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IGCSE Maths Edexcel 

3. Sequences, Functions & Graphs

CONTENTS
3.1 Sequences
3.1.1 Sequences - Basics
3.1.2 Sequences - Linear
3.1.3 Arithmetic Sequences - Sum of n terms
3.2 Function Notation
3.2.1 Functions - Basics
3.2.2 Compound Functions
3.2.3 Inverse Functions
3.2.4 Functions - Domain, Range & Exclusions
3.3 D-T / V-T Graphs
3.3.1 Distance-Time Graphs
3.3.2 Speed-Time Graphs
3.4 Plotting Graphs
3.4.1 Drawing Graphs - Shapes
3.4.2 Drawing Graphs -Using a Table
3.4.3 Drawing Graphs - Trig Graphs
3.5 Coordinates
3.5.1 Coordinates
3.6 Equation of a Line
3.6.1 Straight Lines - Finding Equations
3.6.2 Straight Lines - Drawing Graphs
3.7 Perpendicular Lines
3.7.1 Perpendicular Lines
3.8 Transformations of Graphs
3.8.1 Transformations of Graphs
3.9 Finding Gradients of Non-Linear Graphs
3.9.1 Finding Gradients of Non-Linear Graphs
3.10 Solving Equations using Graphs
3.10.1 Solving Equations using Graphs
3.11 Calculus
3.11.1 Differentiation - Basics
3.11.2 Differentiation - Turning Points

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3.11.3 Differentiation - Problem Solving YOUR NOTES

3.11.4 Differentiation - Kinematics 

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3.1 Sequences

3.1.1 Sequences - Basics

What are sequences?

A sequence is an order set of (usually) numbers
Each number in a sequence is called a term
The location of a term within a sequence is called its position
The letter n is often used for (an unknown) position

Subscript notation is used to talk about a particular term

a1 would be the first term in a sequence
a7 would be the seventh term
an would be the nth term

What is a position-to-term rule?

A position-to-term rule gives the nth term of a sequence in terms of n
This is a very powerful piece of mathematics
With a position-to-term rule the 100th term of a sequence can be found without
having to know or work out the first 99 terms!

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

What is a term-to-term rule?

A term-to-term rule gives the (n+1)th term in terms of the nth term
ie an+1 is given in terms of an
If a term is known, the next one can be worked out

How do I use the position-to-term and term-to-term rules?

These can be used to generate a sequence
From a given sequence the rules can be deduced
Recognising and being aware of the types of sequences helps
Linear and quadratic sequences
Geometric sequences
Fibonacci sequences
Other sequences

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

Exam Tip
 Write the position numbers above (or below) each term in a sequence.This will
make it much easier to recognise and spot common types of sequence.

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3.1.2 Sequences - Linear YOUR NOTES


What is a sequence?
A sequence is simply a set of numbers (or objects) in an order

What is a linear sequence?

A linear sequence is one where the numbers go up (or down) by the same amount
each time
eg 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, … (add 3 to get the next term)
15, 10, 5, 0, -5, … (subtract 5 to get the next term)

If we look at the differences between the terms, we see that they are constant

What can we do with linear sequences?

You should be able to recognise and continue a linear sequence
You should also be able to find a formula for the nth term of a linear sequence in terms
of n
This formula will be in the form:
nth term = dn + b

where
d is the common difference, b is a constant that makes the first term “work”

How to find the nth term formula for a linear sequence

Find the common difference between the terms – this is d
Put the first term and n=1 into the formula, then solve to find b

Worked Example
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3.1.3 Arithmetic Sequences - Sum of n terms YOUR NOTES


What is an arithmetic sequence or arithmetic series?
Ensure you are familiar with Sequences – Basics and Linear

An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers that increase or decrease by the

same amount from one term to the next
This amount is called the common difference
eg. 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, ... common difference of 4
eg2. 24, 17, 10, 3, -4, ..., -95 common difference of -7

An arithmetic series is where terms are added together

eg. 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 + 21 + ...
eg2. 24 + 17 + 10 + 3 + -4 + ... + -95

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

Lots of letters are used in sequences, make sure you are familiar with them
a – the first term in an arithmetic series
d – the common difference of an arithmetic series
n – the number of terms in the arithmetic series

Some series go on forever (ie. have an infinite number of terms – but it could be
that only the first 10 terms, say, are of interest, so n = 10)

Sn is used for the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic series

How do I find the sum of an arithmetic series?

