Chapter 22

Hydrostatics
This chapter describes fluid pressure, together
with buoyancy and hydrostatic stability. The  understand hydrostatic thrust on curved surfaces
chapter also defines Archimedes’ principle, which  define buoyancy
is used to determine the buoyancy of boats, yachts,  appreciate and perform calculations on the
ships, etc. The chapter also describes metacentric stability of floating bodies
height, which is used to determine the hydrostatic
stability of the aforementioned vessels, and the
explanation of this topic is aided with a number of
simple worked examples. The chapters also
describe gauges used in fluid mechanics, such as 22.1 Pressure
barometers, manometers, and the Bourdon
pressure and vacuum gauges. These gauges are The pressure acting on a surface is defined as the per-
used to determine the properties and behaviour of pendicular force per unit area of surface. The unit of
fluids when they are met in practice. Calculations pressure is the pascal, Pa, where 1 pascal is equal to
are given of simple floating structures and 1 newton per square metre. Thus pressure,
reference is made to the mid-ordinate rule, F
described earlier in Chapter 15, which can be p= pascals
A
used for determining the areas and volumes of
complex shapes, such as those often met in naval where F is the force in newtons acting at right angles
architecture and civil engineering and many other to a surface of area A square metres.
branches of engineering. When a force of 20 N acts uniformly over, and per-
At the end of this chapter you should be able to: pendicular to, an area of 4 m2, then the pressure on the
area, p, is given by:
 define pressure and state its unit
20 N
 understand pressure in fluids
p= = 5 Pa
 distinguish between atmospheric, absolute and 4m2
gauge pressures It should be noted that for irregular shaped flat sur-
 state and apply Archimedes’ principle faces, such as the water planes of ships, their areas
 describe the construction and principle of can be calculated using the mid-ordinate rule,
operation of different types of barometer described in Chapter 15.
 describe the construction and principle of
operation of different types of manometer Problem 1. A table loaded with books has a force
 describe the construction and principle of of 250 N acting in each of its legs. If the contact
operation of the Bourdon pressure gauge area between each leg and the floor is 50 mm2, find
 describe the construction and principle of the pressure each leg exerts on the floor.
operation of different types of vacuum gauge
 calculate hydrostatic pressure on submerged From above, pressure p = force
surfaces area

Mechanical Engineering Principles, Bird and Ross, ISBN 9780415517850

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Hydrostatics 245

250 N

250 N from which, d 2 = 0.0025  = 0.003183
Hence, p
= 50 mm 50  106m 2 4
2

= 5  106 N/m2 i.e. d= 0.003183 = 0.0564 m
= 5 MPa
= 56.4 mm
That is, the pressure exerted by each leg on the
Hence, the diameter of the piston is 56.4 mm
floor
is 5 MPa
Now try the following Practise Exercise
Problem 2. Calculate the force exerted by the
atmosphere on a pool of water that is 30 m long
Practise Exercise 116 Further problems on
by 10 m wide, when the atmospheric pressure is
pressure
100 kPa.
force 1. A force of 280 N is applied to a piston of
From above, pressure = a hydraulic system of cross-sectional area
area
hence, force = pressure  0.010 m2. Determine the pressure produced
area. by the piston in the hydraulic fluid.
The area of the pool is 30 m  10 m = 300 [28 kPa]
m2 Thus, force on pool, F = pressure  2. Find the force on the piston of Question 1 to
produce a pressure of 450 kPa. [4.5 kN]
area
= 100 kPa  300 m2 and 3. If the area of the piston in Question 1 is
halved and the force applied is 280 N,
since 1 Pa = 1 N/m2, deter- mine the new pressure in the
N
F = (100  103) hydraulic fluid.
 300 m2
m2 [56 kPa]
= 3  107 N = 30  106 N
= 30 MN
That is, the force on the pool of water is 30 MN

Problem 3. A circular piston exerts a pressure 22.2 Fluid pressure

of 80 kPa on a fluid, when the force applied to
the piston is 0.2 kN. Find the diameter of the A fluid is either a liquid or a gas and there are four basic
piston. factors governing the pressure within fluids.
force
From above, pressure =
area
force
hence, area =
pressure
Force in newtons = 0.2 kN
 0.2  103 N = 200 N, and
pressure in pascals = 80 kPa = 80000 Pa
= 80000 N/m2. Figure 22.1

Hence, area = force 200 N (a) The pressure at a given depth in a fluid is equal in
 all directions; see Figure 22.1(a).
pressure 80000 N/m 2
(b) The pressure at a given depth in a fluid is inde-
= 0.0025 m2 pendent of the shape of the container in which
Since the piston is circular, its area is given by πd2/4, the fluid is held. In Figure 22.1(b), the pressure
Part Four

where d is the diameter of the piston. at X is the same as the pressure at Y.

d2 (c) Pressure acts at right angles to the surface con-
Hence, area = = 0.0025
4 taining the fluid. In Figure 22.1(c), the pressures

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246 Mechanical Engineering Principles
at points A to F all act at right angles to the (b) At the base of the tank, the vertical height of the
container. water is 600 mm = 0.6 m.
(d) When a pressure is applied to a fluid, this
pressure is transmitted equally in all directions. Hence, p = 1000  9.8  0.6
In Figure 22.1(d), if the mass of the fluid is = 5880 Pa = 5.88 kPa
neglected, the pressures at points A to D are all
the same. Problem 5. A storage tank contains petrol to a
height of 4.7 m. If the pressure at the base of the
The pressure, p, at any point in a fluid depends on
tank is 32.2 kPa, determine the density of the pet-
three
rol. Take the gravitational field force as 9.8 m/s2.
factors:
(a) the density of the fluid, ρ, in kg/m3 From above, pressure p = ρgh pascals, where ρ is the
(b) the gravitational acceleration, g, taken as density in kg/m3, g is the gravitational acceleration in
approxi- mately 9.8 m/s2 (or the gravitational m/s2 and h is the vertical height of the petrol in
field force in N/kg), and metres.
p
(c) the height of fluid vertically above the point, h Transposing gives: ρ =
metres. gh
The relationship connecting these quantities is:
Pressure p is 32.2 kPa = 32200 Pa
p = ρgh pascals 32200
hence, density, ρ = = 699 kg/m3
When the container shown in Figure 22.2 is filled 9.8  4.7
with 3
water of density 1000 kg/m3, the pressure due to the
water at a depth of 0.03 m below the surface is given That is, the density of the petrol is 699 kg/m .
Problem 6. A vertical tube is partly filled with
by:
mercury of density 13600 kg/m3. Find the height,
in millimetres, of the column of mercury, when the
pressure at the base of the tube is 101 kPa. Take
the gravitational field force as 9.8 m/s2.

