Final Solution A.Y. 2018-2019 (Ref.

Solid State Electronic Devices

7th Edition by B. G. Streetman)
Q 1. a) Using suitable diagram, explain the formation of energy bands in solid Si.
13
Ans: As atoms are brought together to form solid, the application of the Pauli
exclusion principle becomes important. When some atoms are completely
isolated from one another so that there is no interaction of electron wavefunctions
between them, they can have identical electronic structures. As the spacing
between the atoms becomes smaller, however, electron wavefunctions begin to
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overlap. The exclusion principle dictates that no two electrons in a given

interacting system may have the same quantum state. Therefore, a splitting of the
discrete electron energy levels of the isolated atoms into band of new levels
belonging to the group rather than to individual atoms occurs so that there must
be at most one electron per energy level. The following figure illustrates this for
the imaginary formation of a silicon crystal from isolated silicon atoms.
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Each isolated silicon atom has an electronic structure 1s22s22p63s23p2 in the
ground state. Each atom has available two 1s states, two 2s states, six 2p states,
two 3s states, six 3p states, and higher states. If there are N atoms, there will be
2N, 2N, 6N, 2N, and 6N states of type 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, and 3p, respectively. As the
interatomic spacing decreases, these energy levels split into bands, beginning
with the outer (n = 3) shell. As the “3s” and “3p” bands grow, they merge into a
single band composed of a mixture of energy levels. This band of “3s–3p” levels
contains 8N available states. As the distance between atoms approaches the
equilibrium interatomic spacing of silicon, this band splits into two bands
separated by an energy gap Eg. The upper band called the conduction band
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contains 4N states, as does the lower band or valence band. This two bands of
available energy levels are separated by an energy gap Eg, which contains no
allowed energy levels for electrons to occupy. The lower “1s” band is filled with
the 2N electrons which originally resided in the collective 1s states of the isolated
atoms. Similarly, the 2s band and the 2p bands will have 2N and 6N electrons in
them, respectively. However, there were 4N electrons in the original isolated n =
3 shells (2N in 3s states and 2N in 3p states). These 4N electrons must occupy
states in the valence band or the conduction band in the crystal. At 0 K these 4N
electrons will occupy the lowest energy states available to them. Therefore, the
4N electrons occupy 4N states in the valence band. Thus at 0 K, every state in the
valence band will be filled, while the conduction band will be completely empty
of electrons.

Q 1. b) Define direct bandgap and indirect bandgap semiconductors with

examples. Explain the concept of effective mass of charge carriers (for
conductivity calculation) in semiconductors. 8+4
Ans:
Direct bandgap and indirect bandgap semiconductors:
In the wave mechanics approach the wavefunction of an electron is assumed to
be in the form of a plane wave moving in a direction with a propagation constant
k. The allowed values of electron energies (eigenenergy) plotted against the
propagation constant gives complex band structures and is called E-k diagram.
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In the E-k diagram of a semiconductor, if the conduction band minima and

valence band maxima occur at the same value of k the semiconductor is called
direct bandgap semiconductor.

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In the E-k diagram of a semiconductor, if the conduction band minima and

valence band maxima occur at different values of k the semiconductor is called
indirect bandgap semiconductor.
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Effective mass of charge carriers:

The electrons in a crystal are not completely free. They interact with the periodic
potential of the lattice. As a result, their “wave–particle” motion cannot be
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expected to be the same as for electrons in free space. Thus, in applying the usual
equations of electrodynamics to charge carriers in a solid, altered values of
particle mass are used. This altered mass or effective mass accounts for most of
the influences of the lattice on the charge carrier, so that the electrons and holes
can be treated as “almost free” carriers in most computations.

Q 2. a) Derive the expression of average drift velocity of an electron in

semiconductor under electric field and from that derivation obtain the equation of
conductivity of the semiconductor. 9+4
Ans:
The charge carriers in a solid are in constant motion, even at thermal equilibrium.
At room temperature the thermal motion of an individual electron may be
visualized as random scattering from lattice vibrations, impurities, other electrons
and defects. Since the scattering is random, there is no net motion of the group of
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n electrons/cm3 over any period of time. If an electric field ℰx is applied in the x-

direction, each electron experiences a net force -qℰx from the field. This force
may be insufficient to alter appreciably the random path of an individual electron.
But when averaged over all the electrons, the effect is a net motion of the group
in the x-direction.
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If px is the x-component of the total momentum of the group, the force of the field
on the n electrons/cm3 is
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The equation seems to indicate a continuous acceleration of the electrons in the

-x direction. This is not the case, however, because the net acceleration is just
balanced in steady state by the decelerations of the collision processes. Thus,
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while the steady field ℰx does produce a net momentum p-x, the net rate of change
of momentum when collisions are included must be zero in the case of steady
state current flow. If the collisions are truly random, there will be a constant
probability of collision at any time for each electron.

