Chapter 1

Contents have been taken from Web Resources Namely

1. Tutorial Points
2. Geek for Geeks
3. Wikipedia
4. Lecture notes of experts as posted on Internet

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices
such as disk drives and printers.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating System,
VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

Definition

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

• Memory Management
• Processor Management
• Device Management
• File Management
• Security
• Control over system performance
• Job accounting
• Error detecting aids
• Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management

Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory
is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.

Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to
be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities for
memory management −

• Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not
in use.
• In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
• Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
• De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for
how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the
following activities for processor management −

• Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is
known as traffic controller.
• Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
• De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management

An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the
following activities for device management −

• Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.
• Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
• Allocates the device in the efficient way.
• De-allocates devices.
File Management

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions.

An Operating System does the following activities for file management −

• Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often
known as file system.
• Decides who gets the resources.
• Allocates the resources.
• De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −

• Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized

access to programs and data.
• Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and
response from the system.
• Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
• Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging
and error detecting aids.
• Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer
systems.

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving with
time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of operating systems which are
most commonly used.

Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator. To
speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The
programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs with
similar requirements into batches.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

• Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

• CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the CPU.
• Difficult to provide the desired priority.
Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension
of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is
termed as time-sharing.

The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that
in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use, whereas
in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation.
That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the user submits the
command, the response time is in few seconds at most.

The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a
small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have
been modified to time-sharing systems.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

• Provides the advantage of quick response.

• Avoids duplication of software.
• Reduces CPU idle time.

Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

• Problem of reliability.
• Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
• Problem of data communication.

Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and
multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.

The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as high-
speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed
systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are
referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.

The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

• With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available
at another.
• Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
• If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue
operating.
• Better service to the customers.
• Reduction of the load on the host computer.
• Reduction of delays in data processing.

Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage
data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose
of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple
computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other
networks.

Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.

The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

• Centralized servers are highly stable.

• Security is server managed.
• Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
• Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.

The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

• High cost of buying and running a server.

• Dependency on a central location for most operations.
• Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to
process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by the
system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as the
response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online processing.

Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a processor
or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated application.
A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system
will fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control
systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems,
secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual
memory is almost never found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks
and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-
time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea
exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the programs.

• It provides programs an environment to execute.

• It provides users the services to execute the programs in a convenient manner.

Following are a few common services provided by an operating system −

• Program execution
• I/O operations
• File System manipulation
• Communication
• Error Detection
• Resource Allocation
• Protection

Program execution

Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to system programs like
printer spooler, name servers, file server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as a process.

A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to manipulate, registers,
OS resources in use). Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to
program management −

• Loads a program into memory.

• Executes the program.
• Handles program's execution.
• Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.
• Provides a mechanism for process communication.
• Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.
I/O Operation

An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding driver software. Drivers hide
the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the users.

An Operating System manages the communication between user and device drivers.

• I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O device.
• Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when required.

File system manipulation

A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files on the disk
(secondary storage), for long-term storage purpose. Examples of storage media include magnetic
tape, magnetic disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these media has its own
properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate and data access methods.

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions. Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to file management −

• Program needs to read a file or write a file.

• The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file.
• Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.
• Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.
• Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories.
• Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.

Communication

In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not share memory,
peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages communications between all the
processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another through communication lines in the
network.

The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and security.
Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to communication −

• Two processes often require data to be transferred between them

• Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but are connected
through a computer network.
• Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared Memory or by
Message Passing.
Error handling

Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the
memory hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to error
handling −

• The OS constantly checks for possible errors.

• The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.

Resource Management

In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main memory, CPU cycles
and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to resource management −

• The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.

• CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.

Protection

Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent execution of multiple
processes, the various processes must be protected from each other's activities.

Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs, processes, or users to
the resources defined by a computer system. Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to protection −

• The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.

• The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access attempts.
• The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of passwords.

Operating System Services

Batch processing

Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the programs and data
together in a batch before processing starts. An operating system does the following activities
related to batch processing −

• The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and data as
a single unit.
• The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any manual
information.
• Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.
• When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the job gets
copied into an output spool for later printing or processing.
Advantages

• Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
• Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job is finished,
without any manual intervention.

Disadvantages

• Difficult to debug program.

• A job could enter an infinite loop.
• Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.