From above, pressure p = ρgh, hence vertical height h

is given by:
Figure 22.2 p
h=
g
p = ρgh = (1000  9.8  0.03)Pa = 294 Pa
In the case of the Mariana Trench, which is situated Pressure p = 101 kPa = 101000 Pa,
in 101000
the Pacific ocean, near Guam, the hydrostatic pressure
is about 115.2 MPa or 1152 bar, where 1 bar = 105 Pa thus, h = 0.758 m
13600  9.8
and the density of sea water being 1020 kg/m3. =
That is, the height of the column of mercury is 758
Problem 4. A tank contains water to a depth of
600 mm. Calculate the water pressure (a) at a depth
of 350 mm, and (b) at the base of the tank. Take mm Now try the following Practise Exercise
the density of water as 1000 kg/m3 and the gravita-
tional acceleration as 9.8 m/s2. Practise Exercise 117 Further problems on
From above, pressure p at any point in a fluid is given fluid pressure
Part Four

by p = ρgh pascals, where ρ is the density in kg/m3, g (Take the gravitational acceleration as 9.8 m/s2)
is the gravitational acceleration in m/s2 and h is the
height of fluid vertically above the point in metres. 1. Determine the pressure acting at the base of
a dam, when the surface of the water is 35
(a) At a depth of 350 mm = 0.35 m, m above base level. Take the density of
p = ρgh = 1000  9.8  0.35 water as 1000 kg/m3. [343 kPa]
= 3430 Pa = 3.43 kPa

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Hydrostatics 247

2. An uncorked bottle is full of sea water of surface of the sea, when the atmospheric
density 1030 kg/m3. Calculate, correct to pressure is 101 kPa. Take the density of sea
3 significant figures, the pressures on the water as
side wall of the bottle at depths of (a) 30 1030 kg/m3 and the gravitational acceleration as
mm, and (b) 70 mm below the top of the 9.8 m/s2.
bottle. From Section 22.2, the pressure due to the sea, that is,
[(a) 303 Pa (b) 707 Pa] the gauge pressure (pg) is given by:
pg = ρgh pascals
3. A U-tube manometer is used to determine
the pressure at a depth of 500 mm below the i.e. pg = 1030  9.8  30 = 302820 Pa = 302.82 kPa
free surface of a fluid. If the pressure at this From above, absolute pressure
depth is 6.86 kPa, calculate the density of
= atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
the liquid used in the manometer. [1400
kg/m3] = (101 + 302.82) kPa = 403.82 kPa
4. A submarine pressure hull in the form of a That is, the absolute pressure at a depth of 30 m is
circular cylinder is of external diameter 10 403.82 kPa
m and length 200 m. It dives to the bottom
of the Mariana Tench which is 11.52 km
deep. What will be the mass of water acting Now try the following Practise Exercise
on the submarine’s circular surface in terms
of the number of London double-decker Practise Exercise 118 Further problems
buses, giv- en that the mass of a London on atmospheric
double-decker bus is 7 tonnes. Assume that pressure
the density of water, ρ = 1020 kg/m3 and
Take the gravitational acceleration as 9.8 m/s 2,
the density of water as 1000 kg/m 3, and the den-
sity of mercury as 13600 kg/m3.
22.3 Atmospheric pressure
1. The height of a column of mercury in a
The air above the Earth’s surface is a fluid, having barometer is 750 mm. Determine the at-
a density, ρ, which varies from approximately mospheric pressure, correct to 3 significant
1.225 kg/m3 at sea level to zero in outer space. Since figures. [100 kPa]
p = ρgh, where height h is several thousands of 2. A U-tube manometer containing mercury
metres, the air exerts a pressure on all points on the gives a height reading of 250 mm of mer-
earth’s surface. This pressure, called atmospheric cury when connected to a gas cylinder. If
pressure, has a value of approximately 100 the barometer reading at the same time is
kilopascals (or 1 bar). Two terms are commonly used 756 mm of mercury, calculate the absolute
when measuring pressures: pressure of the gas in the cylinder, correct
(a) absolute pressure, meaning the pressure above to 3 significant figures. [134 kPa]
that of an absolute vacuum (i.e. zero pressure), 3. A water manometer connected to a condens-
and er shows that the pressure in the condenser
(b) gauge pressure, meaning the pressure above is 350 mm below atmospheric pressure. If
that normally present due to the atmosphere. the barometer is reading 760 mm of mer-
Thus, absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + cury, determine the absolute pressure in the
gauge pressure. condenser, correct to 3 significant figures.
Thus, a gauge pressure of 50 kPa is equivalent to an [97.9 kPa]
absolute pressure of (100 + 50) kPa, i.e. 150 kPa,
4. A Bourdon pressure gauge shows a pressure
since
Part Four

of 1.151 MPa. If the absolute pressure is

the atmospheric pressure is approximately 100 kPa.
1.25 MPa, find the atmospheric pressure in
Problem 7. Calculate the absolute pressure at a millimetres of mercury. [743 mm]
point on a submarine, at a depth of 30 m below the