Let us consider a group of N0 electrons at time t = 0 and define N(t) as the number
of electrons that have not undergone a collision by time t. The rate of decrease in
N(t) at any time t is proportional to the number left unscattered at t,
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where 𝑡̅ is a constant of proportionality.

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The solution to this equation is an exponential function
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⁄ ̅
𝑁 𝑡 𝑁𝑒
and 𝑡̅ represents the mean time between scattering events and is called the mean
free time.
The probability that any electron has a collision in the time interval dt is dt/𝑡̅.
Thus, the differential change in px due to collisions in time dt is
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The rate of change of px due to the decelerating effect of collisions is

The sum of acceleration and deceleration effects must be zero for steady state.
Taking the sum
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The average momentum per electron is

where the angular brackets indicate an average over the entire group of electrons.
As expected for steady state, this equation indicates that the electrons have on the
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average a constant net velocity in the negative x-direction:

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The current density resulting from this net drift is just the number of electrons
crossing a unit area per unit time (𝑛〈v 〉) multiplied by the charge on the electron
(–q):

Using equation for the average velocity,

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Thus, the current density is proportional to the electric field, as we expect from
Ohm’s law:

The conductivity  (Ω-cm)-1 can be written

The quantity n, called the electron mobility, describes the ease with which
electrons drift in the material.
This derivation has been done considering the current carried by electrons. If both
electrons and holes participate, the equation is to be modified as follows:
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Q 2. b) A Si bar with width w = 0.1 mm along y-axis, thickness t = 10 m along
z-axis and length L = 5 mm along x-axis carrying current Ix = 1 mA is placed in
a magnetic field with z = 10-4 wb/m2 gives hall voltage of 5 mV across its width
along positive y-axis and 100 mV along its length. Find out the type of the
semiconductor, its resistivity, its majority carrier concentration and majority
carrier mobility. 3×4
Ans:

According to question
w = 0.01 cm
t = 0.001 cm
L = 0.5 cm
Ix = 0.001 A
z = 10-8 wb/cm2
VAB = 0.005 V
VCD = 0.1 V
Since VAB is positive the semiconductor is p-type. (Ans.)
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𝑉 𝑤𝑡 0.1 0.01 0.001

𝜌 0.002  cm Ans.
𝐼 𝐿 0.001 0.5
𝐼 𝛽 0.001 10
𝑝 12.5 10 cm Ans.
𝑞𝑡𝑉 1.6 10 0.001 0.005

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1 1
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𝜇
𝑞𝜌𝑝 1.6 10 0.002 12.5 10
2.5 10 cm /V s Ans.

Q 3. a) Define photoconductivity. In a semiconductor, derive the equation of

instantaneous excess electron or hole concentration generated by short optical
pulse and going through only direct recombination. From this derivation define
recombination lifetime of carriers. 2+9+2
Ans:
Photoconductivity: When excess electrons and holes are created in a
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semiconductor, there is a corresponding increase in the conductivity of the

sample. If the excess carriers arise due to optical absorption, the resulting increase
in conductivity is called photoconductivity.
Instantaneous excess carrier concentration: At thermal equilibrium (without any
optical absorption) the rate of recombination of electrons and holes, ri is
proportional to the equilibrium concentration of electrons n0 and holes p0.
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ri = r n0 p0 = r ni2.
r is a constant of proportionality. At thermal equilibrium the recombination rate
must be balanced by generation rate.

ri = gi = r ni2.
Let us assume the excess electron–hole population is created at t = 0 by a short
flash of light, and the initial excess electron and hole concentrations Δn and Δp
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are equal. Then as the electrons and holes recombine in pairs, the instantaneous
concentrations of excess carriers δn(t) and δp(t) are also always equal.
The thermal generation rate is unaffected by excess carrier concentrations. So,

gi = r ni2.
But the recombination rate must increase as such
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ri = r [n0 + δn(t)] [p0 + δp(t)].

