 .

Electrostatics
 Branch of science which deals with the study of
charged particles at rest .
Electrodynamics
 Branch of science which deals with the study of
charged particles in motion .
Electricity
 energy due to flow of charge is called electricity .
Electric charge
 A charge is a fundamental property of matter, like
mass of matter.
 Property Which Arises Due To Either Excess Or
Deficiency Of Electrons .
Types of charges
a) Positive charge:- charge due to more protons than
electrons. (loss of electrons, e-).
b) Negative charge:- charge due to more electrons
than protons. (gain of electrons, e-)
Notes :-
 A Body Is Said To Be Negatively Charged , If It
Gains Electrons.
 E.G.:- An Ebonite Rod Rubbed With Fur Acquires
Negative Charge.
 A Body Is Said To Be Positively Charged , If It
Loses Electrons .
 E.G.:-A Glass Rod Rubbed With A Silk Cloth Acquires
Positive Charge.
The SI Unit Of Electric Charges Coulomb (C) .
Electric Charges Is Denoted By Q Or Q .
FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS
 LIKE CHARGES REPEL EACH OTHER , UNLIKE
CHARGES ATTRACT EACH OTHER.
Quantization of charge
 The Total Charge Acquired By A Body Is An Integral
Multiple Of Magnitude Of Charge On A Single
Electron.
 This principle is called quantization of charge.
.

 Q = ne [ Charge On ‘n’ Electrons ]

 Where, n = No. Of Electrons
 E- = Magnitude Of One Electron
 Value Of One E– = –1.6 ×10–¹⁹ C
 Magnitude Of One E– = 1.6 × 10 –¹⁹ C
 Value Of One P+ = +1.6 × 10 –¹⁹ C
Electricity

STATIC ELECTRICITY CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Static electricity
 The Word ‘Electricity’ Was Given By Sir Thomas
Brown In The Year 1646 .
 This Electricity Is Produced On Rubbing And Hence
It Is Also Called Frictional Electricity.
 When This Electricity Is Not Allowed To Flow , Then
It Is Called Static Electricity.
Current electricity
 The Flow Of Charge In A Conductor Is Known As
(Current Electricity) Electric Current .
 The Flow Of Water In Rivers And Canals Is Known As
Water Current .
 The Electric Current In A Metallic Conductor Is Only
Due To The Flow Of Electrons.
(I.E.,Negative Charge Carriers).
Electric current
 Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of
electric charge through any cross - section of a
conductor in unit time.
 If ‘q’ amount of charges flow through a conductor in
‘t’ time then
 Electric Current ( I ) = charge (q) / time (t) = ne / t
 where, n = no. of electrons flowing through
the conductor.
.

 SI unit of electric current is ampere (A), named in

honour of the French scientist Andre-Marie
Ampere (1775 -1836) .
 Electric current is a scalar quantity.
 SI unit is C/s or Cs–¹ .
Definition of ampere (A)
 Electric Current Through A Conductor Is Said To Be 1
Ampere , If One Coulomb Charge Flows Through Any
Cross - Section Of The Conductor In One Second (i.e.,
1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/ 1 Second = 1A = 1C/1second.
 Smaller Unit Of Current Are Milli-ampere .
 (1ma = 10 –³a)
 Microampere (1μa = 10–⁶A)
Direction of electric current
 Conventionally, The Direction Of Electric Current Is
Taken As Opposite To The Direction Of The Flow Of
Electrons ( Negative Charges ) . In An Electric Circuit,
The Current Flows From Positive Terminal Of The Cell
To The Negative Terminal.