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248 Mechanical Engineering Principles

density
22.4 Archimedes’ principle (c) Relative density =
density of water
Archimedes’ principle states that:
Hence, the relative density of the body
If a solid body floats, or is submerged, in a liquid, the
liquid exerts an upthrust on the body equal to the 3305 = 3.305
= 3
kg/m
grav- itational force on the liquid displaced by the 1000 kg/m 3

body.
In other words, if a solid body is immersed in a liquid, Problem 9. A rectangular watertight box is
the apparent loss of weight is equal to the weight of 560 mm long, 420 mm wide and 210 mm deep.
liquid displaced. It weighs 223 N. (a) If it floats with its sides and
If V is the volume of the body below the surface ends vertical in water of density 1030 kg/m3, what
of the liquid, then the apparent loss of weight W is depth of the box will be submerged? (b) If the box
given by: is held completely submerged in water of density
W = Vω = Vρg 1030 kg/m3, by a vertical chain attached to the un-
derside of the box, what is the force in the chain?
where ω is the specific weight (i.e. weight per unit
volume) and ρ is the density. (a) The apparent weight of a floating body is zero.
If a body floats on the surface of a liquid all of its That is, the weight of the body is equal to the
weight appears to have been lost. The weight of liquid weight of liquid displaced. This is given by:
displaced is equal to the weight of the floating body.
Vρg
Problem 8. A body weighs 2.760 N in air and where V is the volume of liquid displaced, and ρ
1.925 N when completely immersed in water of is the density of the liquid.
density 1000 kg/m3. Calculate (a) the volume of Here, 223 N = V  1030 kg/m3  9.81 m/s2
the body (b) the density of the body and (c) the
relative density of the body. Take the = V  10.104 kN/m3
223 N
gravitational acceleration as 9.81 m/s2. Hence, V=
10.104 kN/m3
(a) The apparent loss of weight is 2.760 N – 1.925 N
= 0.835 N. This is the weight of water displaced, = 22.07  10–3m3
i.e. Vρg, where V is the volume of the body and This volume is also given by Lbd, where
ρ is the density of water, L = length of box, b = breadth of box, and
i.e. 0.835 N = V  1000 kg/m3  9.81 m/s2 d = depth of box submerged,
i.e. 22.07  10–3 m3 = L  b  d
= V  9.81 kN/m3
= 0.56 m  0.42 m  d

Hence, V 0.835
m3 22.07  103
= 9.81  103 Hence, depth submerged, d =
0.56  0.42
= 8.512  10–5 m3 = 0.09384 m = 93.84 mm
4 3
= 8.512  10 mm (b) The volume of water displaced is the total vol-
(b) The density of the body ume of the box. The upthrust or buoyancy of the
water, i.e. the ‘apparent loss of weight’, is
greater
mass weight than the weight of the box. The force in the
 
volum g V chain accounts for the difference.
Part Four

e 2.760 N Volume of water displaced,


9.81m/s2  8.512  105 m3
V = 0.56 m  0.42 m  0.21 m
2.760 5 = 4.9392  10–2 m3
kg  10
= 9.81 = 3305 kg/m3 Weight of water displaced
8.512 = Vρg = 4.9392  10–2 m3  1030 kg/m3  9.81 m/s2
m3
= 3.305 tonne/m3 = 499.1 N
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Hydrostatics 249

The force in the chain

= weight of water displaced – weight of box submerged in water of density 1030 kg/m 3,
= 499.1 N – 223 N = 276.1 N held in position by a single vertical chain
attached to the underside of the drum. What
is the force in the chain? [1.551
Now try the following Practise Exercise kN]

Practise Exercise 119 Further problems

on Archimedes’
principle 22.5 Measurement of pressure
2
Take the gravitational acceleration as 9.8 m/s ,
As stated earlier, pressure is the force exerted by a
the density of water as 1000 kg/m3 and the den-
fluid per unit area. A fluid (i.e. liquid, vapour or gas)
sity of mercury as 13600 kg/m3.
has a negligible resistance to a shear force, so that the
1. A body of volume 0.124 m3 is completely force it exerts always acts at right angles to its
immersed in water of density 1000 kg/m 3. containing surface.
What is the apparent loss of weight of the The SI unit of pressure is the pascal, Pa, which is unit
body? [1.215 kN] force per unit area, i.e. 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
The pascal is a very small unit and a commonly used
2. A body of weight 27.4 N and volume
larger unit is the bar, where 1 bar = 105Pa
1240 cm2 is completely immersed in water
Atmospheric pressure is due to the mass of the air
of specific weight 9.81 kN/m3. What is its
above the Earth’s surface being attracted by Earth’s
apparent weight? [15.25 N]
gravity. Atmospheric pressure changes continuously.
3. A body weighs 512.6 N in air and 256.8 N A standard value of atmospheric pressure, called
when completely immersed in oil of density ‘standard atmospheric pressure’, is often used, having
810 kg/m3. What is the volume of the body? a value of 101325 Pa or 1.01325 bars or 1013.25
[0.03222 m3] milli- bars. This latter unit, the millibar, is usually
used in the measurement of meteorological pressures.
4. A body weighs 243 N in air and 125 N
(Note that when atmospheric pressure varies from
when completely immersed in water. What
101325 Pa it is no longer standard.)
will it weigh when completely immersed in
Pressure indicating instruments are made in a wide
oil of relative density 0.8? [148.6 N]
variety of forms because of their many different
5. A watertight rectangular box, 1.2 m long and applications. Apart from the obvious criteria such
0.75 m wide, floats with its sides and ends as pressure range, accuracy and response, many mea-
vertical in water of density 1000 kg/m3. If surements also require special attention to material,
the depth of the box in the water is 280 mm, sealing and temperature effects. The fluid whose pres-
what is its weight? [2.47 kN] sure is being measured may be corrosive or may be at
high temperatures. Pressure indicating devices used in
6. A body weighs 18 N in air and 13.7 N when
science and industry include:
completely immersed in water of density
1000 kg/m3. What is the density and relative (i) barometers (see Section 22.6),
density of the body? (ii) manometers (see Section 22.8),
[4.186 tonne/m3, 4.186] (iii) Bourdon pressure gauge (see Section 22.9), and
(iv) McLeod and Pirani gauges (see Section 22.10).
7. A watertight rectangular box is 660 mm
long and 320 mm wide. Its weight is 336 N.
If it floats with its sides and ends vertical in
water of density 1020 kg/m3, what will be 22.6 Barometers
its depth in the water? [159 mm]
8. A watertight drum has a volume of 0.165 m3 Introduction
Part Four

and a weight of 115 N. It is completely

A barometer is an instrument for measuring atmo-
spheric pressure. It is affected by seasonal changes of
temperature. Barometers are therefore also used for
the

