Chapter 4 AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS:

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Deformation of Axially Loaded Members
4.3 Statically Indeterminate Structures
4.4 Method of Superposition
4.5 Thermal Deformation and Stress
4.6 Stresses on Inclined Planes
4.7 Saint-Venant’s Principle
4.8 Stress Concentrations
4.1 Introduction:
• As we learn in chapter 2, which introduced the concepts of axial stress.
Additionally, in chapter 3 the deformation and strain concept are considered
and so the deflections are assumed to be small.
• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations in the
structure as well as the stresses induced under loading. Statics analyses alone
are not sufficient.
• Considering structures as deformable allows determination of member forces
and reactions which are statically indeterminate.
• Determination of the stress distribution within a member also requires
consideration of deformations in the member.
• Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of axial loaded member (structural
components subjected only to tension or compression, such as trusses,
connecting rods, columns, etc.). Change in length for prismatic bars,
nonuniform bars are determined, it will be used to solve the statically
indeterminate structures, change in length by thermal effect is also considered
stresses on inclined sections will be calculated.
4.2 Deformation of Axially Loaded Members:
1)Prismatic bars: As mentioned in Chapter 1, a prismatic
bar is straight structural member having the same (or Figure 4.1: (a) elongation
constant) cross section throughout its length. of the prismatic bar, and
(b) freebody diagram of a
 Consider the deformation of a prismatic bar subjected
to load P (tension) shown in Figure 4.1. The load P
produces uniform elongation δ in the bar, which is
said to be in tension. How can we determine δ?
Make use of Hooke’s law and expressions for normal stress and strain as,
δ
ε= .. . .(a )
i.Geometry of Deformation: normal strain(ε),  L

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P
σ= . .. . .. .. .(b )
ii.Condition of Equilibrium: normal stress  A
σ
E= . .. . .. .. .(c )
iii.Material Behaviour: Hooke’s law (linearly elastic)  ε
P
σ A PL
E= = =
ε δ δ A
• Substituting Equs. (a) and (b) into Equ. (c)  L
PL
δ= .........( 4.1)
 EA , (for both tension and compression).
 EA is known as axial rigidity.
 The change in length of a member is normally very small when compared to its length.
 The stiffness k and flexibility f of a prismatic bar are defined in the same way as for a spring. Since
 Stiffness k = force required to produce a unit elongation (k = P/), while
 Flexibility f = elongation produced by a unit load (f =  / P).
 What is the stiffness k and flexibility f for a prismatic bar?
Working:
P
k=
Stiffness  δ
PL P E A
δ= ⇒ =
Now use EA δ L
P EA
∴ k= = . . .. .. .. . .(4 . 2)
δ L
δ
f=
Flexibility  P
PL δ L
δ= ⇒ =
Now using EA P EA
δ L
f = = . .. .. . .. .. . .(4 . 3)
 P EA , (for both tension and compression)

 Again, stiffness k and flexibility f are reciprocal to each other as,

1 1
k= f=
f , and k
2) Multiple Prismatic bars: As mentioned earlier, a prismatic bar of linearly elastic material is loaded only at
the ends  Its change in length can be obtained from  = PL / EA.
 Figure 4.2 (a)  A prismatic bar is loaded by one or more axial loads acting at intermediate points. Change
in length of this bar  can be determined by adding algebraically the elongations and shortenings of the

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individual segments. The method to solve this problem:
(1) Identify the individual segments.
(2) Cut each segment and consider the free-body diagram.
(3) Determine the internal axial forces Ni, where i = number of
individual segments. Ni can be determined using equilibrium
(Fv = 0). Ni  Tension (+ve) and compression (ve).
(4) Determine the changes in lengths (δi) of each segment as :
N i Li
δ i=
Ei A i , where : L = Length of each segment, E =
i i

Young’s modulus of each segment, and Ai = Cross section area

of each segment.
(5) Obtain the total changes in lengths () of the entire bar by
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adding i of each segment:

Figure 4.2 : (a) Bar with external loads

n n N i Li
δ=∑ δ i =∑ . . .. .. . .. .(4 . 4 ) acting at intermediate points; (b) (c), and (d)
i=1 i=1 Ei A i , free-body diagrams showing the internal axial
Where n : Total number of segments.  = Elongations (+ve) forces N1, N2, and N3.
and shortenings (ve).
 This equation is true for linearly elastic materials.
 Ni  not an external load, but the internal axial force.
 This method can be used when a bar consists of several
prismatic segments and having different axial forces with different dimensions and materials, as shown
Figure 4.3. Figure 4.3 Stepped bar with multiple
 Non Prismatic Bars: Are bars with continuously loadings.

varying loads or dimensions, (tapered bar) as shown in Figure 4. 4  Figure 4. 4 (a)  The load consists

of two parts:
(1) Single force PB acting at the end B.
(2) Distributed forces p(x) acting along the axis.
Figure 4.4: (a) Bar with varying
cross-sectional area and varying
axial force.

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 Since the bar with continuously varying loads and dimensions,
therefore, the change in length  cannot be obtained using equ.
(4.4).

 However, we can determine the change in length of a differential

element of the bar and then integrate over the length of the bar. ©2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

 Figure 4.4 (a), select a differential element at distance x from the left-hand end of the bar.
 Figure 4.4 (b) and (c)  Internal axial force N(x) acting at this cross section can be determined from
equilibrium using either segment AC or CB as free body diagram.
 The internal axial force N(x) and cross section area A(x) Function of distance x.
 For differential element (or extremely small element), the
elongation d may be obtained using:
PL
δ=
EA
 Now substitute N(x) for P, dx for L, and A(x) for A, hence,
PL N ( x)
δ= ⇒ dδ= dx ©2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

EA EA ( x )
Figure 4.4: (b) Bar with varying cross-
 The elongation of the entire bar can be obtained using sectional area and varying axial force,
integration over the entire length: and (c) free body of an element.
L L
N( x)
δ=∫ dδ=∫ dx . .. . .. .. . ..( 4 .5 )
0 0 EA( x )

 This equation is true for linearly elastic materials.

 The Procedure for analysis can be summarised as:
1) Internal force:
 Use method of sections to determine internal axial force P in the member.
 If the force varies along member’s strength, section made at the arbitrary location x from one end of
member and force represented as a function of x, i.e., P(x).
 If several constant external forces act on member, internal force in each segment, between two
external forces, must then be determined.
 For any segment, internal tensile force is positive and internal compressive force is negative. Results
of loading can be shown graphically by constructing the normal-force diagram.
2) Displacement:
When member’s x-sectional area varies along its axis, the area should be expressed as a function of

35
its position x, i.e., A(x).
If x-sectional area, modulus of elasticity, or internal loading suddenly changes, then Eqn 4.4 should
be applied to each segment for which the quantity is constant.
When substituting data into equations, account for proper sign for P, tensile loadings +ve,
compressive −ve. Use consistent set of units. If result is +ve, elongation occurs, −ve means it’s a
contraction.
Example 4.1:
Given: Aluminium [E = 70 GPa] member ABC supports a load of 28 kN, as shown in
Figure 4.5.
Find:
(a) The value of load P such that the deflection of joint C is zero.
(b) The corresponding deflection of joint B.

SOLUTION:

36
Example 4.2:
Given: A slightly tapered bar AB of solid circular cross section and length L (Fig.ure 4. 6 a) is supported at end B
and subjected to a tensile load P at the free end A. The
diameters of the bar at ends A and B are dA and dB
respectively.
Find: The elongation of the bar due to the load P.

SOLUTION:

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Example 4.3:

37
Given: Composite A-36 steel bar (Est = 210 GPa) shown made from two segments AB and
BD. Area AAB = 600 mm2 and ABD = 1200 mm2.
Find:
1) The vertical displacement of end A?
2) Displacement of B relative to C?
SOLUTION: Due to external loadings, internal axial forces in regions AB, BC and CD are
different. Apply method of sections and equation of vertical force equilibrium as shown.
Variation is also plotted.