++ + Conventional Current.
- - - Flows Of Electron
How of charges inside a wire (conductor)

 Inside the solid, the atoms are packed together very

closely two each other but electrons are able to travel
through the solid crystal as if they were in vacuum.
 When a steady current flows in a conductor, then
electrons in it move with a certain average drift Speed
(the constant speed of electrons inside the conductor
with which they move under the effect of external
electric supply) of the order of 10–⁴ m/s.
 Thus, flow of charge (i.e.,electrons) produces
current in a wire .
Ammeter
 Electric Current Is Measured By A Device
Called Ammeter .
 An Ammeter Is A Low Resistance Device Which Is
Always Connected In Series With The Device Through
Which Current Is To Be Measured.
 It Is Denoted By ‘A’.
Coulomb’s law
 According to coulomb’s law :-
 The force between two electric charges at rest is proportional
to the product of their individual magnitudes, q1 and q2, i.e.,
 F q1*q2…………(i)
 The force of interaction between two electric charges is
inversely proportional to the square of distance
between them i.e.,
F 1/R² ……………(ii)
 Combining equation (i) and (ii) , we get ;
 F q1*q2
R²
Or, F = k × q1q2 /r²
 where k is a constant of proportionality.
Electric potential and potential difference
 Electric potential :- Electric potential at a point is
defined as the work done in moving a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point.
➜ it is denoted by Volt (V)
➜ it is a scalar quantity.
➜ work done in moving a positive charge ‘q’ from
infinity to a point in an electric field is ‘w’ then electric
potential ‘V’ of that point is
V = W/q
 ➜ The SI unit of electric potential is volt (V( and is
named after Italian physicist Alessandro Bolta (1757-
1827).
Electric potential difference (∆V)
 Electric potential difference (∆V) :-
 Potential difference ( Va–Vb) between two points A
and B in an electric field is defined as the work done
per unit charge in moving a unit positive charge from
point B to point A.
Or
 It is define as the work done per unit charge in moving
a unit positive charge from one point to other point.
 Electric potential difference means voltage.
.

 Let ‘W’ be the work done in moving charge q from

point B to point A , then the potential difference (Va –
Vb) between these two points is given by
 ∆V = Va – Vb = W/q
 SI unit is volt (V).
 It is a scalar quantity.
voltmeter is denoted in a circuit by
Definition of 1 volt
 V = W/q = 1 joule/1 coulomb = 1JC–¹
 Electric potential is said to be 1 volt if 1 joule work is
done in moving 1 coulomb charge.
Voltmeter
 The electric potential difference between two points in
a circuit is measured using a device called voltmeter.
 A Voltmetre is a high resistance device which is always
connected in parallel with components through which
potential difference is to be measured.
Electric circuit
 A closed conducting path containing the source of
electric energy and the load through which electric
current flows is known as electric circuit.
Open electric circuit
 An electric circuit through which no electric current
flows is known as open electric circuit.
 Closed electric circuit
 An electric circuit through which current flows
continuously, is known as closed electric circuit.
# Ohm's law :-
 ➜George Simon Ohm (German physicist) in 1826,
studied the relationship between electric current and
potential difference across the ends of conductor.
 ➜ the relation between electric current and potential
difference is known as ohm's law
★ this law states that :-
 ➜ the electric current flowing in a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across
the ends of the conductor, provided the temperature
and other physical conditions of the conductor
remain the same.
Mathematically, this law can be stated as

 Potential difference electric current

 V I .........(1)
 V= RI ........(2)
 where, R is the constant proportionality and is known
as resistance of the conductor.
 Or V/I=R (constant ) .........(3)
 The ratio of potential difference across the ends of a
conductor to the current flowing through, it remains
constant of temperature and other physical conditions
of the conductor remains the same.
Resistance (R)
 Resistance of a conductor is the property of a conductor to
oppose the flow of charges through it.
 Resistance of a conductor is given by ;
 R=V/I
 Where, resistance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the
potential difference across the ends of a conductor to the
current flowing through the conductor.
 It's SI unit is ohm .
 It's symbol is Ω .
 1 ohm = 1 volt / 1 ampere
 Or 1Ω=1V/1A = 1VA–¹
# Definition of 1 Ohm :-
 Resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm, if a
potential difference of 1 volt across the ends of the
conductor makes a current of 1 ampere to
flow through it.
V-I graph
 The graph between the potential difference ‘V’ and the
corresponding current ‘I’ is found to be a straight line
passing through the origin for ohmic conductors.
.

 The slope of the curve OA=AC/OC=I/V .

