Rules and Variation 1

1
Rules and Variation

1.1 What is grammar?

I will be using the word grammar in this book to refer to the set of rules that
allow us to combine words in our language into larger units. Another term for
grammar in this sense is syntax.
Some combinations of words are possible in English and others are not. As a
speaker of English, you can judge that Home computers are now much cheaper is a
possible English sentence whereas Home computers now much are cheaper is not,
because you know that much is wrongly positioned in the second example. Your
ability to recognize such distinctions is evidence that in some sense you know the
rules of grammar even if you have never studied any grammar. Similarly, you
operate the rules whenever you speak or write (you can put words in the right
order) and whenever you interpret what others say (you know that Susan likes Tom
means something quite different from Tom likes Susan). But knowing the rules
in evaluative and operational senses does not mean that you can say what the
rules are.
You acquire a working knowledge of your native language simply through being
exposed to it from early childhood: nobody taught you, for example, where to posi-
tion much. You study grammar, however, if you want to be able to analyse your
language. The analytic grammar makes explicit the knowledge of the rules with
which you operate when you use the language. There is a clear difference between
the operational grammar and the analytic grammar. After all, many languages have
never been analysed and some have been analysed only relatively recently. People
were speaking and writing English long before the first English grammars appeared
at the end of the sixteenth century.

1.2 Grammar and other aspects of language

Linguistic communications are channelled mainly through our senses of sound and
sight. Grammar is the central component of language. It mediates between the
system of sounds or of written symbols, on the one hand, and the system of
meaning, on the other. Phonology is the usual term for the sound system in the
language: the distinctive sound units and the ways which they may be combined.
Orthography parallels phonology in that it deals with the writing system in
2 An Introduction to English Grammar

the language: the distinctive written symbols and their possible combinations.
Semantics is concerned with the system of meanings in the language: the mean-
ings of words and the combinatory meanings of larger units.

Phonology

Grammar Semantics

Orthography

Three other aspects of language description are often distinguished: phonetics,

morphology, and pragmatics. Phonetics deals with the physical characteristics of
the sounds in the language and how the sounds are produced. Sounds and letters
combine to form words or parts of words. Morphology refers to the set of rules
that describe the structure of words. The word computer, for example, consists of
two parts: the base compute (used separately as a verb) and the suffix -er (found in
other nouns derived from verbs, e.g. blender). Pragmatics is concerned with the
use of particular utterances within particular situations. For example, Will you join
our group? is a question that, depending on the speaker’s intention, is either a
request for information or a request for action.
For descriptive purposes, it is convenient to deal with the components of
language separately, but because of the central place of grammar in the language
system, it is sometimes necessary to refer to the other components when we
discuss the grammar.

1.3 Grammars of English

There are many grammars of English, that is to say books describing English
grammar. They differ in how much of the grammar they cover and in how they set
out the rules. There are also some differences in the categorization and termin-
ology they use. Nevertheless, most categories and terms are widely shared, deriving
from a long tradition of grammatical description.
The grammatical analysis in this book follows the approach found in A Compre-
hensive Grammar of the English Language by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum,
Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. First published in 1985, that is a reference work
on contemporary English grammar that contains nearly 1800 pages. Future refer-
ence works of this scope are likely to be even longer. Despite the immense amount
of research on contemporary English in the last few decades, many grammatical
phenomena have yet to be discovered and described.

1.4 National varieties

English is the first language of over 300 million people. Most of them live in the
United States of America, which has about 230 million native speakers of English,
Rules and Variation 3