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So, the rate of change of excess electron (or hole) concentration is given by
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The rate change is negative as ri > gi. For low level injection (δn(t) = δp(t) =
small) δn2(t) can be neglected. For extrinsic material the equilibrium minority
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carrier concentration can be neglected. If the material is p-type (p0 >> n0)

The solution to this equation is an exponential decay from the original excess
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carrier concentration Δn:

Excess electrons in a p-type semiconductor recombine with a decay constant

1
𝜏
𝛼 𝑝
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called the recombination lifetime. Here the calculation is made in terms of the
minority carriers. Hence, n is often called the minority carrier lifetime in p-type
material. In the case of direct recombination, the excess majority carriers decay
at exactly the same rate as the minority carriers.
Q 3. b) Using suitable diagram derive the diffusion equations for electrons and
holes. 12
Ans:
Consider a differential length x of a semiconductor sample with area A in the
yz-plane perpendicular to the x-direction of carrier flow due to diffusion. Initially,
let us consider hole flow only. The hole concentration p(x,t) will be a function of
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both space (due to diffusion and drift  diffusion may be a function of x if

concentration gradient is a function of x and drift may be a function of x if electric
field and/or carrier concentration are functions of x) and time (due to
recombination) and p(x,t) = p0 + δp(x,t) where p0 is the equilibrium (thermal)
concentration independent of time and space and δp(x,t) is the excess
concentration.
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The hole current density entering the volume xA is Jp(x) and leaving the volume
is Jp(x + x). Jp(x + x) can be larger or smaller than Jp(x) depending on the space-
dependent diffusion and drift of carriers taking place within the volume. Jp(x)/q
gives number of holes entering unit cross-section per unit time. So, Jp(x)/xq
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gives the hole concentration entering the volume. So,

1𝐽 𝑥 𝐽 𝑥 ∆𝑥
𝑞 ∆𝑥
gives increase of hole concentration per unit time due to diffusion and drift.
Now, hole concentration at any x undergoing recombination is given by,

δ𝑝 𝑥, 𝑡 ∆𝑝 𝑥 𝑒
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𝑑δ𝑝 1 δ𝑝
So, recombination rate at 𝑥, ∆𝑝 𝑥 𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝜏
where ∆p(x) is the hole concentration at x at t = 0. The negative sign indicates
decrease of hole concentration with time due to recombination.
The net increase in hole concentration per unit time at x is
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As Δx approaches zero (indicating the yz-plane at distance x), the rate change (at
the yz-plane at distance x) of hole concentration can be written in derivative form:
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.
The first term in the right-hand side is the rate of increase of hole concentration
at x (which is why Δx approaching zero is required) due to diffusion plus drift
and the second term is the rate of decrease of hole concentration due to
recombination at x.
As only excess hole concentration p is time dependent (p = p0 + p)
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝛿𝑝
.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
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So,

This is the continuity equation for holes.

Similarly, for electrons having negative q the continuity equation becomes
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Now, if the current is carried strictly by diffusion, the expressions for electron
diffusion current is
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.
Substituting this into the continuity equation for electrons, the diffusion equation
for electrons is obtained as

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Similarly, for holes the diffusion equation is
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These equations are useful in solving transient problems of diffusion with

recombination.

Q 4. a) Describe the formation of potential barrier across a p-n junction just after
the formation of the junction using suitable energy band diagrams. From this
discussion derive the expression of contact potential of the junction in terms of
carrier concentrations. 6+7
Ans:
Formation of potential barrier:
Let us consider separate regions of p- and n-type semiconductor material, brought
together to form a junction. Before they are joined, the n material has a large
concentration of electrons and few holes, whereas the converse is true for the p
material. Upon joining the two regions, diffusion of carriers is expected to take
place because of the large carrier concentration gradients at the junction. Thus,
holes diffuse from the p side into the n side, and electrons diffuse from n to p.
However, the resulting diffusion current cannot build up indefinitely because an
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opposing electric field is created at the junction. Electrons diffusing from n to p

leave behind uncompensated donor ions (𝑁 ) in the n material, and holes leaving
the p region leave behind uncompensated acceptors (𝑁 ). So, a region of positive
space charge near the n side of the junction and a region of negative charge near
the p side are developed. The resulting electric field ℰ in the space charge region
is directed from the positive charge toward the negative charge. Thus, ℰ is in the
direction opposite to that of diffusion current for each type of carrier. Therefore,
the field creates a drift component of current from n to p, opposing the diffusion
current as shown in the following figure:

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No net current can flow across the junction at equilibrium. So, the current due to
the drift of carriers in the ℰ field must exactly cancel the diffusion current.
Furthermore, since there can be no net buildup of electrons or holes on either side
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as a function of time, the drift and diffusion currents must cancel for each type of
carrier:
Jp (drift) + Jp (diff.) = 0
Jn (drift) + Jn (diff.) = 0

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The electric field ℰ builds up to the point where the net current is zero at
equilibrium. The electric field appears in some region W about the junction and
is zero in the neutral regions outside W. Thus, there is a constant potential 𝒱n in
the neutral n material, a constant 𝒱p in the neutral p material, and the equilibrium
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potential difference V0 = 𝒱n  𝒱p between the two regions across W. The gradient

in the electrostatic potential is in the direction opposite to ℰ as per ℰ(x) =
d𝒱(x)/dx as shown in the figure. V0 is called the contact potential. It serves as a
built-in potential barrier for carrier flow to maintain equilibrium. V0 separates the
bands (Ecn and Ecp or Evp and Evn) in a way to make the Fermi level constant
throughout the device such that qV0 = Ecn  Ecp = Evp  Evn.
Expression of contact potential:
Now, since the net hole current must be zero at equilibrium
Jp (drift) + Jp (diff.) = 0
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Integrating both sides across the transition region W gives

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Similarly, it can be shown that

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Since pp = Na and pn = ni2/Nd (and nn = Nd and np = ni2/Na)
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Q 4. b) An abrupt Si p-n junction has Na = 1016 cm-3 on p-side and Nd = 1017

cm-3 on n-side. The junction has uniform cross-sectional area of 2 × 10-6 cm2.
Relative permittivity of Si is 11.8. Calculate: i) W, ii) xno, iii) xpo and iv) ℰ0 where
symbols have their usual meanings. 4×3
Ans:
For Si, ni = 1.5×1010 cm-3
𝑘𝑇 𝑁 𝑁 10 10
𝑉 𝑙𝑛 0.0259 𝑙𝑛 0.754 V
𝑞 𝑛 1.5 10
i)

2𝜖𝑉 1 1
𝑊
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𝑞 𝑁 𝑁
2 8.854 10 11.8 0.754
10 10
1.6 10
3.29 10 cm 0.329 μm Ans.
ii)
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𝑊 3.29 10
𝑥 0.299 10 cm 0.0299 μm Ans.
𝑁 1 10
1
𝑁
iii)
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𝑊 3.29 10
𝑥 2.99 10 cm 0.299 μm Ans.
𝑁 1 0.1
1
𝑁

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iv)
𝑞 𝑞
ℰ 𝑥 𝑁 𝑥 𝑁
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𝜖 𝜖
1.6 10
0.299 10 10
8.854 10 11.8
45789.895 V/cm 4.58 10 V/cm Ans.

Q 5. a) Derive the equations of injected minority carrier concentrations in the

neutral regions of a forward-biased p-n junction as functions of distance from the
transition region and using the equations show how minority carrier
concentrations vary with the distance in those regions. 7+6
Ans:
we expect the minority carrier concentration on each side of a p-n junction to vary
with the applied bias because of variations in the diffusion of carriers across the
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junction. The equilibrium ratio of hole concentrations on each side of the junction

With bias V the equation becomes

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In the neutral region (outside the transition region) the change of majority carrier
concentration is equal to change of minority carrier concentration to maintain
space charge neutrality.
For low-level injection (small diffusion) the change of majority carrier
concentration compared to equilibrium value is small and can be neglected. So,
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pp = p(xp0). Dividing the above second equation by first equation we get

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With forward bias (positive V), this equation suggests a greatly increased
minority carrier hole concentration at the edge of the transition region on the n
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side p(xn0) than was the case at equilibrium. The exponential increase of the hole
concentration at xn0 with forward bias is an example of minority carrier injection.
Also, a forward bias V (dc) results in a steady state injection of excess holes into
the n region (and electrons into the p region).
The excess hole concentration Δpn at the edge of the transition region xn0 can be
calculated by subtracting the equilibrium hole concentration from hole
concentration under bias (last equation)
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Similarly, excess electron concentration on the p side at xp0 is

