2 = 0

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Teachers should provide students with examples involving application of scalar

product. For example, in plane geometry, the theorems ‘The perpendiculars from the
vertices of a triangle to the opposite sides are concurrent.’ and ‘The perpendicular
bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.’ can be proved by using scalar
product.
1.8 Vector Product 2
(a) Definition In introducing the definition, teachers should
G G G G
a × b =| a || b | sin θnˆ emphasize the 'vector' feature of the product which is
different from the scalar product introduced in Section
1.7. The other name for vector product, cross product, is
G G
also introduced and a × b is read as ‘a cross b’. The
right-handed system used for the determination of the
product direction (i.e. in the direction of the unit vector n̂
in the definition) should be clearly explained. The figure
shown will be helpful.
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Simple applications of vector product can be introduced to arouse students’ interest.

The following are two examples.
1 . Area of triangle
Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

2. Area of Parallelogram

(b) Properties of vector Students are expected to know the following properties.
G G G G
product a × b = −b × a
G G G G G G G
a × (b + c ) = a × b + a × c (distributive property)
Formal proofs of these may be omitted.

(c) Vector product in Students should be able to see that

G G G G JG
Cartesian components a × b = ( y1z2 − y 2 z1)i + ( x2 z1 − x1z2 ) j + ( x1y 2 − x2 y1)k
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G G G JG
where a = x1i + y1 j + z1k
G G G JG
and b = x2 i + y 2 j + z2 k
The determinant expression of vector product, i.e.
G G JG
i j k
y z1 G x1 z1 G x1 y1 JG
x1 y1 z1 = 1 i− j+ k
y2 z2 x2 z2 x2 y2
x2 y 2 z2
a b
Where = ad − bc
c d
only serves for simplicity and its introduction is optional.

(d) Perpendicular vectors Teachers should guide students to deduce the following results.
G G G G G G
and parallel vectors 1. a , b are perpendicular if | a × b | = | a | × | b |
G G G G
2. a , b are parallel if | a × b | = 0

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

1.9 Triple Product 2 By considering the volume of a parallelepiped (i.e. bc sin θ h ), teachers can
G G G G G G
introduce the scalar triple product a ⋅ ( a × b ) (or simply a ⋅ b × c ). However, students
(a) Scalar triple product
G G G
should note that the volume of a parallelepiped is actually given by | a ⋅ b × c | .

G G G
The same approach can be used to show that each of the products b ⋅ c × a and
G G G G G G
c ⋅ a × b has the same value as a ⋅ b × c . Also, by using the commutative property,
G G G G G G
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students should have no problem to see that a ⋅ b × c = a × b ⋅ c .

Students should also know that the condition for 3 vectors to be coplanar is
G G G
a ⋅ b × c = 0 . For students who have learnt determinant, the following formula may also
be introduced.
a1 b1 c1
G G G
a ⋅ b × c = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3

(b) Vector triple product Teachers should emphasize that the brackets in the vector triple product like
G G G
a × ( b × c ) are essential to determine which product is taken first. In order to show that
G G G G G G G G G
a × ( b × c ) = (a ⋅ c ) b − (a ⋅ b ) c
G G G G G G G G G
and (a × b ) × c = (a ⋅ c ) b − ( b ⋅ c ) a ,
teachers are advised to choose appropriate Cartesian axes (by rotation if necessary) so
G G G
that a , b and c can be expressed in the forms:
Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching
G G
a = a1i ,
G G G
b = b1i + b2 j ,
G G G JG
c = c1i + c2 j + c3 k
From the above results, students should be able to find that
G G G G G G
a × ( b × c ) ≠ (a × b ) × c .
1.10 Vector Function, 2
Differentiation and
Integration
G G G
(a) Vector as a function of a Students are expected to be familiar with notations like r (t ) , v (θ) etc, where r
scalar variable G
and v are vector functions of the scalar variables t and θ respectively.