and the United Kingdom, with about 54 million. Other countries with large
numbers of English native speakers that also constitute the majority of the popula-
tion are Canada (about 16 million), Australia (about 19 million), the Irish Republic
(about 3.8 million), and New Zealand (about 3.9 million). Some countries have
concentrations of English native speakers, though they do not constitute the majority
of the population; for example, South Africa has about 1.6 million native English
speakers apart from about 8.5 million bilingual speakers of English. While recog-
nizing that these people all speak English, we can distinguish the national varieties
they use as American English, British English, Canadian English, and so on.
English is a second language for over 300 million people who speak another
language as their native tongue but also use English in communicating with their
compatriots. For example, the first language for about 30 per cent of Canadians is
French and for millions of Americans it is Spanish. English is also the second
language in countries where only a small minority speak it as their tongue but
where it is the official language or joint official language for government business.
Among these countries is India, where it is estimated that about 21 million people
speak English fluently as their second language (though these constitute only about
3 per cent of India’s vast population). Other countries where English is the official
or joint official language include Gambia, Ghana, Nigeria, the Philippines, Puerto
Rico (where about 1.3 million inhabitants are bilingual in Spanish and English),
Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Since the English in each of these
countries has certain distinctive features, it is reasonable to refer to such national
varieties as, for example, Indian English or Nigerian English.
Finally, English is studied as the primary foreign language in most other coun-
tries. One estimate is that over 150 million children are currently studying
English as a foreign language in primary or secondary schools. Its popularity lies
in its value as an international language. A knowledge of English is perceived in
most parts of the world as essential for international communication in commerce
and tourism, in economic and military aid, and in scientific and technological
literature.

1.5 Standard and non-standard English

In addition to differences between national varieties of English, there are differ-

ences within each national variety. Each has a number of dialects. In countries
where the majority speak English as their first language one dialect is used nation-
ally for official purposes. It is called Standard English.
Standard English is the national dialect that generally appears in print. It is
taught in schools, and students are expected to use it in their essays. It is the norm
for dictionaries and grammars. We expect to find it in official printed communica-
tions, such as letters from government officials, solicitors, and accountants. We
expect to hear it in national news broadcasts and documentary programmes on
radio or television.
4 An Introduction to English Grammar

Within each national variety the standard dialect is relatively homogeneous

in grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation. Pronunciation is a different
matter, since there is no equivalent standard accent (type of pronunciation). For
each national variety there are regional accents, related to a geographical area, and
social accents, related to the educational, socio-economic, and ethnic backgrounds
of the speakers. In British English, Received Pronunciation (RP) is a non-regional
social accent associated with public school education but it is not regarded as a
standard accent to be learned in schools throughout the country. It is spoken by
about 3 per cent of the population in Britain.
Standard English has prestige because people connect it with education and
with higher-income groups. It is not intrinsically better than other dialects, though
many believe it is. One of its major advantages is that it has developed a range of
styles to suit different kinds of uses of the language, particularly in writing.
Non-standard dialects tend to be restricted to people from a particular region or
from a particular social group or to social groups within a region. Many people
speak more than one dialect, perhaps using different dialects at home and at work.

1.6 Variation according to use

Language also varies according to context and communicative purpose. For ex-
ample, newspapers, cookery books, scientific papers, emails, poetry, and fiction all
have distinctive language features. Newspapers have a distinctive layout, headlines
are often highly compressed (Banks warned on student loans), cookery books tend
to use many imperatives (Mix the ingredients), scientific papers use many passive
constructions (A colourless gas is produced). These varieties are known as registers,
that is, varieties of language associated with specific uses and communicative
purposes.
Some variation depends on the medium, that is, the channel of communication.
There is a major distinction between spoken and written language. Conversation,
the most common type of speech, involves immediate interchange between the
participants, who convey their reactions either in words or through facial expres-
sions and bodily movements. There is more spontaneity in conversation than in
writing; self-correction occurs in the flow of conversation, whereas it is eliminated
through editing in writing. Writing needs to be more explicit, since obscurities and
misunderstandings cannot be removed immediately. People feel more committed
to what they write because of the potential permanence of the written communica-
tion. The differences in the nature of the media is reflected in the greater concision
that is possible in writing and in the greater care that writers take over their choice
of words.
Language also varies according to the attitude of the speaker or writer towards
the listener or reader, towards the topic, and towards the purpose of communi-
cation. We can select from features that range from the most formal to the most
informal. For instance, comprehend and strive are more formal than their respective
Rules and Variation 5

equivalents, understand and try. Similarly, This is the student to whom I gave the
message is more formal than This is the student I gave the message to.
Grammatical variation across spoken and written registers is a central theme
of the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English by Douglas Biber et al.
(1999). In Chapter 10 we examine the grammatical features of a range of English
registers, including conversations, sports commentaries, emails, and literary texts.