Multitasking

Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching between
them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program while it is
running. An OS does the following activities related to multitasking −

• The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and receives
an immediate response.
• The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple operations/executes
multiple programs at a time.
• Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.
• These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer system
at a reasonable cost.
• A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and
multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.
• Each user has at least one separate program in memory.
• A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as a
process.
• When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it either
finishes or needs to perform I/O.
• Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to complete.
During this time, a CPU can be utilized by another process.
• The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously. Since each
action or command in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU time is
needed for each user.
• As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is given
the impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being shared
among many users.

Multiprogramming

Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is referred
as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming
increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.

The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.
An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.

• The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.

• This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
• The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
• Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and system
resources using memory management programs to ensures that the CPU is never idle,
unless there are no jobs to process.

Advantages

• High and efficient CPU utilization.

• User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.

Disadvantages

• CPU scheduling is required.

• To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

Interactivity

Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a computer system. An Operating system
does the following activities related to interactivity −

• Provides the user an interface to interact with the system.

• Manages input devices to take inputs from the user. For example, keyboard.
• Manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For example, Monitor.

The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user submits and waits for the result.

Real Time System

Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. An operating system does the
following activities related to real-time system activity.

• In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to sensor data.
• The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed periods of time to
ensure correct performance.

Distributed Environment

A distributed environment refers to multiple independent CPUs or processors in a computer

system. An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment −

• The OS distributes computation logics among several physical processors.

• The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each processor has its own local
memory.
• The OS manages the communications between the processors. They communicate with
each other through various communication lines.

Spooling

Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling refers to putting
data of various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer is a special area in memory or hard disk which is
accessible to I/O devices.

An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment −

• Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different data access rates.
• Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data can rest while
the slower device catches up.
• Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer can perform I/O
in parallel fashion. It becomes possible to have the computer read data from a tape, write
data to disk and to write out to a tape printer while it is doing its computing task.
Advantages

• The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer.

• Spooling is capable of overlapping I/O operation for one job with processor operations for
another job.

What is Linux and Windows Operating System?

LINUX Operating System

The Linux open source operating system, or Linux OS, is a freely attributable, cross-
platform operating system based on Unix that can be installed on PCs, laptops, net-books, mobile
and tablet devices, video game consoles, servers, supercomputers and more.

The Linux OS is frequently packaged as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use, and
includes the Linux kernel (the core of the operating system) as well as supporting tools and
libraries. Popular Linux OS distributions include Debian, Ubuntu, Fedora, Red Hat and
openSUSE.

WINDOWS Operating System

Windows Operating System, computer operating system (OS) developed by Microsoft

Corporation to run personal computers (PCs). Featuring the first graphical user interface (GUI)
forIBM-compatible PCs, the Windows OS soon dominated the PC market. Approximately 90
percent of PCs run some version of Windows.
The first version of Windows, released in 1985, was simply a GUI offered as an extension
of Microsoft’s existing disk operating system, or MS-DOS. Based in part on licensed concepts
that Apple Inc. had used for its Macintosh System Software, Windows for the first time allowed
DOS users to visually navigate a virtual desktop, opening graphical “windows” displaying the
contents of electronic folders and files with the click of a mouse button, rather than typing
commands and directory paths at a text prompt.
Subsequent versions introduced greater functionality, including native Windows File
Manager, Program Manager, and Print Manager programs, and a more dynamic interface.
Microsoft also developed specialized Windows packages, including the networkable Windows for
Workgroups and the high-powered Windows NT, aimed at businesses. The 1995 consumer release
Windows 95 fully integrated Windows and DOS and offered built-in Internet support, including
the World Wide Web browser Internet Explorer.
With the 2001 release of Windows XP, Microsoft united its various Windows packages
under a single banner, offering multiple editions for consumers, businesses, multimedia
developers, and others. Windows XP abandoned the long-used Windows 95 kernel (core software
code) for a more powerful code base and offered a more practical interface and improved
application and memory management. The highly successful XP standard was succeeded in late
2006 by Windows Vista, which experienced a troubled rollout and met with considerable
marketplace resistance, quickly acquiring a reputation for being a large, slow, and resource-
consuming system. Responding to Vista’s disappointing adoption rate, Microsoft
developed Windows 7, an OS whose interface was similar to that of Vista but was met with
enthusiasm for its noticeable speed improvement and its modest system requirements.