(b) Differentiation of a vector Students should be able to differentiate vector functions in component form, i.e. when
G G G JG
function with respect to a r (t ) = f (t )i + g (t ) j + h(t )k
scalar variable
d G  G G JG
r (t ) = f ′(t )i + g ′(t ) j + h′(t )k
dt

They are also expected to be familiar with the differentiation of scalar multiples, scalar
products and vector products:
G
d [ G ] dλ G da
λa = a+λ
dt dt dt
G G
d [ G G ] da G G db
a⋅b = b+a
dt dt dt
G G
d [ G G ] da G G d b
a×b = ×b +a×
dt dt dt

(c) Integration of a vector Teachers should emphasize to students that integration of a vector function is the
function with respect to a reverse process of differentiation. In this way, students should have no problem to carry
scalar variable out integration like
G G G JG G

G
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
r (t ) dt = f (t ) dt i + g (t ) dt j + h(t ) dt k + c
G G JG
where r (t ) = f (t )i + g (t ) j + h(t )k
G
and c is a constant vector.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

1.11 Vectors in Polar 2 Knowledge of the radial and transverse components of a vector in polar coordinates
Coordinates is introduced. The radial and transverse unit vectors, eˆr and êθ are defined and
expressed in Cartesian form as shown below.

When eˆr and êθ are vector functions of the time t, the above expressions can then be
differentiated with respect to t to arrive at the following results.
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deˆr dθ ˆ
= eθ
dt dt
deˆθ dθ
= eˆr
dt dt
Detailed discussion of the position, velocity and acceleration vectors presented in polar
coordinates may be left to Section 3.5. However, it is worthwhile, at this stage, for
teachers to discuss with students the distinction of employing polar coordinates and
Cartesian coordinates in solving problems such as the one shown below.

Example
The position of a particle moving in a plane is given by polar coordinates (r, θ). At time t,
θ = ωt where ω is a constant. The locus of the particle is determined by the polar
equation r = ae θ where a is a constant.
Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching
1.12 Application of Vectors 6 Students are expected to develop their skills in tackling problems related to vectors
and their applications.
(a) Force as a vector Students are going to deal with forces in vector form. They should know how to find
the resultant force of a system of forces. Knowledge of vector addition mentioned in
Section 1.2 is recalled. The moment of a force in vector form about a point and about a
3
line in R are introduced.

JG JG
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Moment of F about 0 Moment of F about line AB

G JG G JG
= r ×F = ( r × F ⋅ aˆ ) aˆ

By considering the total moment of a system of Coplanar forces about a point or

3
about a line in R , students are able to identify the line of action of the resultant force of
3
the system of forces in R . The following are two examples.

Example 1
(a, b, 0). (0, b, c) and (a, 0, c) are the Cartesian coordinates of the vertices A, B and C
JJJG JJJG
respectively of a triangle. Forces of magnitude and direction equal to BC , AC and
JJJG
3 BA are set along the sides of the triangle. .

In this example, students may first be led to express the forces in vector form. After that
they should be able to find the resultant of the forces by simple vector addition. Finally,
by comparing the total moments of the forces about the origin and the moment of the
resultant force about the origin, students may be asked to work out the line of action of
the resultant force.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Example 2
JJG G G JG JJG G G
Two forces, F1 = −i + j − k and F2 = 2i + 3 j act through points with position vectors
JG G G JG JJG G G JG JJG
r1 = i + j + k and r2 = −i − 2 j + k respectively. Find the force F3 needed to bring the
system to equilibrium and the vector equation of its line of action.

Nevertheless, complex problems involving forces and moments may be left to

Unit 2.
2
(b) Kinematics in R Problems should be introduced to investigate the relative motion of two bodies
through vector approach. Teachers should ensure that students have acquired adequate
knowledge of physical situations based on which students are capable of presenting
displacement velocity and acceleration in vector form. Angular displacement, angular
velocity and angular acceleration may also be involved in the kinematic problems.
Students are also expected to employ the knowledge learnt in Section 1.10, i.e. the
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differentiation and integration of a vector function with respect to a scalar variable to

tackle the problems. However, in-depth study of the topics may be left to Unit 3.
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