There is a formula for adding up the first n terms of an arithmetic series
The formula is included on the formulae sheet

You do not need to where the formula comes from but, just for fun, here’s a hint
To add up the numbers 1 to 10
Write out the numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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Write them backwards YOUR NOTES

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Add up both lists
11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

This is 10 × 11 = 110
But this is twice the sum as two lots were added together
So the sum of the numbers 1 to 10 is 110 ÷ 2 = 55

Exam Tip
 It is not necessarily Sn you’ll be asked to find in a question – any of a, d, n and S
could be asked for.To avoid confusion always write down what you know and
what you are trying to find.Remember that substituting known values into a
formula first, then rearranging, is easier than the other way round!

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Worked Example
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3.2 Function Notation

3.2.1 Functions - Basics

What is a function?
A function is simply a mathematical “machine” that takes one set of numbers and
changes them into another set of numbers according to a set rule
eg. If the function (rule) is “double the number and add 1”

Putting 3 in to the function would give 2 × 3 + 1 = 7 out

Putting -4 in would give 2 × (-4) + 1 = -7 out
Putting a in would give 2a + 1 out

The number being put into the function is often called the input
The number coming out of the function is often called the output

What does a function look like?

A function f can be written as:
f(x) = … or f : x ↦ …

which mean exactly the same thing

eg. The function with the rule “triple the number and subtract 4” would be written:

f(x) = 3x – 4 or f:x ↦ 3x – 4
In such cases, x would be the input and f would be the output
Sometimes functions don’t have names like f and can be written as y = …
eg. y = 3x – 4

How does a function work?

1. A function has an INPUT (x) and OUTPUT (f or y)
2. Whatever goes in the bracket (instead of x)with f, replaces the x on the other side

eg. For the function f(x) = 2x + 1

f(3) = 2 × 3 + 1=7
f(-4) = 2 × (-4) + 1 = -7
f(a) = 2a + 1

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Worked Example
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3.2.2 Compound Functions YOUR NOTES


What is a compound function?
A compound function is one function applied to the output of another function

What do compound functions look like?

The notation you will see is:
fg(x)

it can be written as:

f(g(x))

and means “f applied to the output of g(x)” – ie. g(x) happens FIRST !

How does a compound function work?

If you are putting a number into fg(x):

1. Put the number into g(x)

2. Put the output into f(x)
eg. if f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 1/x

then fg(2) = f(½) =2 × ½ + 1 = 2

and gf(2) = g(2 × 2 + 1) = g(5) = 1/5

If you are using algebra:

1. For fg(x) put g(x) wherever you see x in f(x)

2. Substitute g(x) with the right hand side of g(x)=…
3. SIMPLIFY if necessary

eg. if f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 1 / x

then fg(x) = f(1/x) = 2 × 1 / x + 1 = 2 / x +1

and gf(x) = g(2 × x + 1) = g(2x + 1) = 1 / 2x+1

Exam Tip
 Make sure you are applying the functions in the correct order.The letter nearest
the bracket is the function applied first.

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Worked Example
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3.2.3 Inverse Functions YOUR NOTES


What is an inverse function?
An inverse function does the exact opposite of the function it came from
Eg. if the function “doubles the number and adds 1”

then its inverse will “subtract 1 and halve the result”

It is the INVERSE operations in the reverse order

What do inverse functions look like?

An inverse function f-1 can be written as:

f-1(x) = … or f-1 : x ↦ …
Eg. if f(x) = 2x + 1 its inverse can be written as:

f-1(x) = x – 1 / 2 or f-1: x ↦ x – 1 / 2

What do you find an inverse function?