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250 Mechanical Engineering Principles
measurement of altitude and also as one of the aids in rises, then h increases. Thus atmospheric pressure can
weather forecasting. The value of atmospheric pres- be measured in terms of the height of the mercury
sure will thus vary with climatic conditions, although column. It may be shown that for mercury the height
not usually by more than about 10% of standard atmo- h is 760 mm at standard atmospheric pressure, i.e.
spheric pressure. a vertical column of mercury 760 mm high exerts a
pressure equal to the standard value of atmospheric
Construction and principle of operation
pressure.
A simple barometer consists of a glass tube, just less There are thus several ways in which atmospheric
than 1 m in length, sealed at one end, filled with mer- pres- sure can be expressed:
cury and then inverted into a trough containing more
Standard atmospheric pressure
mercury. Care must be taken to ensure that no air
enters the tube during this latter process. Such a = 101325 Pa or 101.325 kPa
barometer is shown in Figure 22.3(a) and it is seen
= 101325 N/m2 or 101.325 kN/m2
that the level of the mercury column falls, leaving an
empty space, called a vacuum. Atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 bars or 1013.25 mbars
acts on the surface of the mercury in the trough as
= 760 mm of mercury
shown and this pressure is equal to the pressure at the
base of the col- umn of mercury in the inverted tube, Another arrangement of a typical barometer is
i.e. the pressure of the atmosphere is supporting the shown in Figure 22.3(b) where a U-tube is used
column of mercury. If the atmospheric pressure falls instead of an inverted tube and trough, the principle
the barometer height h decreases. Similarly, if the being similar.
atmospheric pressure If, instead of mercury, water was used as the liquid
in a barometer, then the barometric height h at
standard atmospheric pressure would be 13.6 times
more than for mercury, i.e. about 10.4 m high, which
is not very practicable. This is because the relative
density of mer- cury is 13.6.

Types of barometer
The Fortin barometer is an example of a mercury
ba- rometer that enables barometric heights to be
measured to a high degree of accuracy (in the order of
one-tenth of a millimetre or less). Its construction is
merely a more sophisticated arrangement of the
inverted tube and trough shown in Figure 22.3(a),
with the addition of a vernier scale to measure the
barometric height with great accuracy. A disadvantage
of this type of barom- eter is that it is not portable.
A Fortin barometer is shown in Figure 22.4.
Mercury is contained in a leather bag at the base of
the mercury reservoir, and height, H, of the mercury
in the reservoir can be adjusted using the screw at the
base of the barometer to depress or release the leather
bag. To measure the atmospheric pressure the screw is
adjusted until the pointer at H is just touching the
surface of the mercury and the height of the mercury
column is then read using the main and vernier scales.
The measurement of atmospheric pressure using a
Part Four

Fortin barometer is achieved much more accurately

than by using a simple barometer.
A portable type often used is the aneroid
barometer. Such a barometer consists basically of a
Figure 22.3 circular, hollow,

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Hydrostatics 251

22.7 Absolute and gauge pressure

A barometer measures the true or absolute pressure of

the atmosphere. The term absolute pressure means the
pressure above that of an absolute vacuum (which is
zero pressure), as stated earlier. In Figure 22.6 a pres-
sure scale is shown with the line AB representing ab-
solute zero pressure (i.e. a vacuum) and line CD rep-
resenting atmospheric pressure. With most practical
pressure-measuring instruments the part of the instru-
ment that is subjected to the pressure being measured
is also subjected to atmospheric pressure. Thus
practical instruments actually determine the difference
between the pressure being measured and atmospheric
pres- sure. The pressure that the instrument is
measuring is then termed the gauge pressure. In
Figure 22.6, the line EF represents an absolute
pressure which has a value greater than atmospheric
pressure, i.e. the ‘gauge’ pres- sure is positive.

Figure 22.4

sealed vessel, S, usually made from thin flexible

metal. The air pressure in the vessel is reduced to
nearly zero before sealing, so that a change in
atmospheric pressure will cause the shape of the
vessel to expand or contract. These small changes can
be magnified by means of a lever and be made to
move a pointer over a calibrated scale. Figure 22.5
shows a typical arrangement of an aneroid barometer.
The scale is usually circular and calibrated in
millimetres of mercury. These instruments require Figure 22.6
frequent calibration.
Thus, absolute pressure = gauge pressure +
atmospheric pressure.
Hence a gauge pressure of, say, 60 kPa recorded on
an indicating instrument when the atmospheric
pressure is 101 kPa is equivalent to an absolute
pressure of 60 kPa + 101 kPa, or 161 kPa.
Pressure-measuring indicating instruments are re-
ferred to generally as pressure gauges (which acts as
a reminder that they measure ‘gauge’ pressure).
It is possible, of course, for the pressure indicated
on a pressure gauge to be below atmospheric pressure,
i.e. the gauge pressure is negative. Such a gauge
pressure is often referred to as a vacuum, even though
Part Four

it does not necessarily represent a complete vacuum at

abso- lute zero pressure. Such a pressure is shown by
the line GH in Figure 22.6. An indicating instrument
Figure 22.5 used for measuring such pressures is called a vacuum
gauge.

