SYLLABUS PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT FOR ENGINEERS (MS-302) - Applicable from the Academ Instructions for paper setter: ssion 2023-24 1, There should be 9 questions in the te end examinations question paper 2. The first (I") question should be compulsory and cover the question should be objective, single line answers or ee short answer type question of total 15 marks. 3. Apart from question 1 which is compulsory, rest of the paper shall consist of 4 unit as per the syllabus. Every unit shall have two questions covering the corresponding unit of the syllabus. However, the student shall be asked to attempt only one of the two questions in the unit, Individual questions may contain upto 5 sub-parts/sub-questions, Each Unit shall have a marks weightage of 15. UNITI Introduction to Managers and Management: Management an Overview. Introduction, Definition of Management, Role of Management, Functions of Managers,Levels of Management, Management Skills and Organizational Hierarchy, Social and Ethical Responsibilities of Management: Arguments for and against Social Responsibilities of Business, Social Stakeholders, Measuring Social Responsiveness and Managerial Ethics,Omnipotent and Symbolic View, Characteristics and importance of organizational culture, Relevance of political legal, economic and Cultural environments to global business, Structures and techniques organizations use as they go international. UNIT IT Planning: Nature & Purpose, Steps involved in Planning, Objectives,Setting Objectives, Process of Managing by Objectives Strategies, Policies & Planning Premises, Competitor Intelligence, Benchmarking, Forecasting, Decision-Making. Directing: Scope, Human Factors, Creativity and Innovation, Harmonizing Objectives, Leadership, Types of Leadership, Directing, Managers as leaders, Early Leadership Theories... Trait Theories, Behavioral Theories, Managerial Grid, Contingency Theories of Leadership, Directing ... Path Goal Theory, contemporary views of Leadership, Cross Cultural Leadership, Leadership Training, Substitutes of Leadership ‘UNIT II Organizing: Organizing Benefits and Limitations-De-Centralization and Delegation of Authority, Authority versus Power, Mechanistic Versus Organic Organization, Common, Organizational Designs, Contemporary Organizational Designs and Contingency Factors, The Learning Organization Nature and Purpose, Formal and Informal Organization, Organization Chart, Structure and Process,Departmentalization by difference strategies, Line and Staffauthority- Benefits and Limitations-De- Centralization and Delegation of Authority Versus, StaffingHuman Resource Inventory, Job Analysis , Job Description, Recruitmentntrotling: Management for Engineer UNIT IV e. Intred Controlling System and process of effect sal The planning Control link, The process Technique. Information Technology in The Budget as ( 1 Management, Control of Overall P \g organizational 'erformance trol. F al Controls, Tools for measurin trol Workplace concerns, employee The imp! Freder to dev, and pr Scienti Bucess of process, ology in zational mployee SIXTH SEMESTER [B.TECH] PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT FOR ENGINEERS [MS-302] UNI ‘ment? Discuss in detail evel theory of manag Ans. Management is the process of planning and organizing the resources and Activities of a business to achieve specific youl in Une most effective QL. What is Mani What is relevane n of management of con and efficient ner possible. Efficiency in management refers to the completion of tasks correctly and at minimal costs. Effectiveness in management relates to the completion of task within specific timelines to yield tangible re Chara age Some of the fundames risties of m: al characteristies of management are ss follow Multi-dimensional ‘Most management oversees and supervises «1 comp or production cycle. Managers work closely with and provi of their team. A manager considers a staff member both ax needs and as a component of the larger group. To be effective, n team members to apply their unique strengths toward achic goals, Dynamic or organization's: serviee guidance to the memb individual with diverse nagers influence their ng the organiz tion's Management is a dynamic function and evolves and adapts to changes in its environment, whether they are economic, socio-political or technological. For instance, @ paper company could see a decline in sales because of the rapid adoption of sereens and digital devices. Whether the company can still survive depends on how effectively its management can adapt to new market requirements, Intangible Management is not a tangible product, but its presence organization functions. Management consists of ideologies, policies and human interaction. Good management helps improve a company’s target achievement ratios, employee gratification levels and overall ease in the company’s operation. Evolution of Management Classical Management theories Classical management theory prioritizes profit ‘motivates employees. It aims to streamline ope in change the way an and assumes that personal gain rations and increase productivity Major concepts include specialization, incentivization, and hierarchical structure. ‘The first two contribute to employee efficiency and drive. Centralized leadership simplifies decision-making, and a meritocratic chain of commands provides order and oversight. At every