1. Write the function in the form y=…
2. SWAP the xs and ys to get x=…
3. REARRANGE to give y=… again
4. Write as f-1(x) = … (or f-1 : x ↦ …)

Eg. if f(x)=2x+1 its inverse can be found as follows …

y= 2x + 1 1 – 1. Write the function as y=…

x = 2y + 1 2 – 2. Swap the xs and ys

x – 1= 2y 3 – 3. Rearrange into the form y=… (or …=y)

x–1/2=y
f-1(x) = x – 1 / 2 – 4. Write as f-1(x)=…

Worked Example
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3.2.4 Functions - Domain, Range & Exclusions YOUR NOTES


What are functions?
Functions are a formal way of writing mathematical expressions
eg. f(x) = 3x + 2 would be a linear function
eg2. g : x ⟼ x2 + 3x – 5 would be a quadratic function

What is the domain of a function?

The domain of a function is the values of x (the “input”) are allowed to take
For some functions, x cannot be certain values
eg. f(x) = 1 / x

x cannot take the value 0

Other times we may choose to restrict the values of x

eg. The function g(x) = 5 – 2x2 is used to model the height of water throughout the
day where x indicates time

It may make sense to limit x so it only covers a 24 hour period

Inequalities are used to describe the values x can take

Any exclusions are usually indicated using the “not equal to” symbol (≠)

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

What is the range of a function?

The range of a function is the values of f (the “output”) that could occur
Some functions can never take certain values, regardless of the value of x
eg. f(x) = x2

f, a squared (real) value, cannot be negative

eg2. g(x) = 1 / x

g can never be zero (because numerator cannot be 0)

The range of a function can be influenced by its domain

As with the domain, inequalities are used to describe the values a function can take
and “not equal to” (≠) is used for any exclusions

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How do I solve problems involving the domain and range

You need to be able to identify and explain any exclusions in the domain of a function
You need to be able to deduce the range of a function from its expression and domain
You may also be asked to sketch a graph of a function

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This could involve sketching parts of familiar graphs that are restricted because of YOUR NOTES
the domain and exclusions


Domain and range of inverse functions

Make sure you are familiar with inverse functions, denoted by f-1, g-1, etc.
The range of a function is the domain of the inverse function
The domain of a function is the range of the inverse function

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

Exam Tip
 A graph of the function can help “see” both the domain and range of function,
and a sketch can help if you have not been given a diagram.

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Worked Example
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3.3 D-T / V-T Graphs

3.3.1 Distance-Time Graphs

What is a distance-time graph?

Distance-time graphs show distance from a fixed point at different times
Distance is on the vertical axis, and time is on the horizontal axis.

The gradient of the graph is the speed:

Speed =RISE / RUN=DISTANCE / TIME

Straight line = Constant speed
Horizontal line = Stationary (not moving!)

Exam Tip
 It is easy to get confused between different types of graph.

Look at the label on the vertical axis to make sure you are looking at a DISTANCE-
time graph (not speed-time).

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Worked Example
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Worked Example
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3.3.2 Speed-Time Graphs YOUR NOTES


What is a speed-time graph?
Speed-time graphs show speed at different times
Speed is on the vertical axis, and time is on the horizontal axis.

The gradient of the graph is the acceleration:

Acceleration = RISE / RUN = SPEED / TIME

Area under graph = Distance covered

Horizontal line = Constant speed (so zero acceleration)

Exam Tip
 It is easy to get confused between different types of graph.

Look at the label on the vertical axis to make sure you are looking at a SPEED-
time graph (not distance-time).

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Worked Example
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Worked Example
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3.4 Plotting Graphs

3.4.1 Drawing Graphs - Shapes

Why do we need to know what graphs look like?