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252 Mechanical Engineering Principles
A vacuum gauge indication of, say, 0.4 bar, means If limb A is connected to a container of gas whose
that the pressure is 0.4 bar less than atmospheric pres- pressure is below atmospheric then the levels of mer-
sure. If atmospheric pressure is 1 bar, then the cury will move as shown in Figure 22.7(c), such that
absolute pressure is 1 – 0.4 or 0.6 bar. their pressure difference is h2 mm of mercury.
It is also possible merely to compare two pres-
sures, say, PA and PB, using a U-tube manometer.
22.8 The manometer Figure 22.7(d) shows such an arrangement with
(PB – PA) equivalent to h mm of mercury. One appli-
A manometer is a device for measuring or comparing cation of this differential pressure-measuring device
fluid pressures, and is the simplest method of indicat- is in determining the velocity of fluid flow in pipes
ing such pressures. (see Chapter 23).
For the measurement of lower pressures, water
U-tube manometer or paraffin may be used instead of mercury in the U-
tube to give larger values of h and thus greater
A U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent into sensitivity.
a U shape and containing a liquid such as mercury. A
U-tube manometer is shown in Figure 22.7(a). If limb Inclined manometers
A is connected to a container of gas whose pressure is
above atmospheric, then the pressure of the gas will For the measurement of very low pressures, greater
cause the levels of mercury to move as shown in sensitivity is achieved by using an inclined manom-
Figure 22.7(b), such that the difference in height is h1. eter, a typical arrangement of which is shown in Fig-
The measuring scale can be calibrated to give the ure 22.8. With the inclined manometer the liquid used
gauge pressure of the gas as h1 mm of mercury. is water and the scale attached to the inclined tube is
calibrated in terms of the vertical height h. Thus when
a vessel containing gas under pressure is connected
to the reservoir, movement of the liquid levels of the
manometer occurs. Since small-bore tubing is used
the movement of the liquid in the reservoir is very
small compared with the movement in the inclined
tube and is thus neglected. Hence the scale on the
manometer is usually used in the range 0.2 mbar to 2
mbar.

Figure 22.8

The pressure of a gas that a manometer is capable

of measuring is naturally limited by the length of
tube used. Most manometer tubes are less than 2 m
Part Four

in length and this restricts measurement to a maxi-

mum pressure of about 2.5 bar (or 250 kPa) when
mercury is used.
Figure 22.7

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Hydrostatics 253

components acting on ends B and D. The result is that

22.9 The Bourdon pressure gauge sides A and C tend to move outwards and B and D
inwards tending to form a circular cross-section. As
Pressures many times greater than atmospheric the pressure in the tube is increased the tube tends to
can be measured by the Bourdon pressure gauge, uncurl, or if the pressure is reduced the tube curls up
which is the most extensively used of all pressure- further. The movement of the free end of the tube is,
indicating instruments. It is a robust instrument. Its for practical purposes, proportional to the pressure
main component is a piece of metal tube (called the applied to the tube, this pressure, of course, being the
Bourdon tube), usually made of phosphor bronze or gauge pressure (i.e. the difference between
alloy steel, of oval or elliptical cross-section, sealed at atmospheric pressure acting on the outside of the tube
one end and bent into an arc. In some forms the tube and the applied pressure acting on the inside of the
is bent into a spiral for greater sensitivity. A typical tube). By using a link, a pivot and a toothed segment
arrangement is shown in Figure 22.9(a). One end, E, as shown in Figure 22.9(a), the movement can be
of the Bourdon tube is fixed and the fluid whose converted into the rotation of a pointer over a
pressure is to be measured is connected to this end. graduated calibrated scale.
The pressure acts at right angles to the metal tube The Bourdon tube pressure gauge is capable of
wall as shown in the cross-section of the tube in measuring high pressures up to 10 4 bar (i.e. 7600 m of
Figure 22.9(b). Because of its elliptical shape it is mercury) with the addition of special safety features.
clear that the sum of the pressure components, i.e. the A pressure gauge must be calibrated, and this is
total force acting on the sides A and C, exceeds the done either by a manometer, for low pressures, or by a
sum of the pressure piece of equipment called a ‘dead weight tester’.
This tester consists of a piston operating in an oil-
filled cylinder of known bore, and carrying accurately
known weights as shown in Figure 22.10. The gauge
under test is at- tached to the tester and a screwed
piston or ram applies the required pressure, until the
weights are just lifted. While the gauge is being read,
the weights are turned to reduce friction effects.

Figure 22.10

22.10 Vacuum gauges

Vacuum gauges are instruments for giving a visual in-

dication, by means of a pointer, of the amount by
which the pressure of a fluid applied to the gauge is
Part Four

less than the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere.

Two ex- amples of vacuum gauges are the McLeod
Figure 22.9 gauge and the Pirani gauge.

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254 Mechanical Engineering Principles

McLeod gauge Problem 11. Determine an expression for the

The McLeod gauge is normally regarded as a standard thrust acting on a submerged plane surface,
and is used to calibrate other forms of vacuum gauges. which is inclined to the horizontal by an angle θ,
The basic principle of this gauge is that it takes a as shown in Figure 22.11.
known volume of gas at a pressure so low that it
cannot be measured, then compresses the gas in a
known ratio until the pressure becomes large enough
to be measured by an ordinary manometer. This
device is used to measure low pressures, often in the
range 10–6 to
1.0 mm of mercury. A disadvantage of the McLeod
gauge is that it does not give a continuous reading
of pressure and is not suitable for registering rapid
variations in pressure.

Pirani gauge
The Pirani gauge measures the resistance and thus the
temperature of a wire through which current is
flowing. The thermal conductivity decreases with the
pressure in the range 10–1 to 10–4 mm of mercury so
that the increase in resistance can be used to measure Figure 22.11
pressure in this region. The Pirani gauge is calibrated
by com- parison with a McLeod gauge. From Figure 22.11, δF = elemental thrust on dA
= ρgh  dA
But h = y sin θ
22.11 Hydrostatic pressure on Hence, δF = ρgy sin θ dA
submerged surfaces
Total thrust on plane surface= F =  dF    gy sin dA
From Section 22.2, it can be seen that hydrostatic
pres- sure increases with depth according to the or F = ρg sin θ  ydA
formula: _

p = ρgh
However,
_
 y dA = A h where A = area of the surface,
and h = distance of the centroid of the plane from the
Problem 10. The deepest part of the oceans is the free surface.
Marianas Trench, where its depth is approximately
Problem 12. Determine an expression for the
11.52 km (7.16 miles). What is the gauge
position of the centre of pressure of the plane
pressure at this depth, assuming that ρ = 1020
surface P(x, y) of Figure 22.11; this is also
kg/m3 and
the position of the centre of thrust.
g = 9.81 m/s2?
Gauge pressure, p = ρgh
kg Taking moments about O gives:
= 1020 m
 9.81  11.52 
m3 F y =   g y sin dA  y
3
10 m
s2
1bar
Part Four