PL [+75 kN](1 m)(106)

δA =AE
[600 mm2 (210)(103) kN/m62]
= [+35 kN](0.75 m)(10 )
+
[1200 mm2 (210)(103) kN/m2]
[−45 kN](0.5 m)(106)
+
[1200 mm2 (210)(103) kN/m2]
= +0.61 mm

P L [+35 kN](0.75 m)(10 6

)
δA =
BC BC
[1200
A=BC E mm 2
(210)(10 3
) kN/m 2
]
= +0.104 mm

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Example 4.4:
Given: A hollow
steel [E = 30,000
ksi] tube (1) with an
outside diameter of
2.75 in. and a wall thickness of 0.25 in. is fastened to a solid
aluminum [E = 10,000 ksi] rod (2) that has a 2in.-diameter and a
solid 1.375-in.-diameter aluminum rod (3). The bar is loaded as
shown in Figure 4.7.
Find:
(a) the change in length of steel tube (1).
(b) the deflection of joint D with respect to the fixed support at A.
(c) the maximum normal stress in the entire axial assembly.
SOLUTION:

39
4.3 Statically Indeterminate Structures:

40
 Statically determinate  Reactions and internal forces (axial,
shear and moment) can be determined only from the 3

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equations of equilibrium:

∑ F v =0 ; ∑ F h=0 ; ∑ M =0
 Statically determinate  Unknown forces can be determined
without knowing the properties of the materials (such as the
Young’s modulus E).
 Statically indeterminate  Reactions and internal forces
.Figure 4.7 statically indeterminate bars
cannot be found by statics alone (the 3 equations of
equilibrium).
Figure 4.8 (a) Analysis of a statically
 Hence, additional equation is needed (equation of
indeterminate bar.
compatibility).
 Figure 4.7  Statically indeterminate bar. Consider
equilibrium:
Fv = 0
RA +RB-P=0
 RA + RB = P
 One useful equation (Fv = 0)  cannot solve 2 unknowns
(RA, RB).
 Figure 4.8  Analysis of a statically indeterminate bar.
 Prismatic bar AB  Attached to rigid supports at both ends
and is axially loaded by a force P at point C.
 How to determine RA and RB?
 As mentioned earlier, one equation (Fv = 0) cannot solve
the 2 unknowns (RA, RB).
 We need one more equation. How?
 Change in length of a bar   must be compatible with the
conditions at the supports.
 Supports of the bar are both fixed at the ends  Total change
in length is zero (AB = 0).
 Equation of compatibility  In this case, the change in

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length of the bar must be compatible with the conditions at
the supports (AB = 0).
PL
 For linearly elastic materials  ¿
AE
 Now determine RA and RB:
Working:

Example 4.5:
Figures 4.7 (a-b) show a solid circular steel cylinder S is encased in
a hollow circular copper tube C. The cylinder and tube are
compressed between the rigid plates of a testing machine by
compressive forces P. Both parts have length L.
Steel cylinder
As = Cross-sectional area
Es = Modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus)
Copper tube
Ac = Cross-sectional area
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Ec = Modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus)

Figure 4.8 (b) Analysis of a statically Determine the following:
indeterminate structure. (a)
Compressive forces Ps in the steel cylinder and Pc in the

42
copper tube.
(b)
Compressive stresses s in the steel cylinder and c in the
copper tube.
(c) Shortening  of the assembly.
Solution

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43
4.4 Method of Superposition
• After subdividing the load into components, the principle of superposition states that the resultant stress
or displacement at the point can be determined by first finding the stress or displacement caused by each
component load acting separately on the member.

• Resultant stress/displacement determined algebraically by adding the contributions of each component.

Conditions:

1. The loading must be linearly related to the stress or displacement that is to be determined.

2. The loading must not significantly change the original geometry or configuration of the member

When to ignore deformations?

3. Most loaded members will produce deformations so small that change in position and direction of
loading will be insignificant and can be neglected

4. Exception to this rule is a column carrying axial load, discussed in Later.

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Superposition principle procedure:

3.5 Thermal Stress:

Most engineering materials expand when heated and contract when cooled. The strain due to a temperature
change of ΔT is called thermal strain and is obtained by:
ε T =α ∆ T ,∧δ T =α ∆ TL … … … … . ( 3.6 )
Where ε T :T h ermal strain , α : coefficient of t h ermal expantion ,
L :original lengt h ,∧δ T :t h ermal elongation .
Total Strains: strains caused by temperature changes and strains caused by applied loads are essentially
independent.the total normal strain in a body acted on both temperature changes and applied load is given by:
ε total=ε σ +ε T … … … … …(3.7)

Example 4.6:

Given: At a temperature of 40°F, a 0.08-in. gap exists

between the ends of the two bars shown in Fig. P2.18.