 →slope of the curve OA=1/R
 or R(resistance of a conductor) = 1/slope of graph
between V and I.
 Note :- resistance of a conductor does not depend
upon the potential difference applied across the end
of the conductor.
Variation of electric current with
the resistance of the conductors
 We know , V/I =R
 I = V/R
 It shows that the electric current flowing in a
conductor is inversely proportional to the resistance of
the conductor if the potential difference across the
conductor is constant.
 If resistance is halved, the current is doubled. On the
other hand if the resistance is doubled, the
current is halved.
.
 (1) R1 = 1/2R
 I1 = 1/R1
 = 1/1/2R
 = 2 × 1/R
=2×I
 If resistance is halved, the current is doubled.
 (2) R1= 2R
 I1 = 1/R1
 = 1/2R
 = 1/2 × 1/R
 = 1/2 I
 If resistance is doubled, the current is halved.
# Cause of resistance :-
 Wild drifting, free electrons collide with the ions and
atoms of the conductor.
 This collection is the fundamental cause of resistance
in a conductor.
Some important terms related to resistance
 Variable resistance :- In an electric current,
sometimes current has to be increased or decreased.
 A component used in an electric circuit to change the
current without changing the potential difference
across the circuit is called variable resistance.
Rheostat
 It is a device used in an electric circuit to change the
resistance and hence current in the circuit.
 It means rheostat acts as variable resistance in
the circuit.
Resistor
 A component in an electric circuit which offers
resistance (i.e., opposition) to the flow of electrons
constituting electric current is known as resistor.
 E.g. :- a metallic wire or a conductor used in an
electric circuit is known as resistor.
Good conductor
 A conductor or a material which offers low resistance
to the flow of electrons or electric current in electric
circuit is known as a good conductor.
 E.g. :- silver is a good conductor.
Poor conductor
 A conductor or a material which offers high resistance
to flow of electrons or electric current in an electric
circuit is known as a poor conductor.
 E.g. :- iron is a poor conductor as compared to silver.
Insulator
 A material which offers very high resistance to the flow
of electrons or electric current in an electric circuit is
known as an insulator.
 E.g. :- rubber is an insulator.
Ohmic material
 A material which obeys ohm's law is known as
ohmic material.
 E.g.:- copper, aluminium, silver, etc...
Non- Ohmic material
 A material which does not obey ohm's law is known as
non-ohmic material.
 E.g. :- electrolyte, etc...
Factors on which the resistance of a
conductor depends
 The electrical resistance of a conductor depends on the
following factors :-
1. Length of the conductor :- The resistance of a
conductor ‘R’ is directly proportional to its length ‘l’.
i.e., R L .......... (1)
 Since, the resistance of a wire is directly proportional
to its length, i.e., when the length of wire is
doubled/halved , then it's resistance also gets
doubled/halved .C
Area of cross - section of the conductor
 The resistance of a conductor R is inversely
proportional to its area of cross- section A.
 Since, the resistance of a wire is inversely
proportional to its area of cross-section, i.e., when the
area of cross-section of wire is doubled, then it's
resistance gets halved and if the area of cross-section
of wire is halved, then it's resistance will get doubled.
 i.e., R 1/A ........(2)
Note :-
 When a conductor is stretched (increased its length),
then its area of cross-section decreases accordingly,
but the volume (i.e., area × length) of the conductor
remains the same.
Nature of the Material of the conductor
 The resistance of a conductor depends on the nature of
the material of which it is made. Some material have
low resistance, whereas others have high resistance.
 From equation (1) and (2) , we get :-
 R L/A or R = ρ (l/A)
 where, p is the conductor of proportionality called
resistivity or specific resistance of the conductor.
Note:-
 Resistance of human body to the flow of current is
about 500000 Ω , when skin is dry . However,
resistance of human body becomes very small
when skin is wet.
Resistivity or specific resistance
 → R = ρ (l/A) = ρ = RA/l
 If A=1 and L=1, then ρ = R .
 → Resistivity of a conductor is defined as the
resistance of the conductor of unit length and unit
area of cross-section.
 → Resistivity is the property of a substance
or material.
.
 Resistivity is an important property of materials and
is defined as the resistance offered by a cube of a
material of side 1 m when current flows perpendicular
to the opposite faces.
 It's CGS unit is Ω - cm.
 It's SI unit is Ω-m .
 The resistivity of a material does not depend on its
length or thickness but depends on the nature of
substance and temperature .
 Insulators such as glass, rubber, ebonite, etc., have a
very high resistivity (10¹² to 10¹⁷ Ω - m ), while
conductor have a very low resistivity (10–⁸ to 10–⁶ Ω-m ) .
Applications of alloys
 Alloys are used in electric heating devices such as
electric irons, geysers, and toasters for the
following reasons :-
1. The resistivity of alloys is generally higher than that
of pure metals.
2. They do not oxidise rapidly at high temperature since
resistivity changes less rapidly with
changes in temperature.
Resistance of a system of resistors
 Conductors or resistors can be connected with one
another in two ways :-
1. In series
2. In parallel
Series combination of Resistors
 When two or more resistors are connected end to end
then they are said to be connected in series.
 Two or more conductors are said to be connected in
series if they are connected one after the other such
that the same current flows through all conductors
when some potential difference is applied across
the combination.
.