Processes of Linux and Windows Operating System

Processes of Linux Operating System

One basic concept of an operating system is the process. If we think of the program as the file
stored on the hard disk or floppy and the

process as that program in memory, we can better understand the difference between a program
and a process. Although these two terms
are often interchanged or even misused in "casual" conversation, the difference is very important
for issues that we talk about later. Often

one refers to an instance of that command or program.

A process is more than just a program. Especially in a multi-user, multi-tasking operating

system such as UNIX, there is much more

to consider. Each program has a set of data that it uses to do what it needs. Often, this data is not
part of the program. For example, if you

are using a text editor, the file you are editing is not part of the program on disk, but is part of the
process in memory. If someone else were

to be using the same editor, both of you would be using the same program. However, each of you
would have a different process in memory.

See the figure below to see how this looks graphically.

Image - Reading programs from the had disk to create processes. (interactive)

Under UNIX, many different users can be on the system at the same time. In other words, they
have processes that are in memory all at

the same time. The system needs to keep track of what user is running what process,
which terminal the process is running on, and what

other resources the process has (such as open files). All of this is part of the process.

With the exception of the init process (PID 1) every process is the child of another process. In
general, every process has the potential to be
the parent of another process. Perhaps the program is coded in such a way that it will never start
another process. However, this is a

limitation of that programm and not the operating system.

When you log onto a UNIX system, you usually get access to a command line interpreter, or shell.
This takes your input and runs

programs for you. If you are familiar with DOS, you already have used a command line interpreter:
the COMMAND.COM program. Under DOS,

your shell gives you the C:> prompt (or something similar). Under UNIX, the prompt is usually
something like $, #, or %. This shell is a

process and it belongs to you. That is, the in-memory (or in-core) copy of the shell program
belongs to you.

If you were to start up an editor, your file would be loaded and you could edit your file. The
interesting thing is that the shell has not gone

away. It is still in memory. Unlike what operating systems like DOS do with some programs, the
shell remains in memory. The editor is

simply another process that belongs to you. Because it was started by the shell, the editor is
considered a "child" process of the shell. The

shell is the parent process of the editor. (A process has only one parent, but may have many
children.)

As you continue to edit, you delete words, insert new lines, sort your text and write it out
occasionally to the disk. During this time, the

backup is continuing. Someone else on the system may be adding figures to a spreadsheet, while
a fourth person may be inputting orders

into a database. No one seems to notice that there are other people on the system. For them, it
appears as though the processor is working

for them alone.

Another example we see in the next figure. When you login, you normally have a single process,
which is your login shell (bash). If you

start the X Windowing System, your shell starts another process, xinit. At this point, both your
shell and xinit are running, but the shell is

waiting for xinit to complete. Once X starts, you may want a terminal in which you can enter
commands, so you start xterm.

Image - Relationship between parent and child processes. (interactive)

From the xterm, you might then start the ps command, to see what other processes are running. In
addition, you might have something like

I do, where a clock is automatically started when X starts. At this point, your process tree might
look like the figure above.

The nice thing about UNIX is that while the administrator is backing up the system, you could be
continuing to edit your file. This is

because UNIX knows how to take advantage of the hardware to have more than one process in
memory at a time. (Note: It is not a good

idea to do a backup with people on the system as data may become inconsistent. This was only
used as an illustration.)
Processes of Windows Operating System

Every process contains one or more threads, and the Windows thread is the basic executable unit;
see the next chapter for a threads

introduction. Threads are scheduled on the basis of the usual factors: availability of resources such
as CPUs and physical memory, priority,

fairness, and so on. Windows has long supported multiprocessor systems, so threads can be
allocated to separate processors within a

computer.

From the programmer's perspective, each Windows process includes resources such as the
following components:

• One or more threads.

• A virtual address space that is distinct from other processes' address spaces. Note that
shared memory-mapped files share physical memory, but the sharing processes will
probably use different virtual addresses to access the mapped file.
• One or more code segments, including code in DLLs.
• One or more data segments containing global variables.
• Environment strings with environment variable information, such as the current search
path.
• The process heap.
• Resources such as open handles and other heaps.

Like most modern operating systems, Windows can run many programs at the same time. Still,
unless your computer has several

processors, it can only perform one task at a time. To solve this problem Windows switches rapidly
between all running programs, creating

the illusion of all programs running in parallel. If you have ever experienced a crash, however,
you probably know that as soon as the

switching stops working, all programs simply stop working. This is because the processor gets
locked up in one process and stays there.