The injection leading to a steady concentration of Δpn excess holes at xn0 will
produce a distribution of excess holes in the neutral n material due to diffusion.
As the holes diffuse deeper into the n region, they recombine with electrons in
the n material, and the resulting excess hole distribution can be obtained as a
solution of the hole diffusion equation. If the n region is long compared to the
hole diffusion length Lp, the solution is exponential. Similarly, the injected
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electrons in the p material diffuse and recombine, giving an exponential

distribution of excess electrons. For convenience, let us define two new
coordinates. Distances measured in the x-direction in the n material from xn0 will
be designated xn and distances in the p material measured in the x direction with
xp0 as the origin will be called xp. Assuming long p and n regions, the solutions
of diffusion equations for both sides of the junction give distributions of excess
minority carriers (n and p) as
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The distributions are shown below-
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Q 5. b) Explain the Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown processes in

reverse-biased p-n junctions. 6+6
Ans:
Zener breakdown:
When a heavily doped junction is reverse biased, the energy bands become
crossed at relatively low voltages (i.e., the n-side conduction band appears
opposite the p-side valence band). The crossing of the bands aligns the large
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number of empty states in the n-side conduction band opposite the many filled
states of the p-side valence band. If the barrier separating these two bands is
narrow, tunneling of electrons can occur. Tunneling of electrons from the p-side
valence band to the n-side conduction band constitutes a reverse current from n
to p. This is the Zener effect.
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The basic requirements for tunneling current are a large number of electrons
separated from a large number of empty states by a narrow barrier of finite height.
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Since the tunneling probability depends upon the width of the barrier (d in figure),
it is important that the metallurgical junction be sharp and the doping high, so that
the transition region W extends only a very short distance from each side of the
junction. If the junction is not abrupt, or if either side of the junction is lightly
doped, the transition region W will be too wide for tunneling.

Avalanche breakdown:
For lightly doped junctions, the breakdown mechanism involves the impact
ionization of host atoms by energetic carriers. Normal lattice-scattering events
can result in the creation of EHPs if the carrier being scattered has sufficient
energy. For example, if the electric field ℰ in the transition region is large, an
electron entering from the p side may be accelerated to high enough kinetic
energy to cause an ionizing collision with the lattice. A single such interaction
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results in carrier multiplication. The original electron and the generated electron
are both swept to the n side of the junction and the generated hole is swept to the
p side. The degree of multiplication can become very high if carriers generated
within the transition region also have ionizing collisions with the lattice. For
example, an incoming electron may have a collision with the lattice and create an
EHP; each of these carriers has a chance of creating a new EHP, and each of those
can also create an EHP, and so forth. This is an avalanche process, since each
incoming carrier can initiate the creation of a large number of new carriers.

Q 6. a) A metal-semiconductor junction has been formed with m < s. The

semiconductor is n-type. Draw the energy band diagram as the function of
distance from the junction and explain why the junction is rectifying or ohmic.
6+7
Ans:
The energy band diagram as the function of distance from the junction of the
metal-semiconductor junction with m < s and n-type semiconductor is shown
below

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The Fermi levels are aligned at equilibrium by transferring electrons from the
metal to the n-type semiconductor. This raises the semiconductor electron
energies (lowers the electrostatic potential) relative to the metal at equilibrium.
In this case, the barrier to electron flow between the metal and the semiconductor
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is small and can easily be overcome by a small voltage. Therefore, the contact is
ohmic rather than rectifying.
Also, ideal metal–semiconductor contacts are ohmic when the charge induced in
the semiconductor in aligning the Fermi levels is provided by majority carriers
which is the case here. So, the contact is ohmic.

Q 6. b) Using suitable diagrams explain the operation of MOSFET in different

regions of operation (cut-off, linear etc.) 12
Ans:
n-channel MOSFET is considered for discussion. The threshold voltage VT is the
minimum gate voltage required to induce the channel. In general, the positive
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gate voltage w.r.t. source of an n-channel MOSFET must be larger than some
value VT before a conducting channel is induced. If gate voltage is less than the
threshold voltage no channel exists and no current can flow from drain to source.
The FET is said to be in cut-off state.