Graphs are used in various aspects of mathematics – but in the real world they can
take on specific meanings
For example a linear (straight line) graph could be the path a ship needs to sail along
to get from one port to another
An exponential graph (y=kx) can be used to model population growth – for instance to
monitor wildlife conservation projects

Drawing graphs – shapes

Recalling facts alone won’t do much for boosting your GCSE Mathematics grade!
But being familiar with the general shapes of graphs will help you quickly recognise the
sort of maths you are dealing with and features of the graph a question may refer to

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3.4.2 Drawing Graphs -Using a Table YOUR NOTES


How do we draw a graph using a table of values?
Use your calculator
THINK what the graph might look like – see the previous notes on being familiar with
shapes of graphs
Find the TABLE function on your CALCULATOR
Enter the FUNCTION – f(x)

(use ALPHA button and x or X, depending on make/model)

(Press = when finished)

(If you are asked for another function, g(x), just press enter again)
Enter Start, End and Step (gap between x values)
Press = and scroll up and down to see y values
PLOT POINTS and join with a SMOOTH CURVE

If your calculator does not have a TABLE function then you will have to work out each y
value separately using the normal mode on your calculator
To avoid errors always put negative numbers in brackets and use the (-) key rather
than the subtraction key

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Worked Example
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3.4.3 Drawing Graphs - Trig Graphs YOUR NOTES


Why do we need to know what trigonometric graphs look like?
Trigonometric Graphs are used in various applications of mathematics – for example,
the oscillating nature can be used to model how a pendulum swings

Drawing graphs – trig graphs

As with other graphs, being familiar with the general style of trigonometric graphs will
help you sketch them quickly and you can then use them to find values or angles
alongside your calculator
All trigonometric graphs follow a pattern – a “starting point” and then “something
happens every 90°”.

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

(*) An asymptote is a line that a graph gets ever closer to without ever crossing or
touching it

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3.5 Coordinates

3.5.1 Coordinates

What are coordinates?

When we want to plot a point on a graph we need to know where to put it
If the horizontal axis is labelled x and the vertical axis is labelled y, then the x and y
coordinates are how far we go along the x and y axes to plot the point

What can we do with coordinates?

If we have two points with coordinates (x1, y 1) and (x2, y 2) then we should be able to
find
the gradient of the line through them
the midpoint of the two points
the distance between the two points

Don’t get fazed by the horrid notation (x1, y 1) – this is just “point 1” and the other is
“point 2” so we put the little numbers (subscripts) in so that we know which coordinate
we are referring to. In questions there’ll be lots of nice numbers
Here’s how we do each of those:

You should also know that three points A, B and C lie on the same STRAIGHT LINE if AB
and AC (or BC) have the same gradient

Exam Tip
 If in doubt, SKETCH IT!

A quick, reasonably accurate sketch can make things a lot clearer.

All of the above can also be applied to 3D coordinates in the form (x, y, z), on a 3D axis.

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Worked Example
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Worked Example
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3.6 Equation of a Line

3.6.1 Straight Lines - Finding Equations

Why do we want to know about straight lines and their equations?

Straight Line Graphs (Linear Graphs) have lots of uses in mathematics – one use is in
navigation
We may want to know the equation of a straight line so we can program it into a
computer that will plot the line on a screen, along with several others, to make shapes
and graphics

How do we find the equation of a straight line?

The general EQUATION of a straight line is y = mx + c
where m is the gradient
c is the y-axis intercept

To find the EQUATION of a straight line you need TWO things:

the gradient, m
any point on the line

You might find these things from a graph, another equation or two points
You may be asked to give the equation in the form ax + by + c = 0
(especially if m is a fraction)

If in doubt, SKETCH IT!

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Worked Example
 

Worked Example


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3.6.2 Straight Lines - Drawing Graphs YOUR NOTES


How do we draw the graph of a straight line from an equation?
Before you start trying to draw a straight line, make sure you understand how to find
the equation of a straight line – that will help you understand this
How we draw a straight line depends on what form the equation is given in
There are two main forms you might see:
y = mx + c and ax + by = c

Different ways of drawing the graph of a straight line:

1. From the form y = mx + c

(you might be able to rearrange to this form easily)

plot c on the y-axis

go 1 across, m up (and repeat until you can draw the line)

2. From ax + by = c

put x = 0 to find y-axis intercept

put y = 0 to find x-axis intercept

(You may prefer to rearrange to y = mx + c and use above method)

Exam Tip
 It might be easier just to plot ANY two points on the line (a third one as a check is
not a bad idea either) or use the TABLE function on your calculator.