= 11.527  107 N/m2  However, F = ρg sin θ  y dA

105 N/m 2
 gy sin dA  g sin  y dA
2 2

i.e. pressure, p = 1152.7 bar

Hence, y =  g sin  y dA
Note that from the above calculation, it can be seen   g sin  y dA
that a gauge pressure of 1 bar is approximately
equivalent to a depth of 10 m.  Ak 2

= _ Ox
Ay
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Hydrostatics 255

where  Ak 2 Ox 22.12 Hydrostatic thrust

= the second moment of area on curved surfaces
about Ox
k = the radius of gyration from O. As hydrostatic pressure acts perpendicularly to a sur-
face, the integration of δF over the surface can be
complicated. One method of determining the thrust on
Now try the following Practise Exercise a curved surface is to project its area on flat vertical
and horizontal surfaces, as shown by AB and DE,
respectively, in Figure 22.12.
Practise Exercise 120 Further problems on
hydrostatic pressure
on submerged
surfaces
(Take g = 9.81 m/s2)
1. Determine the gauge pressure acting on the
surface of a submarine that dives to a depth
of 500 m. Take water density as 1020
kg/m3.
[50.03 bar]
2. Solve Problem 1, when the submarine dives
to a depth of 780 m. [78.05 bar]
3. If the gauge pressure measured on the sur-
face of the submarine of Problem 1 were Figure 22.12
92 bar, at what depth has the submarine
dived to? [919.4 m] From equilibrium considerations, F = Fx and W = Fy
and these thrusts must act through the centre of pres-
4. A tank has a flat rectangular end, which is of sures of the respective vertical and horizontal planes.
size 4 m depth by 3 m width. If the tank is The resultant thrust can be obtained by adding Fx and
filled with water to its brim and the flat end is FY vectorially, where W = weight of the fluid enclosed
vertical, determine the thrust on this end by the curved surface and the vertical projection lines
and the position of its centre of pressure. to the free surface, and G = centre of gravity of W.
Take water density as 1000 kg/m3.
[0.235 MN; 2.667 m]

5. If another vertical flat rectangular end of the 22.13 Buoyancy

tank of Problem 4 is of size 6 m depth by
4 m width, determine the thrust on this end The upward force exerted by the fluid on a body that
and position of the centre of pressure. The is wholly or partially immersed in it is called the
depth of water at this end may be assumed buoy- ancy of the body.
to be 6 m. [0.706 MN; 4 m]

6. A tank has a flat rectangular end, which is

inclined to the horizontal surface, so that 22.14 The stability of floating bodies
θ = 30°, where θ is as defined in Figure
22.11, page 254. If this end is of size 6 m For most ships and boats the centre of buoyancy (B)
height and 4 m width, determine the thrust of the vessel is usually below the vessels’ centre of
grav- ity (G), as shown in Figure 22.13(a). When this
Part Four

on this end and the position of the centre of

pressure from the top. The tank may be as- vessel is subjected to a small angle of keel (θ), as
sumed to be just full. shown in Figure 22.13(b), the centre of buoyancy
[0.235 MN; 2 m] moves to the position B,

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256 Mechanical Engineering Principles
where BM = the centre of curvature of the centre of
I
buoyancy = , (given without proof)
V
GM = the metacentric height,

Figure 22.15

M = mass of yacht = 100 tonnes,

KB = vertical distance of the centre of buoyancy
(B) above the keel (K) = 1.2 m (see Figure
22.15),
Figure 22.13 BM = distance of the metacentre (M) above the
centre of buoyancy = 2.4 m.
M = the position of the metacentre, He then carries out an inclining experiment, where
I = the second moment of area of the water plane he moves a mass of 50 kg through a transverse
about its centreline, and distance of 10 m across the yacht’s deck. In doing
this, he finds that the resulting angle of keel, θ =
V = displaced volume of the vessel. 1°. What is the metacentric height (GM) and the
The metacentric height GM can be found by a posi- tion of the centre of gravity of the yacht
simple inclining experiment, where a weight P is above the keel, namely KG? Assume g = 9.81 m/s2.
moved trans- versely a distance x, as shown in Figure
22.14. P = 50 kg  9.81 = 490.5 N,
kg m
W = 100 tonnes  1000  9.81 = 981 kN,
tonne s2
x = 10 m,
θ = 1° from which,
1
tan θ = 0.017455 and cot θ = = 57.29
tan 
Px
From equation (22.1), GM = cot q
W

Figure 22.14 490.5 N  10 m  57.29

= 981  103N
From rotational equilibrium considerations, i.e. metacentric height, GM = 0.286 m
W(GM)tan θ = Px Now KM = KB + BM = 1.2 m + 2.4 m = 3.6 m
Px
Therefore, GM = cot θ (22.1) KG = KM – GM = 3.6 – 0.286 = 3.314 m
W
where W = the weight of the vessel, i.e. centre of gravity above the keel, KG = 3.314 m,
1 (where ‘K’ is a point on the keel).
and cot θ =
tan
Problem 14. A barge of length 30 m and width
Part Four

Problem 13. A naval architect has carried out 8 m floats on an even keel at a depth of 3 m. What
hydrostatic calculations on a yacht, where he has is the value of its buoyancy? Take density of water,
found the following: ρ, as 1000 kg/m3 and g as 9.81 m/s2.