 → let current I be flowing through each resistance

and V be the potential difference across the
combination of the resistances.
 If V1, V2 and V3 be the potential difference across
resistances R1, R2 and R3 respectively, then potential
difference across AD = potential difference across R1 +
potential difference across R2 + potential
difference across R3.
 i.e., V = V1 + V2 + V3 ........(1)
.
 According to ohm's law ;
 V1 = IR1
 V2 = IR2
 V3 = IR3
 From this, equation (1)st becomes : V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
 = I ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) ........(2)
 If Rs = effective resistance of series combination of
R1, R2 and R3 .
 Then, V = IRs
 Hence, equation (2)nd becomes:
 IRs = I( R1 + R2 + R3 )
 therefore, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
.
 If n resistors are connected in series instead of three
resistances, then the effective resistance of the series
combination is given by :
 Rs = R1+ R2+ R3+ ........+Rn
 OR Rs=Σri
 This shows that the effective resistance of a series
combination of resistors is the sum of individual
resistances of the resistors in the combination].
Equivalent circuit of a series combination of
resistances
 Equivalent circuit of a series combination of three
substances R1, R2 and R3 connected across a cell.
Some important points regarding series
combination of resistors are as follows :-
 The equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances.
 The equivalent resistance is thus greater than the
resistances of either resistor. This is also known as
maximum effective resistance.
 The current through each resistor is same.
 The potential difference across each resistor
is different.
# Disadvantages of series
combination :-
1. In series combination, if any of the compounds fail
to work, the circuit will break and then none of the
components will work.
2. It is not possible to connect a bulb and heater in
series because they need different values of current
to operate properly. Hence, to overcome this
problem we do not use series circuit.
Parallel combination of resistors
 Two or more resistors are said to be connected in
parallel if one end of each resistor is connected at one
common point and the other end of each resistor is
connected at other common point such that the
potential difference across each resistor is equal to the
applied potential difference across the combination
of the resistors.
 OR
 When two or more resistors are connected
simultaneously between two points, then they form a
parallel combination.
.

 A parallel combination of three resistors R1,R2 and R3

connected across a battery.
 Let V be the applied potential difference across A and
B. The current I drawn from the battery divide into
three parts I1, I2 and I3 at point A. Current I1 through
R1, current I2 flows through R2 and current I3
flows through R3 .
 therefore, I = I1+ I2+ I3 .......(1)
.
 According to ohm's law ;
 I1 = V/R1 , I2 = V/R2 , I3 = V/R3
 So, equation (1) becomes :
 I = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
 = V( 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 )
 If Rp = resistance of The parallel combination of
R1 , R2 AND R3
 therefore, I = V/Rp
 Hence equation becomes ;
 V/Rp = V( 1/R1+ 1/R2 + 1/R3 )
 therefore, 1/Rp = R1 R2 R3/R2R3 + R1R3 + R1R2
.