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Worked Example
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3.7 Perpendicular Lines

3.7.1 Perpendicular Lines

What are perpendicular lines?

You should already know that PARALLEL lines have equal gradients
PERPENDICULAR LINES do meet each other and where they do the two lines form a
right angle – ie they meet at 90°

What’s the deal with perpendicular gradients (and lines)?

Before you start trying to work with perpendicular gradients and lines, make sure you
understand how to find the equation of a straight line – that will help you do the sorts
of questions you will meet
Gradients m 1 and m 2 are PERPENDICULAR if m 1 × m 2 = -1
We can use m 2 = -1 ÷ m 1 to find a perpendicular gradient

(This is called the NEGATIVE RECIPROCAL)

If in doubt, SKETCH IT!

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Worked Example
 

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3.8 Transformations of Graphs

3.8.1 Transformations of Graphs

What are graph transformations?

You should have come across transformations of shapes – reflections, rotations,
translations and enlargements
These are often performed on 2D coordinate grids (and can be applied in 3D too)
Therefore it is possible to transform graphs as they are also drawn on 2D coordinate
grids

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Graph transformations are described differently to transforming shapes YOUR NOTES

In general, a graph can be considered as having the equation y = f(x) ...

... where f(x) will be some expression involving x

At IGCSE graph transformations cover:

linear functions f(x) = mx + c
quadratic functions f(x) = ax2 + bx +c
f(x) = sin x
f(x) = cos x

In fact many exam questions do not state the actual function!

A graph is provided with it being referred to just as y = f(x)
It will be impossible to tell what f(x) is from the graph
But some key points will be highlighted

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Graph Translations f(x+a) and f(x)+a YOUR NOTES

f(x + a) translates the graph -a units in the positive x direction (‘right’) 
f(x – a) translates the graph a units in the negative x direction (‘left’)
Notice the opposite signs!

f(x) + a translates the graph a units in the positive y direction (‘up’)

f(x) – a translates the graph a units in the negative y direction (‘down’)

There is a logic to these but the easiest way is to memorise and recognise them
With y = f(x) ± a the “±a” happens after the function
So the ‘output’ of the function changes
ie. y-coordinates change

With y = f(x ± a) the “±a” happens before the function

So the ‘input’ of the function changes
ie. x-coordinates change

These second translations may seem as though they are in the wrong direction
In the case of “+a” the ‘input’ will be greater
so the graph happens “sooner”

ie. graph moves left

In the case of “-a” the ‘input’ will be smaller

so the graph happens “later”

ie. graph moves right

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

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

Graph Stretches f(ax) and af(x)

f(ax) is a horizontal stretch by a scale factor of 1/a
May also be referred to as a stretch in (or parallel to) the x-direction
This looks like a “squash” but that is not a technical term – do not use it!

af(x) is a vertical stretch by a scale factor of a

May also be referred to as a stretch in (or parallel to) the y-direction

There is a logic to these as well but memory and recognition is easier!

With y = af(x) the “a” happens after the function
So the ‘output’ of the function changes
ie. y-coordinates change

With y = f(ax) the “a” happens before the function

So the ‘input’ of the function changes
ie. x-coordinates change

This stretch may seem it has the wrong scale factor (1/a)

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However the ‘input’ is being multiplied by a – so x will need to be divided by a in YOUR NOTES
order for the function to receive the same input


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

Special cases – graph reflections f(-x) and -f(x)

f(-x) and -f(x) are of the form of stretches (a = -1) but lead to special cases that are
easiest dealt with separately
f(-x) is a reflection in the y-axis
-f(x) is a reflection in the x-axis

Yes, there is a logic to these too but as before it is easier to memorise them

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With y = -f(x) the “-” happens after the function YOUR NOTES
So the ‘output’ of the function changes ie y-coordinates change sign

y-coordinates changing sign means a reflection in the x-axis

(Think about it or draw a diagram if you’re not yet convinced!)