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Hydrostatics 257

The displaced volume of the barge, (a) Weight of two end plates,
V = 30 m  8 m  3 m = 720 m3. W1 =  R 2  t  S  g  2 where radius R = D/2
From Section 22.4, =  (0.5)2  (10  103)  7860  9.81  2
kg m
buoyancy = Vρg = 720 m3  1000  9.81
= 1211.2 N
m3 s2
= 7.063 MN Weight of circular cylinder,

Problem 15. If the vertical centre of gravity of W2 = 2 Rmean t  h   S  g

the barge in Problem 14 is 2 m above the keel, (i.e.
KG = 2 m), what is the metacentric height of the
 
 2  0.5  5  103  (10  103)

barge?  0.5  7860  9.81  1199 N

Total weight of buoy, W = W1 + W2
Now KB = the distance of the centre of buoyancy of = 1211 + 1199 = 2410 N
the
3
barge from the keel = i.e. KB = 1.5 m.
m (b) Buoyancy, B = W = 2410 N = weight of water
2
From page 256, BM = Lb 3 displaced (1)
I and for a rectangle, I
12 Let H = draught of water of the buoy, so that:
=
V
from Table 8.1, page 108, where L = length of the
waterplane = 30 m, and B =  R 2H  W  9.81
b = width of the waterplane = 8 m. 3 =  (0.5)2  H  1020  9.81 = 7858.9 H (2)
30  8
Hence, moment of inertia, I = = 1280 m4
12 Equating (1) and (2) gives: 7858.9 H = 2410
2410
From Problem 14, volume, V = 720 m3, from which, depth, H = = 0.307 m
I 1280 7858.9
hence, BM =  = 1.778 m
V 720 H 0.307
Now, KM = KB + BM = 1.5 m + 1.778 m = 3.278 m (c) KB =  = 0.1533 m
2 2
i.e. the metacentre above the keel, KM = 3.278 m.
I R4 1
Since KG = 2 m (given), then BM   
V 4  R 2H
GM = KM – KG = 3.278 – 2 = 1.278 m,
2 0.52
i.e. the metacentric height of the barge, GM = 1.278  R 
m 4H 4  0.307  0.204 m

KM = KB + BM = 0.153 + 0.204
Problem 16. A circular cylindrical steel buoy,
made from 10 mm thick steel plate, is of a hollow = 0.357 m
box-like disc shape, as shown in Figure 22.16. It
is sealed off at its top and bottom by circular 0.5
GM = KM – KG = 0.357
plates so that it is watertight. (a) If the external – 2
diameter of the buoy, D, is 1 m and its height, h,
is 0.5 m, deter- mine its weight, W, given that the Hence, GM = 0.107 m
density of steel,
ρS = 7860 kg/m3. (b) At what depth, H, will the buoy
float if the density of water, ρW = 1020 kg/m3?
(c) What is its GM? Take g to be 9.81 m/s2
Part Four

Figure 22.16 Circular cylindrical buoy

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Problem 17. A submarine pressure hull is in
the form of a watertight circular cylindrical shell,
of length 80 m, blocked off by flat ends, and of
external diameter 10 m, and it descends to the
bottom of the Mariana Trench, which is 11.52
km
deep. What will be the hydrostatic pressure acting
on it? If a double-decker London bus is of mass
7 tonnes what will be the equivalent number of
double-decker London buses acting on this hull?
Density of water, ρW = 1020 kg/m3. Take g to be
9.81 m/s2.

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258 Mechanical Engineering Principles
Hydrostatic pressure,
p = ρgh = 1020  9.81  11520 3. A barge of length 20 m and of width 5 m
floats on an even keel at a depth of 2 m. What
115.27  106
= 115.27 MPa is the value of its buoyancy? [2 MN]
= 105 Pa/bar
4. An inclining experiment is carried out on
= 1152.7 bar ≡ 1152.7 atmosphere the barge of Problem 3 where a mass of 20
(since 105 pascals = 1 bar ≡ 14.5 psi) kg is moved transversely across the deck by
a dis- tance of 2.2 m. The resulting angle of
Let A = area of the external surface of the pressure hull keel is 0.8°. Determine the metacentric
assuming flat ends =  R 2  2  2 RL10 height, GM.
where R = external cylinder radius =  5 m and
[0.0155 m]
2
L = length between its ends = 80 m 5. Determine the value of the radius of curva-
Hence, area A =  (5)  2  2  5  80
2 ture of the centre of buoyancy, namely, BM,
for the barge of Problems 3 and 4, and
= 157.1 + 2513.3 = 2670.4 m2 hence the position of the centre of gravity
Total hydrostatic head on the submarine hull above the keel, KG. [2.026 m]
= p  A = 115.27  106  2670.4 = 307817 MN
6. If the submarine of Problem 2 floats so
106N kg
that its top is 2 m above the water,
Hence, W = 307817 MN  
MN 9.81N determine the centre of curvature of the
tonne centre of buoy- ancy, BM. [0.633 m]
= 3.1378  1010kg 
1000 kg
= 31.378  106 tonnes Practise Exercise 122 Short-answer
Number of double-decker London questions on
buses, hydrostatics

31.378  106 1. Define pressure.

N= 7 = 4.48  106 2. State the unit of pressure.
Thus, N = 4.48 million equivalent weight of double- 3. Define a fluid.
decker London buses
4. State the four basic factors governing the
Because of the huge heads suffered by submarine
pressure in fluids.
pres- sure hulls, they are one of the most difficult
structures to design. (see [1], page 260) 5. Write down a formula for determining the
pressure at any point in a fluid in symbols,
defining each of the symbols and giving
Now try the following Practise Exercises their units.
6. What is meant by atmospheric pressure?
Practise Exercise 121 Further problems on
hydrostatics 7. State the approximate value of
atmospheric pressure.
(In the following problems, where necessary, take
8. State what is meant by gauge pressure.
g = 9.81 m/s2 and density of water ρ = 1020 kg/m3)
9. State what is meant by absolute pressure.
1. A ship is of mass 10000 kg. If the ship floats
in the water, what is the value of its buoy- 10. State the relationship between absolute,
ancy? [98.1 kN] gauge and atmospheric pressures.
2. A submarine may be assumed to be in the 11. State Archimedes’ principle.
Part Four

form of a circular cylinder of 10 m external 12. Name four pressure measuring devices.
diameter and of length 100 m. If the sub-
marine floats just below the surface of the 13. Standard atmospheric pressureis 101325
water, what is the value of its buoyancy? Pa. State this pressure in millibars.
[78.59 MN]