level, standardization reduces waste and error, Scientific Management Theory Scientific management-theory is sometimes called Frederick Winslow Taylor, a mechanical e to develop organizational principles and proving his theory as a ma Scientific Management” in 1911 Bureaucratic Management Theory ‘aylorism after its founder ‘ngincer. Taylor employed scientifie methods * that suited mass production needs. After creating nager and consultant, he wrote " The Principles of4-2023 sixth Semester, Principles of Management for Engineers ost scholars of the late 19th and early 20th century to influence - economic, religious, and political “Economy and Society,” Max Weber was one of the foremo He strongly influenced — and conti sociology. He explains bureaucratic management theory in published posthumously in 192: , Weber believed that standard rules and well-defined roles maximize the efficiency of an organization. Everyone should underst nd the responsibilities and expectations of . ir place within a clear hierarchy and general corporate policies. Hiring ‘application of rules should be impersonal, guided only by reason and their position, thei decisions and the established codes. ministrative Management Theory as scientific management theory is sometimes called Taylorism, administrative theory is sometimes called Fayolism, Fayol was a mining engineer who sought to codify the responsibilities of management and the principles of effective administration. He outlined these in General and Industrial Management” in 1916. His guide identifies 14 principles of management * Division of work: Divide work into tasks and between employees. * Authority: Balance responsibility with commensurate authority * Unity of command: Give each employee one direct manager. * Order: Maintain order through an organized workforce. * Discipline: Establish and follow rules and regulations. * Initiative: Encourage employees to show initiative. * Remuneration: Pay employees fairly for the work they do. * Stability: Ensure that employees feel secure in their pos * Scalar chain: Establish a clear hierarchy of command. Subordination of individual interest: Prioritize group needs. Esprit de corps: Inspire group unity and pride. Relevance of contingency theory tg ee cnn ai design that is Appropriate for all situations, ‘ions, systems organizational theory. cular managerial action or organizational |, the contingency al the 7 leterminants ingency organizational theory * Thesystems theory lays do ot the organization's behavior and structure. On the othe ow sa vier ane wah ther hand, the contingency. onan Principles for application in all situations, bch says that all dower ae ny Otani ‘ational theory works on the prescription * Inother words, the contingeney on ion and its Ki systems theory teen ganizational theory spells out the relationship al environment and endeavors to fill a critical es en pr em; Ife pertpolitica jociely,” efficiency tations of Hiring ason and jinistrative sibilities of .d these in nal theory. nizational situation. refore, the snization’s nal theory .eture. uations. reseription lationship | | a critical LP. University-IBTech|-Akash Book. 2023-5 * Further, it offers a more explicit understanding of the relationship between various variables of the environment. It is also action-oriented and directed toward the application of the system theory's concepts * Hence, it offers useful and practical insights to managers in turbulent working environments. Q.2. How an organizational culture and climate connected? How ean a manager create and sustain organizational culture. Ans. Although many companies and hiring managers use the phrases compan culture and organizational climate interchangeably, it is important to note the differences so you can understand the reasons behind company employee behavior and decide if they are a right fit for you. Company culture characteristics These characteristics are unique to company culture. + Culture is abstract: Company cultures are embedded belief systems held by employees and leadership. They are passed down and reveal themselves through policy and unwritten expectations. * Difficult to change: Because it is composed of abstract regulations that govern behavior, company culture is static and very difficult to change. A positive culture attracts new talent, but if company culture is unhealthy, there will be considerable employee turnover and transfers. * Governs employee behavior: Much of human behavior is dictated by the established norms of the community. Culture will guide the interactions and affect employees’ ability to build professional relationships. A company culture that values professionalism will reveal itself through employee conduct. + Embedded in beliefs and actions: Because it is hard to identify the embedded beliefs of a company that affect expectations and actions, it is hard to measure the effect of culture. Company climate characteristics The following characteristies differentiate company climate: * Climate is based on employee opinion. Climate is the attitude employees have toward the workplace environment. Because different employees have unique experiences, the adapted attitude changes from employee to employee. If you are deciding whether a company is right for you, consider all aspects and perspectives before committing. * Can be an emotional response. If an employee has experienced something Positive, such as receiving