With y = f(-x) the “a” happens before the function

So the ‘input’ of the function changes ie x-coordinates change sign
x-coordinates changing sign means a reflection in the y-axis
(Go on, draw a diagram!)

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

Recognising graph transformations?

So far all examples have involved sketching a graph for a given transformation
However some questions ask for a description of the transformation having provided
both the original and transformed graphs

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

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Exam Tip
 If not mentioned in the question, look for key points on the graph to transform

where the graph crosses the x- and/or y- axes and any turning points that have
obvious coordinates.Once the key points have been transformed it is usually
easy to complete the rest.Some questions may only ask you about what
happens to certain points and not the whole graph.

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

Worked Example


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3.9 Finding Gradients of Non-Linear Graphs

3.9.1 Finding Gradients of Non-Linear Graphs

What is a non-linear graph?

A linear graph is a straight-line graph
These are easily identified as their equations can always be written in the form

y = mx + c, where m is the gradient and c is the y-axis intercept

All other graphs are non-linear – ie. curves

The equations of non-linear graphs take various forms
Here are a few you could plot quickly using graphing software
y = x2 - 4x + 3 (a quadratic graph - called a parabola)
y = sin x (a trigonometric graph)
y = x3 + 2x2 – 4 (a cubic graph)
y = 1 / x (a reciprocal graph)

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

What is a gradient?
Gradient means steepness
Another way of thinking about gradient is how y changes as x changes
On a graph this means how steep the graph is at a certain point on it
ie. how is y changing at a particular value of x

For a linear graph the gradient is constant – the value of x is irrelevant

For a non-linear graph, the gradient is dependent on the x-coordinate

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

How do I find the gradient of a non-linear graph?

Using a copy of the graph it will only be possible to find an estimate of a gradient
Differentiation allows gradients to be found exactly for certain graphs
First, a tangent to the curve must be drawn
A tangent to a curve is a straight line that touches it at one point only

The gradient of a curve, at point (x , y) is equal to the gradient of the tangent at point
(x , y)

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

STEP 1 Draw a tangent to the curve at the required x-coordinate

STEP 2 Turn the tangent into a right-angled triangle
STEP 3 Measure/Read off (some estimating usually involved here) the rise and the run
STEP 4 The gradient is given by rise ÷ run
(Alternatively this is “Change in y” ÷ “Change in x”)

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

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

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

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

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Exam Tip
 A sharp pencil helps – but not too sharp – pencil markings made with very sharp

pencils are difficult for examiners to see once papers have been scanned into a
computer.Remember your answer is an estimate so can vary a fair amount from
someone else’s attempt.Make your working clear – your tangent, right-angled
triangle and your rise/run values should all be clear in your working.

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Worked Example
 

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Worked Example
 

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Worked Example
 

Worked Example


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Worked Example
 

Worked Example


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3.10 Solving Equations using Graphs

3.10.1 Solving Equations using Graphs

How do we use graphs to solve equations?

Solutions are always read off the x-axis
Solutions of f(x) = 0 are where the graph of y = f(x) cuts the x-axis
If given g(x)=0 instead (Q: “by drawing a suitable straight line”) then:
Rearrange into f(x) = mx + c and draw the line y = mx + c
Solutions are the x-coordinates of where the line crosses the curve

Note that solutions may also be called roots

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Worked Example
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3.11 Calculus

3.11.1 Differentiation - Basics

What is differentiation?
Differentiation is part of the branch of mathematics called Calculus
It is concerned with the rate at which changes takes place – so has lots of real‑world
uses:
The rate at which a car is moving – ie. its speed
The rate at which a virus spreads amongst a population

To begin to understand differentiation you’ll need to understand gradient

Gradient
Gradient generally means steepness.
For example, the gradient of a road up the side of a hill is important to lorry drivers

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

On a graph the gradient refers to how steep a line or a curve is

It is really a way of measuring how fast y changes as x changes
This may be referred to as the rate at which y

So gradient is a way of describing the rate at which change happens

Straight lines and curves

For a straight line the gradient is always the same (constant)
Recall y= mx + c, where m is the gradient (see Straight Lines - Finding Equations)

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

For a curve the gradient changes as the value of x changes

At any point on the curve, the gradient of the curve is equal to the gradient of the
tangent at that point
A tangent is a straight line that touches the curve at one point

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

The gradient function is an expression that allows the gradient to be calculated

anywhere along a curve
The gradient function is also called the derivative

How do I find the gradient function or derivative?