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Hydrostatics 259

14. Briefly describe how a barometer operates. (c) acts at right angles to the surface con-
taining the fluid
15. State the advantage of a Fortin barometer
(d) depends on the area of the surface
over a simple barometer.
16. What is the main disadvantage of a Fortin 3. A container holds water of density
barometer? 1000 kg/m3. Taking the gravitational
acceleration as 10 m/s2, the pressure at a
17. Briefly describe an aneroid barometer. depth of 100 mm is:
18. What is a vacuum gauge? (a) 1 kPa (b) 1 MPa
(c) 100 Pa (d) 1 Pa
19. Briefly describe the principle of operation
of a U-tube manometer. 4. If the water in Question 3 is now replaced
by a fluid having a density of 2000 kg/m 3,
20. When would an inclined manometer be the pressure at a depth of 100 mm is:
used in preference to a U-tube manometer?
(a) 2 kPa (b) 500 kPa
21. Briefly describe the principle of operation (c) 200 Pa (d) 0.5 Pa
of a Bourdon pressure gauge.
5. The gauge pressure of fluid in a pipe is
22. What is a ‘dead weight tester’? 70 kPa and the atmospheric pressure is
100 kPa. The absolute pressure of the fluid
23. What is a Pirani gauge?
in the pipe is:
24. What is a McLeod gauge used for? (a) 7 MPa (b) 30 kPa
25. What is buoyancy? (c) 170 kPa (d) 10/7 kPa

26. What does the abbreviation BM mean? 6. A U-tube manometer contains mercury
of density 13600 kg/m3. When the differ-
27. What does the abbreviation GM mean? ence in the height of the mercury levels is
28. Define BM in terms of the second moment 100 mm and taking the gravitational accel-
of area I of the water plane, and the dis- eration as 10 m/s2, the gauge pressure is:
placed volume V of a vessel. (a) 13.6 Pa (b) 13.6 MPa
(c) 13 710 Pa (d) 13.6 kPa
29. What is the primary purpose of a ship’s in-
clining experiment? 7. The mercury in the U-tube of Question 6
is to be replaced by water of density
1000 kg/m3. The height of the tube to con-
tain the water for the same gauge pressure
Practise Exercise 123 Multiple-choice
is:
questions on
(a) (1/13.6) of the original height
hydrostatics
(b) 13.6 times the original height
(Answers on page 298) (c) 13.6 m more than the original height
(d) 13.6 m less than the original height
1. A force of 50 N acts uniformly over and
at right angles to a surface. When the area 8. Which of the following devices does not
of the surface is 5 m2, the pressure on the measure pressure?
area is: (a) barometer (b) McLeod gauge
(a) 250 Pa (b) 10 Pa (c) thermocouple (d) manometer
(c) 45 Pa (d) 55 Pa
9. A pressure of 10 kPa is equivalent to:
2. Which of the following statements is false? (a) 10 millibars (b) 1 bar
The pressure at a given depth in a fluid (c) 0.1 bar (d) 0.1 millibars
Part Four

(a) is equal in all directions 10. A pressure of 1000 mbars is equivalent to:
(b) is independent of the shape of the con- (a) 0.1 kN/m2 (b) 10 kPa
tainer (c) 1000 Pa (d) 100 kN/m2

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260 Mechanical Engineering Principles

11. Which of the following statements is false? (a) h1 (b) h1 + 76

(a) Barometers may be used for the mea- (c) h1 – 76 (d) 76 – h1
surement of altitude. 20. In question 19 the absolute pressure of the
(b) Standard atmospheric pressure is the gas (in cm of mercury) is:
pressure due to the mass of the air (a) h1 (b) h1 + 76
above the ground.
(c) The maximum pressure that a mercury (c) h1 – 76 (d) 76 – h1
manometer, using a 1 m length of 21. Which of the following statements is true?
glass tubing, is capable of measuring
(a) Atmospheric pressure of 101.325
is in the order of 130 kPa.
kN/m2 is equivalent to 101.325
(d) An inclined manometer is designed to
millibars.
measure higher values of pressure
(b) An aneroid barometer is used as a
than the U-tube manometer.
stan- dard for calibration purposes.
In Questions 12 and 13 assume that atmospheric (c) In engineering, ‘pressure’ is the force
pressure is 1 bar. per unit area exerted by fluids.
(d) Water is normally used in a barometer
12. A Bourdon pressure gauge indicates a pres-
to measure atmospheric pressure.
sure of 3 bars. The absolute pressure of the
system being measured is: 22. Which of the following statements is true
(a) 1 bar (b) 2 bars for a ship floating in equilibrium?
(c) 3 bars (d) 4 bars (a) The weight is larger than the
buoyancy.
13. In question 12, the gauge pressure is:
(b) The weight is smaller than the buoy-
(a) 1 bar (b) 2 bars
ancy.
(c) 3 bars (d) 4 bars (c) The weight is equal to the buoyancy.
In Questions 14 to 18 select the most suitable (d) The weight is independent of the
pressure-indicating device from the following buoy- ancy.
list: 23. For a ship to be initially stable, the meta-
(a) Mercury filled U-tube manometer centric height must be:
(b) Bourdon gauge (a) positive
(c) McLeod gauge (b) negative
(d) aneroid barometer (c) zero
(e) Pirani gauge (d) equal to the buoyancy
(f) Fortin barometer 24. For a ship to be stable, it is helpful if KG
(g) water-filled inclined barometer is:
14. A robust device to measure high pressures
in the range 0 – 30 MPa.
15. Calibration of a Pirani gauge. References
16. Measurement of gas pressures comparable
with atmospheric pressure. [1] ROSS, C.T.F, Pressure Vessels;
External Pressure Technology –
17. To measure pressures of the order of 1 MPa. 2nd Edition, Woodhead
18. Measurement of atmospheric pressure to a Publishers, Cam- bridge, UK.
high degree of accuracy. [2] Pressure – www.routledge.com/cw/bird
A video reference on YouTube on
Part Four

19. Figure 22.7(b), on page 252, shows a U- various types of pressure,

tube manometer connected to a gas under including atmospheric pressure,
pressure. If atmospheric pressure is 76 cm hydrostatic pressure and wind
of mercury and h1 is measured in pressure, which in the case of
centimetres then the gauge pressure (in cm the last type, was experienced by
of mercury) of the gas is:

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Hurricane Katrina & the tornadoes
experienced in Alabama and
elsewhere.
[3] Hydrostatic Stability – www.routledge.com/cw/bird
A video reference on YouTube on the damage
stability of
ro-ro ‘car’ ferries.

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