1.7 Descriptive rules and prescriptive rules

At the beginning of this chapter I said that the rules of grammar state which com-
binations of words are possible in the language and which are not. My example of
an impossible sentence in English was Home computers now much are cheaper. The
rule that disallows that sentence is a descriptive rule, a rule that describes how
people use their language. The validity of this descriptive rule depends on whether it
is true that Home computers are now much cheaper is a possible English sentence and
Home computers now much are cheaper is an impossible English sentence. The evidence
to validate this rule is drawn from the knowledge that speakers of English have of
their language as well as from samples of their actual use of the language. Of course
the descriptive rule must be accurately formulated to make the valid distinctions.
Sometimes people speaking the same dialect disagree in their evaluation of par-
ticular sentences. For example, some speakers of standard British English find
acceptable I demand that she gives her reasons; others prefer or require a different
form of the verb in the that-clause, either that she give her reasons or that she should
give her reasons.
A number of differences in the use of standard British English have acquired
social importance. Some speakers of the standard dialect consider that certain usages
mark their user as uneducated. Rules that specify which usages should be adopted
or avoided are called prescriptive rules. Examples of prescriptive rules are:
• Don’t use like as a conjunction, as in He speaks like his father does.
• Don’t use between you and I.
• Don’t split an infinitive, as in to actually feel.
• Don’t end a sentence with a preposition.
Speakers of the standard dialect tend to pay greater attention to prescriptive
rules when they are on their best behaviour, in particular when they are writing in
a formal style.

1.8 Why study grammar?

The study of language is a part of general knowledge. We study the complex
working of the human body to understand ourselves; the same reason should
attract us to studying the marvellous complexity of human language.
Everybody has attitudes towards the English language and its varieties, and has
opinions on specific features. These attitudes and opinions affect relationships
6 An Introduction to English Grammar

with other people. If you understand the nature of language, you will realize the
grounds for your linguistic prejudices and perhaps moderate them; you will also
more clearly assess linguistic issues of public concern, such as worries about the
state of the language or what to do about the teaching of immigrants. Studying the
English language has a more obvious practical application: it can help you to use
the language more effectively.
In the study of language, grammar occupies a central position. But there is also
a practical reason to emphasize the study of grammar. It is easy to learn to use
dictionaries by yourself to find the pronunciation, spelling, or meanings of words,
but it is difficult to consult grammar books without a considerable knowledge of
grammar.
There are several applications of grammatical study: (1) A recognition of gram-
matical structures is often essential for punctuation; (2) A study of one’s native
grammar is helpful when one studies the grammar of a foreign language; (3) A
knowledge of grammar is a help in the interpretation of literary as well as nonliterary
texts, since the interpretation of a passage sometimes depends crucially on gram-
matical analysis; (4) A study of the grammatical resources of English is useful in
composition: in particular, it can help you to evaluate the choices available to you
when you come to revise an earlier written draft.
This book provides a survey of the grammar of standard British English, with sets
of exercises at the end of each major section. It also includes applications to punc-
tuation, usage problems, writing style, and the analysis of a range of linguistic registers.
It ends with an appendix on spelling, and a glossary of terms used in the book.

EXERCISES

Exercises marked with an asterisk are more advanced.

*Exercise 1.1 What is grammar? (cf. 1.1)

Which of the combinations of words below seem to you to be possible English

sentences? If you are not sure, say so. Where there is a problem with a sentence,
try to pinpoint it and then change the sentence to avoid the problem.
1. Whether these momentous changes will do what he wants them to do is
another matter.
2. We think that it is hot to sit in the sun.
3. He could not understand why he lost the job, and I had to explain to him that
it was since he was lazy.
4. Fortunately, my deputy can well attend the committee meeting in my place.
5. The large hall was containing over 500 people.
Rules and Variation 7

6. Surprisingly, mushrooms are unusual to find at this time of the year.

7. A good time was had by all of us.
8. All the children watched television until too tired to do so any more.
9. Robert allowed himself to be persuaded to undertake the unpleasant task.
10. We weren’t sure if or not we were invited.
11. There is currently a tendency that I do not know how strong it is towards
discounting the effects of pollution from factories.
12. Until he came out of his corner to face a man who many believed to be the
most awesome figure in the modern history of the heavy-weight division, it
was not difficult to understand why the contest was of so little interest to
prospective punters.