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Cut-off for VG < VT

If the (positive) gate voltage exceeds the threshold voltage in an n- channel

device, electrons are induced in the p-type substrate. Since this channel is
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connected to the n+ source and drain regions, the structure looks electrically like
an induced n- type resistor. As the gate voltage increases, more electron charge
is induced in the channel and, therefore, the channel becomes more conducting.
The drain current initially increases linearly with the drain bias. This is the linear
regime of operation of the MOSFET.
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Linear for VG  VD > VT or VD < VG  VT

As more drain current flows in the channel, however, there is more ohmic voltage
drop along the channel such that the channel potential varies from zero near the
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grounded source to whatever the applied drain potential is near the drain end of
the channel. Hence, the voltage difference between the gate and the channel
reduces from VG near the source to (VG  VD) near the drain end. Once the drain
bias is increased to the point that (VG -VD) = VT, threshold is barely maintained
near the drain end and the channel is said to be pinched off.

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Pinch-off for VG  VD = VT or VD = VG  VT

Increasing the drain bias beyond this point (VD (sat.)) causes the point at which
the channel gets pinched off to move more and more into the channel, closer to
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the source end. Electrons in the channel are pulled into the pinch-off region and
travel at the saturation drift velocity because of the very high longitudinal electric
field along the channel. Now, the drain current is said to be in the saturation
region because it does not increase with drain bias significantly.
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Saturation for VG  VD < VT or VD > VG  VT

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Typical I-V characteristics of nMOSFET is shown below

Q 7. a) Using energy band diagram as a function of distance in an ideal MOS

structure (m = s) with p-type semiconductor under strong inversion, show
different components of minimum gate voltage required for strong inversion.
Also draw the charge density, electric field and electrostatic potential as functions
of distance in the MOS structure. 13
Ans:
In MOS structure the modified work function qΦm for the metal–oxide interface
is the energy measured from the metal Fermi level to the conduction band of the
oxide. Similarly, qΦs is the modified work function at the semiconductor–oxide
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interface. In the idealized case qΦm = qΦs, i.e., there is no difference in the two
work functions. Another useful quantity will be qϕF, which measures the position
of the Fermi level below the intrinsic level Ei for the semiconductor, i.e., qϕF = Ei
 EF.
If a positive voltage V from the metal to the semiconductor is applied, the
potential of the metal is raised lowering the metal Fermi level by qV relative to
its equilibrium position. As a result, the oxide conduction band is tilted. Such a
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tilt is expected since an electric field causes a gradient in Ei (and similarly in Ev

and Ec). The positive voltage deposits positive charge on the metal and calls for
a corresponding net negative charge at the surface of the semiconductor. Such a
negative charge in p-type material arises from depletion of holes from the region
near the surface, leaving behind uncompensated ionized acceptors. The energy

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bands of the semiconductor bend near the interface to accommodate the depletion
of holes since
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In the depleted region the hole concentration decreases, moving Ei closer to EF,
and bending the bands down near the semiconductor surface. Since no current
passes through the MOS structure, there can be no variation in the Fermi level
within the semiconductor. Therefore, if Ei – EF is to decrease, it must occur by Ei
moving down in energy near the surface.
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If the positive voltage is increased, the bands at the semiconductor surface bend
down more strongly. A sufficiently large voltage can bend Ei below EF. EF>Ei
implies a large electron concentration in the conduction band. The region near the
semiconductor surface in this case has conduction properties typical of n-type
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material, with an electron concentration given by

This n-type surface layer is formed not by doping, but instead by inversion of the
originally p-type semiconductor due to the applied voltage.
Potential ϕ at any point x is measured relative to the equilibrium position of Ei.
The energy qϕ gives the extent of band bending at x, and qs represents the band
bending at the surface. When s is positive and s > ϕF, Ei(x = 0) lies below EF,
and inversion is obtained.

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Strong inversion is the condition when the surface is as strongly n-type as the
substrate is p type. That is, Ei should lie as far below EF at the surface as it is
above EF far from the surface. This condition occurs when

The applied voltage V appears partially across the insulator (Vi) and partially
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across the depletion region of the semiconductor (s):

V = V i + s .
The voltage across the insulator is obviously related to the charge on either side,
divided by the capacitance:

where 𝜖 is permittivity of the insulator, Ci is the insulator capacitance per unit

area and Qs is the total integrated charge per unit area in the semiconductor. The
charge Qs will be negative for the n channel, giving a positive Vi. Ignoring the
inversion layer charge, the applied voltage must be large enough to create the
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depletion charge Qd plus the surface potential s (inv.). The threshold voltage
required for strong inversion,