 If n resistances are connected in parallel instead of

three resistances, then the effective resistance of the
combination is given by :-
 1/Rp = 1/R1+ 1/R2+ 1/R3+ ..... + 1/Rn
Equivalent circuit of parallel combination of
resistances
 The equivalent circuit of a parallel combination of
three resistances are :-
Some important points regarding parallel
combination of resistors are as follows :-
 The reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the
sum of the reciprocal of individual resistances.
 The equivalent resistance is less than the resistance of
either resistor. This is also known as minimum
effective resistance.
 The current from the source is greater than the current
through either resistor.
 The potential difference across each resistor is same.
Advantages of connecting electric
appliances in parallel combination
1. If any one of the electric appliances or devices
connected in parallel does not work ( or fuses ) , then
the working of other devices will not be affected.
2. Then different electric devices are connected in
parallel, the potential difference across each device is
equal to the applied potential difference and hence
they draw the current as per their requirement and
hence they work properly.
Heating effect of electric current
 When an electric current is passed through a high
resistance wire like nichrome wire, then the wire
becomes very hot and produces heat. This is called the
heating effect of current.
 The heating effect of current is obtained by the
transformation of electrical energy into heat energy.
 E.g. :- an electric fan becomes warm, if it is used
continuously for longer longer time, etc.
Consider a conductor AB connected in a cell as shown in
the figure. let V be the potential difference applied across
the ends of the conductor.
 If ‘W’ be the work done to carry the charge ‘q’ from one
end to another end of the conductor, then
.
 Potential difference = work/charge
 i.e., V = W/q
 Or W = V × q .........(1)
 If current ‘I’ flows through the conductor for time t1
then total charge flowing through the
conductor is given by :-
 q = It
 Substitute this value of ‘q’ in equation (1)st, we get ;
 W = V × It ........ (2)
 This work done is equal to the ( H) produced in
the conductor.
 H = V I t ( in joule )
Other expressions for the amount of heat
produced
 Using ohm's law :-
 V = IR, where R is the resistance of the conductor
then, H = I²Rt
 again, I = V/R, then
 H = ( V²/R ) t
Joule's law of heating
 Joules law can be stated as :-
 The amount of heat produced in a conductor is :-
 (1) directly proportional to the square of the electric
current flowing through it.
 i.e., H I². ........(1)
 (2) directly proportional to the resistance of
the conductor.
 i.e., H R . ........(2)
 (3) directly proportional to the time for which the
electric current flows through the conductor.
 i.e., H t. ......(3)
.
 Combining equation (1), (2) and (3) , we get ;]
H I² Rt
 or H = KI²Rt , where K is constant of proportionality.
 K = I , then
 H = I²Rt
 This is known as joule's law of heating.
Applications of heating effect of
current
 Electric iron, toaster, oven, kettle ,etc. are some of the
electrical devices which are based on joule's law of
heating. The electrical heating is also used to produce
light. The fuse is another application of Joules heating.
Electric bulb
 The filament of the bulb must retain as much of the
heat generated as is possible so that it gets hot and
emits light. A metal having high melting point such as
tungsten should be used so that it does not melt at
very high temperature.
 The filament should be thermally isolated. The bulbs
are filled with inert gases such as nitrogen and argon
so as to prolong the life of filament.
Fuse
 It protects circuits and appliances by stopping the flow
of any unusually high electric current. The fuse is
placed in series with the device. It consists of a piece of
wire made of a metal or an alloy of appropriate melting
point. If a current larger than the specified value flows
through the circuit the temperature of the fuse wire
increases which melts the fuse wire and
breaks the circuit.
#Why does the cord of an electric heater
not glow while the heating element Does ?
 → cord of an electric heater is made up of good
conductor of electricity, such as copper having low
resistivity whereas, the heating element is made up of
a material having higher resistivity and hence higher
resistance. Therefore, heat produced will be much
more in heating element then the cord as heat
produced depends on the resistance. Hence, the cord
of an electric heater does not glow whereas the
heating element glows.
Electric power
 It is defined as the amount of electrical energy
consumed in a circuit per unit time.
 If W be the amount of electrical energy consumed in a
circuit in ‘t’ seconds, then the electrical
power is given by ;
 P = W/t but, W = electrical energy
 = Vq = VIt
 therefore, P = V I t/t = VI