−6
Bar (1) is an aluminum alloy [α= 12.5 × 10 /°F] and bar

−6
( 2) i s s t a i n l e s s s t e e l [ α = 9 . 6 × 10 /°F]. The
supports at A and C are rigid.

Find: The lowest temperature at which the two bars

contact each other?

SOLUTION:

45
Example 4.7:

46
2.5 Stresses on Inclined Sections
• Consider the bar loaded as shown in Figure 4.13.
• Pass a section through the member forming an angle q with
the normal plane.
• From equilibrium conditions, the distributed forces
(stresses) on the plane must be equivalent to the force P.
• Resolve P into components normal and tangential to the
oblique section,

P x =P cosθ ,& P y =P sin θ .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . ..(8 )

− −

• The average normal and shear stresses on the oblique

plane are:
P
P cos θ P
−

x 2
σx = −
= = cos θ
A − A A
x
cos θ
P
P sin θ P
−

y
τ − = = = sin θ cos θ . .. . .. .. . .. .. . ..( 9 )
A A A
−

x y −

x
cos θ

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Example 4.8:
Given: An axial load P is applied to the 1.75 in. by 0.75 in. rectangular bar
shown in Fig.P1.33. The bar is subjected to an axial load of P = 18 kips.
Find: The normal stress perpendicular to plane AB and the shear stress parallel
to plane AB?
Assumptions: the bar weight is neglected.
SOLUTION:

4.7 Saint-Venant’s Principle:

48
• Localized deformation occurs at each end, and the deformations
decrease as measurements are taken further away from the ends.
• At section c-c, stress reaches almost uniform value as compared to a-
a, b-b.
• c-c is sufficiently far enough away from P so that localized
deformation “vanishes”, i.e., minimum distance.
• General rule: min. distance is at least equal to largest dimension of
loaded x-section. For the bar, the min. distance is equal to width of
bar.
• This behavior discovered by Barré de Saint-Venant in 1855, this the
name of the principle.
• Saint-Venant Principle states that localized effects caused by any load
acting on the body, will dissipate/smooth out within regions that are
sufficiently removed from location of load. Saint-Venant’s Principle:
Stress distribution may be assumed independent of the mode of load
application except in the immediate vicinity of load application
points.
• Thus, no need to study stress distributions at that points near
application loads or support reactions.
4.8 Stress Concentrations:
Force equilibrium requires magnitude of resultant force
developed by the stress distribution to be equal to P. In other
words,
1
P=∫ σ dA
A

This integral represents graphically the volume under each of the

stress-distribution diagrams shown.
In engineering practice, actual stress distribution not needed, only
maximum stress at these sections must be known. Member is
designed to resist this stress when axial load P is applied.
K is defined as a ratio of the maximum stress to the nominal
(average) stress acting at the smallest cross section:

49
σ max
K=
σ nom
K is independent of the bar’s geometry and the type of
discontinuity, only on the bar’s geometry and the type of
discontinuity.
As size r of the discontinuity is decreased, stress concentration is
increased.
It is important to use stress-concentration factors in design when
using brittle materials, but not necessary for ductile materials
Stress concentrations also cause failure structural members or
mechanical elements subjected to fatigue loadings

Example 4.9:

50
Given: Steel bar shown next has allowable stress, σallow = 115
MPa.
Find: largest axial force P that the bar can carry.
SOLUTION:
Because there is a shoulder fillet, stress-concentrating factor
determined using the graph next.
Calculating the necessary geometric parameters yields
r 10 mm
= =0.5
n 20 mm
Also,
w 40 mm
= =2
h 20 mm

Thus, from the graph, K = 1.4.

Average normal stress at smallest x-section,

P 2
σ nom = =0.005 P N /mm
20 ×10
σ allow =K σ max
N
115 2
=1.4 (0.005 p)
mm
P=16.43 ( 10 3 ) N =16.43 kN

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