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1 Mark 1 Mark 1 Mark 1 Mark

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Q 7. b) Using equation of threshold voltage, explain why and how it varies with
substrate doping concentration in both nMOSFET and pMOSFET. 12
Ans:
The threshold voltage required to create strong inversion must be large enough to
first achieve the flat band condition (Φms and Qi/Ci terms), then accommodate the
charge in the depletion region (Qd/Ci), and finally to induce the inverted region
(2F). It can be used for both n-type and p-type substrates if appropriate signs are
included for each term.
2 Marks

Typically, Φms is negative. The interface charge is positive, so the contribution of

the Qi/Ci term is negative for either substrate type. On the other hand, the charge
in the depletion region is negative for ionized acceptors (p-type substrate, n-
channel device) and is positive for ionized donors (n-type substrate, p channel).
2 Marks

Also, the term F, which is defined as (Ei  EF)/q in the neutral substrate, can be
positive or negative, depending on the type of the substrate. Considering the
signs, it can be seen that all four terms give negative contributions in the p-
channel case. Thus, negative threshold voltages for typical p-channel devices is
expected. On the other hand, n-channel devices may have either positive or
negative threshold voltages, depending on the relative values of terms.
All terms except Qi/Ci depend on the doping in the substrate. The terms Φms and
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F have relatively small variations as EF is moved up or down by the doping.

Large changes can occur in Qd, which varies with the square root of the doping
impurity concentration.
From the equation it is expected that VT is always negative for the p-channel case
which will be more negative with increasing doping mainly due to contribution
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of Qd. In the n-channel case, the negative flat band voltage terms can dominate
for lightly doped p-type substrates, resulting in a negative threshold voltage.
However, for more heavily doped substrates, the increasing contribution of Na to
the Qd term dominates, and VT becomes positive.

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4 Marks

Q 8. a) Using I-V characteristics and circuit diagrams explain how the same
photodiode can be used either as a photodetector or as a solar cell. What are the
considerations required for designing solar cells? 4+9
Ans:
If a p-n junction is uniformly illuminated by photons with h > Eg, an added
generation rate gop (EHP/cm3-s) participates in the diode current. The number of
holes created per second within a diffusion length of the transition region on the
n side is ALpgop where A is the cross-sectional area of the junction. Similarly,
ALngop electrons are generated per second within Ln of xp0 and AWgop carriers are
generated within W. The resulting current due to the collection of these optically
generated carriers by the junction is
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The current due to optical generation of carriers gets added to the thermally
generated current to give the total reverse current with illumination. Since this
current is directed from n to p, the diode equation becomes

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Thus, the diode I–V curve is lowered by an amount proportional to the
generation rate gop.
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I–V characteristics of an illuminated junction

Depending on the intended application, the photodiode can be operated in either
the third or fourth quarters of its I–V characteristic. As the figure below illustrates,
power is delivered to the device from the external circuit when the current and
junction voltage are both positive or both negative (first or third quadrants). In
the fourth quadrant, however, the junction voltage is positive and the current is
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negative. In this case power is delivered from the junction to the external circuit
since in the fourth quadrant the current flows from the negative side of V to the
positive side as in a battery. If power is to be extracted from the device, the fourth
quadrant is used. On the other hand, in applications as a photodetector we usually
reverse bias the junction and operate it in the third quadrant.
1 Mark

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Design considerations for solar cells:
1) To utilize a maximum amount of available optical energy, it is necessary
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to design a solar cell with a large area junction located near the surface of
the device.
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2) The surface is coated with appropriate materials to reduce reflection

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(antireflective coating) and to decrease surface recombination (by using

passivation layer)

3) The junction depth d must be less than Lp in the n material to allow holes
generated near the surface to diffuse to the junction before they recombine.
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Similarly, the thickness of the p region must be such that electrons

generated in this region can diffuse to the junction before recombination
takes place. This requirement implies a proper match between the electron
diffusion length Ln, the thickness of the p region and the mean optical
penetration depth.

4) It is desirable to have a large contact potential V0 to obtain a large

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photovoltage, and therefore heavy doping is needed. On the other hand,

long lifetimes are desirable and these are reduced by heavy doping. So, a
compromise must be made.

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5) It is important that the series resistance of the device be very small so that
power is not lost as heat due to ohmic losses in the device itself. A series
resistance of only a few ohms can seriously reduce the output power of a
solar cell. Since the area is large, the resistance of the p-type body of the
device can be made small. However, contacts to the thin n region require
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special design. If this region is contacted at the edge, current must flow
along the thin n region to the contact, resulting in a large series resistance.
To prevent this effect, the contact can be distributed over the n surface by
providing small contact fingers as shown in the above figure. These narrow
contacts serve to reduce the series resistance without interfering
appreciably with the incoming light.