This is really where the fun with differentiation begins!
The derivative (dy/dx) is found by differentiating y

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This looks worse than it is! YOUR NOTES

For powers of x ...

STEP 1 Multiply by the power
STEP 2 Take one off the power

This method applies to positive and negative integers

Negative powers arise with fractions and reciprocals

How do I find the value of a gradient?

Substitute the x value into the expression for the derivative, and evaluate it

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

Exam Tip
 When differentiating long, awkward expressions write each step out fully and
simplify afterwards.Take extra care when differentiating negative powers of x

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Worked Example
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3.11.2 Differentiation - Turning Points YOUR NOTES


Remind me of the rule for differentiating powers
If y = kxn then dy/dx = knxn-1

What is a turning point?

The easiest way to think of a turning point is that it is a point at which a curve changes
from moving upwards to moving downwards, or vice versa
Turning points are also called stationary points
Ensure you are familiar with Differentiation – Basics before moving on

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

At a turning point the gradient of the curve is zero

If a tangent is drawn at a turning point it will be a horizontal line
Horizontal lines have a gradient of zero

This means at a turning point the derivative or gradient function equals zero

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How do I know if a curve has turning points? YOUR NOTES

You can see from the shape of a curve whether it has turning points or not 
At IGCSE, two types of turning point are considered:
Maximum points – this is where the graph reaches a “peak”
Minimum points – this is where the graph reaches a “trough”

These are sometimes called local maximum/minimum points as other parts of the
graph may still reach higher/lower values

How do I find the coordinates of a turning point?

STEP 1 Solve the equation of the gradient function (derivative) equal to zero
ie. solve dy/dx = 0

This will find the x-coordinate of the turning point

STEP 2 To find the y-coordinate substitute the x-coordinate into the equation of the
graph

ie. substitute x into “y = ...”

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

How do I know which point is a maximum and which is a minimum?

The easiest way to do this is to recognise the shape of the curve
... either from a given sketch of the curve
... a sketch of the curve you can quickly draw yourself

(You may even be asked to do this as part of a question)

... the equation of the curve

For parabolas (quadratics) it should be obvious ...

... a positive parabola (positive x2 term) has a minimum point
... a negative parabola (negative x2 term) has a maximum point

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

Cubic graphs are also easily recognisable ...

... a positive cubic has a maximum point on the left, minimum on the right
... a negative cubic has a minimum on the left, maximum on the right

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

Exam Tip
 Read questions carefully – sometimes only the x-coordinate of a turning point is
required.Differentiating accurately is crucial in leading to equations you can
work with and solve.

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Worked Example
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3.11.3 Differentiation - Problem Solving YOUR NOTES


What problems could involve differentiation?
Differentiation allows analysis of how one quantity changes as another does
The gradient function (derivative) gives a measure of the rate of change
Problems involving a variable quantity can involve differentiation
How the area of a rectangle changes as its length varies
How the volume of a cylinder changes as its radius varies
How the position of a car changes over time (ie. speed – see Kinematics)

Problems based on the graph of a curve may also arise

The distance between two turning points
The area of a shape formed by points on the curve such as turning points and axes
intercepts

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How do I solve problems involving differentiation? YOUR NOTES

Problems generally fall into two categories 

1. Graph based problems

These problems are based around the graph of a curve and its turning points

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

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

2. Maximum/Minimum problems

The maximum or minimum values have a meaning in the question

eg the maximum volume of a box made from a flat sheet of material
eg the minimum height of water in a reservoir

These are sometimes called optimisation problems

The maximum or minimum value gives the optimal (ideal/best)

solution to the problem

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

A third type of problem involving the motion of an object is dealt under the separate
set of notes Kinematics

Exam Tip
 Diagrams can help – if you are not given one, draw one – a sketch is usually good
enough; add to the diagram as you progress through the question.Make sure
you know how to find the areas and volumes of basic shapes eg. area of squares,
rectangles, triangles, circles, volume of cubes, cuboids, cylindersEarly parts of
questions often ask you to “show that” a result is true.