Exercise 1.2 What is grammar? (cf. 1.1)

Informally describe how the (a) sentences differ from the (b) sentences.

1a. Britain’s worst terrorist incident is being investigated by its smallest police
force.
1b. Is Britain’s worst terrorist incident being investigated by its smallest police
force?
2a. The president may be unable either to fulfil expectations or to contain
expectations.
2b. The president may be unable either to fulfil expectations or to contain them.
3a. The party lost the will to uphold its rule at any cost.
3b. The party did not lose the will to uphold its rule at any cost.
4a. You are the one that everybody respects and admires.
4b. Be the one that everybody respects and admires.
5a. The child was bound to get excited from time to time.
5b. The children were bound to get excited from time to time.
6a. Sleepwalkers can never remember the sleepwalking episode when they wake
up in the morning.
6b. Sleepwalkers can never remember the sleepwalking episode when waking
up in the morning.
7a. We have never encountered so much resistance.
7b. Never have we encountered so much resistance.
8a. A professor of civil engineering has written a history of the pencil.
8b. A history of the pencil has been written by a professor of civil engineering.
9a. What she means is easy to see.
9b. It is easy to see what she means.
10a. Army privates are trained to obey orders, police constables are trained to
exercise judgement under pressure.
10b. Army privates are trained to obey orders, police constables to exercise
judgement under pressure.
8 An Introduction to English Grammar

*Exercise 1.3 Grammars of English (cf. 1.3)

Look up one of the following topics in A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
Language by R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, and J. Svartvik (Longman, 1985).
Use the index to find places in the grammar where the topic is discussed, and follow
up cross-references if necessary. Give a brief oral report on the topic in class.
1. cataphoric pronoun 11. style disjunct
2. transferred negation 12. echo question
3. absolute clause 13. downtoner
4. double genitive 14. mandative subjunctive
5. resultant object 15. deixis
6. subjective genitive 16. focus of negation
7. attitudinal past 17. distributive
8. prop it subject 18. performative
9. historic present 19. rhetorical condition
10. hypothetical condition 20. vocative

Exercise 1.4 Descriptive rules and prescriptive rules (cf. 1.7)

Indicate whether the rules given below are descriptive rules or prescriptive rules.
1. In English, only nouns and pronouns display distinctions in case.
2. The superlative adjective is required for more than two items or sets of
items: the best of the (three) groups, not the better of the three groups.
3. Where there is a choice between if and whether, prefer whether in formal
English, as in I am not sure whether she is at home.
4. Definite and indefinite articles come before their nouns in English, as in the
library and a restaurant.
5. Words are frequently converted from one part of speech to another; for
example, the noun walk from the verb walk.
6. Conditional clauses sometimes begin with an auxiliary and have no conjunc-
tion, as in Had I known, I would have telephoned you.
7. The preposition but should be followed by an objective pronoun, as in nobody
but me.
8. The most common way of expressing future meaning is with will.
9. Adverbs such as very modify adjectives (e.g. very good) and other adverbs
(e.g. very carefully).
10. When you are writing formally, use the subjective pronoun after the verb be,
as in It was he who told me the news, not It was him who told me the news.

*Exercise 1.5 Rules and variation (cf. Chapter 1)

Write an essay on one of the topics listed below. The following reference books are
excellent starting points:
Rules and Variation 9

Crystal, David The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1995.
McArthur, Tom (ed.) The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1992.

1. Sexist language
2. Politically correct language
3. What is good English?
4. Bad language
5. Plain English
6. Slang
7. Jargon
8. Idioms
9. Colloquialisms
10. Clichés
11. Doublespeak
12. Euphemism
13. Rhyming slang
14. Received pronunciation
15. Characteristics of my dialect
16. Does accent matter?
17. Spelling reform
18. British English and American English
19. Language play: puns, palindromes, and spoonerisms
20. Foreign borrowings in English