6) The fourth-quadrant portion of a solar cell characteristic is shown in the

following figure with Ir plotted upward for the convenience of illustration.
The open-circuit voltage Voc and the short-circuit current Isc are determined
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for a given light level by the cell properties. The maximum power delivered
to a load by this solar cell occurs when the product VIr is a maximum.
Calling these values of voltage and current Vm and Im, the maximum
delivered power is shown by the shaded rectangle in the figure. This power
is less than the IscVoc product. The ratio ImVm>IscVoc is called the fill factor
and is a figure of merit for solar cell design.
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Q 8. b) What is the compromise to be made in designing photodetectors and why
is it so? Describe the conditions for successful laser operation. 4+8
Ans:
Photodetectors: In most optical detection applications, the detector’s speed of
response or bandwidth and sensitivity are two critical parameters. For example,
if the photodiode is to respond to a series of light pulses 1 ns apart, the
photogenerated minority carriers must diffuse to the junction and be swept across
to the other side in a time much less than 1 ns. The carrier diffusion step in this
process is time consuming and should be eliminated if possible. Therefore, it is
desirable that the width of the depletion region W be large enough so that most of
the photons are absorbed within W rather than in the neutral p and n regions.
When an EHP is created in the depletion region, the electric field sweeps the
electron to the n side and the hole to the p side. Since this carrier drift occurs in a
very short time, the response of the photodiode can be quite fast. Also, a wide W
results in a small junction capacitance thereby reducing the RC time constant of
4 Marks

the detector circuit. W must not be so wide that the time required for drift of
photogenerated carriers out of the depletion region is excessive, leading to low
bandwidth. But, if W is wide, most of the incident photons will be absorbed in the
depletion region, leading to a high sensitivity. The appropriate width for W is
chosen as a compromise between sensitivity and speed of response.

Conditions for laser operation:

LASER is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
Stimulated emission involving two energy levels E1 and E2 are shown below. The
electron population in these energy levels are n1 and n2, respectively.

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If the atoms exist in a radiation field of photons with energy h12, such that the
energy density of the field is (12), then stimulated emission can occur along
with absorption and spontaneous emission. The photon density is to build up
through a predominance of stimulated emission over both spontaneous
emission and absorption. The rate of stimulated emission is proportional to the
instantaneous number of electrons in the upper level n2 and to the energy density
of the stimulating field (12). Thus, we can write the stimulated emission rate as
B21n2(12) where B21 is a proportionality factor. The rate at which the electrons
in E1 absorb photons should also be proportional to (12), and to the electron
population in E1. Therefore, the absorption rate is B12n1(12), where B12 is a
proportionality factor for absorption. Finally, the rate of spontaneous emission is
proportional only to the population of the upper level. Introducing still another
coefficient, the rate of spontaneous emission can be written as A21n2.

Condition 1:
At equilibrium, the ratio of the stimulated to spontaneous emission rates is
generally very small, and the contribution of stimulated emission is negligible.
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With a photon field present,

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The way to enhance the stimulated emission over spontaneous emission is to have
a very large photon field energy density (12). In the laser, this is encouraged by
providing an optical resonant cavity in which the photon density can build up to
a large value through multiple internal reflections at certain frequencies ().
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An optical resonant cavity can be obtained using reflecting mirrors to reflect the
photons back and forth, allowing the photon energy density to build up. One or
both of the end mirrors are constructed to be partially transmitting so that a
fraction of the light will “leak out” of the resonant system. This transmitted light
is the output of the laser. The gain in photons per pass between the end plates
must be larger than the transmission at the ends, scattering from impurities,
absorption and other losses.

Condition 2:
To obtain more stimulated emission than absorption we must have n2 > n1.
2 Marks

Thus, if stimulated emission is to dominate over absorption of photons from the

radiation field, we must have a way of maintaining more electrons in the upper
level than in the lower level. This condition is quite unnatural, since n2 > n1 is less
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than unity for any equilibrium case. Because of its unusual nature, the condition
n2 > n1 is called population inversion. There are ways of obtaining population
inversion in the atomic levels of many solids, liquids and gases, and in the energy
bands of semiconductors.

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