an award for quality performance, their perspective on company climate will be positive. Coaching has become a common strategy in company’s toensure leadership feedback fosters a positive work environment, influencing a positive employee opinion. * Linked to environment. The floor plan of the physical work environment, the decorations or lack thereof, and the office furniture all communicate a type of environment. Flexible seating arrangements with bean bags and movable furniture show collaboration and comfort are important, but heavy office chairs, thick couches, and large tables indicate set structures, * Affects productivity and performance. An organization's climate directly affects employee job satisfaction, task completion and productivity, and job performance. If employers improve workplace climate, they can succeed in improving employee performancesngineers h Semester, Principles of Management for Engi 6 2028 Sixth Semester, ational culture Ways to create positive organ Set clear departmental goals ve have tangible results 0 work ch team so employe i ach am viduel performance, but it will encourage is room for feedback to adjust Outline the objectives of e ‘ot only will this help guide eee ; ser Make sure there collaboration between team m pis when needed oS ae ei ‘ann is continually reaching their objectives without breaking a For example, ifa team is continually sceat wun tight want to modify their target goals to push production further Promote the organization's goals: 1» addition to setting department the eared Tangs term objectives ‘This will help individuals cultivate ie of professional purpose. Having a source of motivation beyond quarterly quotas demonstrate the value each role has toward achieving the company’s mission. Promote diversity and inclusivity Create a positive, inclusive work culture by welcoming individuals from all backirounds and celebrating their differences. Encourage employees to share their pronouns with the rest of the team to promote inclusive language and consider establishing a committee to contribute to diversity initiatives. Work with the HR. department to make diversity a part of your recruitment strategy and ensure diversity and inclusion continue to be foundational elements as your organization grows. Allow for lightheartedness Work has its stressful moments and being able to make a difficult situation more xcbthearted is an invaluable skill. Of course, the ultimate goal should be to resolve the problem, but a fresh perspective and positive outlook is more productive than the alternative. As Dale Carnegie, an American writer and lecturer, said, “People rarely ucceed unless they are having fun in what they are doing.” If you can afford to find the bright side and let your team know that you have their back, they'll return the favor by working even harder. goals, make sure every employee is clear on sense Prioritize respect ‘ery individual should feel valued and heard, regardless of their status within the 'y: Interns offer a much greater advantage than being delegates for busy work, ces bring a fresh perspective. You never know where the next big idea will come from, so let eve emplo ast Share thir though “YeTY employee have a seat at the table and feel empowered to zero tolerance policy Just as important as ere know their rights amd indivelcaé, Welcoming environment is ensuring employees allties are i y facet of « positive work culture 4 protected within the workplace. A crucial Providing employees with the pis brees ‘s opportunity to speak facing in and outside of the office-and have access th eh ss they need, Make Make sure HR re ity withi value for pny Le Fepresentatives have flexibility within se lymous sexual harassment hotline ge roan needed, and consider ® Lo report incides " port incidents in the workplace Mires ateway employ i , Kecognize and rewa “ncourage employees valued within the eon “work culture of Tri ovenly about issues they a upport and resources their schedules to be implementing an employe lave access to the Cre 8 for achie * 10 Continue faving Outstay mn yeu Peering at impressive | pany. It will also motiy, " im ate their peers Hy competition that leads wee ‘ds to high performance wo get on pri ProLP. University-{B.Tech|-Akash Books 2023-7 Q3. Discuss different roles and functions of Manager? Ans. Roles and responsibilities of a manager Managers need the cooperation and skills of the people who work for thera, ‘Phe manager “wears many hats” to develop, motivate and drive their team Leader: The manager sets the vision and motivation for their team, They develop the plan and drive their team to achieve it. A good manager leads and delegates by earning the respect of employees and motivating them to be their best Project manager: A manager turns company goals into actio: ‘They use budgets, resources and systems efficiently able project plan: Coach: Managers train their employees properly and help them grow within the company. They help employees develop skills and their carcers, Resource planner: Managers hire new employees, address performance issues, and when needed, discipline or terminate employees. This is an integral part of the job and when they use the proper hiring strategies, a manager can create a successful team of employees. Functions of a manager are the various roles played by the manager in an organization. A manager is accountable for all the happenings in the