Even if you can’t do this part of the question, the result may still be used in other
parts allowing you to score some marks.

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3.11.4 Differentiation - Kinematics YOUR NOTES


What is kinematics?
Kinematics is the analysis of the motion of a particle linking the three vector
quantities displacement, velocity and acceleration – see below
Motion is in a straight line – think of the particle as moving along a number line
The number line has a fixed point O (the origin)
The number line has both negative and positive values
The particle can move in both directions along the number line

Note that in kinematics, a particle is an object – it could be a football, a car, a train -

anything that has motion. A particle is modelled as taking up a single point in space

Ensure you are familiar with Differentiation - Basics and

Differentiation – Turning Points before continuing

It may be wise to look at Differentiation – Problem Solving too

What is displacement; isn’t it the same as distance?

Displacement is a vector quantity, so it can be negative
Distance is always positive

Displacement is measured from the fixed point O

The letter s is used for displacement
It is usually measured in metres (m)

If s = 4 then the distance from the origin is 4 m and the particle is 4 m “in front of” the
origin
If s =-5 then the distance from the origin is 5 m and the particle is 5 m “behind” the
origin
The + or - indicates the particle’s position relative to the origin

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

Displacement is a function of time, t, where time is usually measured in seconds

eg. s = 3t3 - 2t + 1

At time t = 0, s = 1
At time t = 2, s = 21

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

What is velocity; isn’t it the same as speed?

Velocity is a vector quantity, so it can be negative
Speed is always positive

The letter v is used for velocity

It is usually measured in metres per second (m/s)

If v = 3 then the speed of the particle is 3 m/s and it is moving in the positive direction
If v = -6 then the speed of the particle is 5 m/s and it is moving in the negative direction
The + or - indicates the particle’s direction of motion

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

Velocity is a function of time, t, and is the rate of change of displacement

To find v, differentiate s, ie. v = ds/dt

If s = t3 - 2t2
then v = ds/dt = 3t2 – 4t

If velocity is zero then the particle is stationary (not moving)

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

What is acceleration?
Acceleration is a vector quantity, so it can be negative
The magnitude of acceleration is always positive

The letter a is used for acceleration

It is usually measured in metres per square second (m/s2)

If a = 1 then the magnitude of acceleration is 1 m/s2 and the particle is accelerating

(velocity increasing)
If a = -6 then the magnitude of acceleration is 6 m/s2 and the particle is decelerating
(velocity decreasing)
The + or - indicates whether the particle is accelerating or decelerating

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

Acceleration is a function of time, t, and is the rate of change of velocity

To find a, differentiate v, ie. a = dv/dt

If v = 3t2 – 4t
then a = dv/dt = 6t - 4

If acceleration is zero then the particle is moving at a constant velocity

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

How do I solve kinematics problems?

Be clear about how the three quantities are related through differentiation
v = ds/dt
a = dv/dt

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YOUR NOTES


There are some key phrases to look out for

“... initial ...” / “... initially ...”

This means at the start, so when t = 0

“... at rest ...”

This means the particle is stationary

so v = 0

“... instantaneously ...”

This means at some point in time, for some value of t

For example,
“Find the value(s)s of t for which the particle is instantaneously at rest”

means find the time(s) when v = 0,

ie. solve the equation v = 0

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YOUR NOTES
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Exam Tip
 Displacement, velocity and acceleration can all be negative whereas distance,
speed and magnitude of acceleration are always positive.

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YOUR NOTES
Worked Example
 

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YOUR NOTES


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