firm and is answerable to the management. ‘The seven major roles played by the manager are: * Planning © Organizing * Staffing * Directing/leading * Coordinating * Reporting * Budgeting * Controlling }. (a) “Management is an art of getting things done”. Do you agree? Give reasons? Ans. This definition of management does not integrate the growing role of technology in business processes and therefore in the management process. A better definition to convey the present-day concept of management would probably be something more along the lines of management is an art of getting things done through leveraging technology to maximize the productivity of human resources. Almost every industry has gone through some phase of digitalization, which means that managers must decide how much to invest in technology to improve production, delivery, marketing and a range of other business applications. Even in many service industries that to the end consumer seemingly remain unchanged, there have been and continue to be technological upgrades that enable better forecasting and billing, as well as a myriad of other functions to improve profitability and facilitate business. When a leader inspires his or her subordinates, it prompts them to work hard. More work is accomplished as a result, and the organization prospers. That's how managers get things done through people. Modern organizations offer flexible working hours so that employees can work on personal projects during their free time. Such companies follow the management principles of Follet. They know that if they give workers liberty, they will be more productive.rinciples of Management for Engineers Sixth Semester, P entailstherecruitment sistrue, Suceessful managemententail tment da ys chown for tasks specifically tailored toward eee nana auerpersonai interaction is very important as a I cohesion within a modern marketplace that is we efbceney arty apeeifie consumer demands. However, sven frances in the business sector. business has become more sn a sepersoaaiaad, Caray 1 snly developed interpersonal finalized, thereby reducing the need for highly 7 coer eee plac, Btore computers tasks were organized and carried out evan, ith very few intermediaries to faclitate these demands. Now, in ce nge of Big Data, it has become more and more necessary to acquire skills related to savagement of computer software (Microsoft Excel) rather than skills Plating to ‘management of computer software sls eatin 0 agement of people. So, while it is true that successful management st ng nell ath others, it has become more and more important to got things done he successful integration and mastery of technological advances that surface etantly seithin a continuously evolving economy. in this respect, intery ane of maintainin evolving to Qs. (b) Explain the managerial level in an organization? Ans, LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT a) Top Level of Management sts of hoard of directors, chief exeeutive or managing director, op management is the ultimate source of authority and it manages goals and enterprise. It devotes more time on planning and coordinating functions. The role of the top management can be summarized as follows - * Top managen lays down the objectives and broad policies of the enterprise. ies necessary instructions for preparation of department budgets, prrcedures, schedules ete + It prepares strategic plans & policies for the enterprise. 1 [ appviats the executive for middle level ic. departmental managers * 1 controls & coordinates the activities of all the departments (b) Middle Level of Management branch managers and departmental manay ar responsible to the top management for t ‘ne to organizational and directional functions ‘nall organization, there is only one é enterprises, there may be senio or and jui te emphasized as igers constitute middle level. ‘Th he functioning of their department. They layer of middle level of management but nior middle level management. Their rele y execute the plans of th of the top he organization in eee accordance with the policies and ‘make plans for the sub-units of the on 1 Participate in employment & training ‘nd explain policies responsible ization, of lower levy from top level for coordinating the el management. | management to lower level activities within. the ‘They interpret divis ion or important reportsandg ae otherimportan ne vale performance of Important data to top level management. = me a of junior managers, ee ’ responsible for inspiving lower level ‘wer level managers towards better t 1 of sup A work | In the org ete tot Q Ar to take own in reason: 1 form of these re Qi issues n Socially reeruitit 5. responsi Society ii and emp and abse conseque Thus, an But, 1. whieh wi lower the Cost and the s,ment nward ( rat is . given sre and yersonal ried out Now, in lated to illentails ngs done LP. University [B/Techl Akash Book: (c) Lower Level of Ma Lower level is Iso known as supervisory/operative level of management. HL consist of supervisors, foreman, section officers, superintendent ete According to R.C. Davis, work has to be largely with pe Supervisory management refers to those executives whose ‘onal oversight and direetion of opers Live employees” In other words, they are concerned with direetion and controlling function of management. ‘Their activities inelude: oA + They gu nd ning of job Je and instruet workers for day to day activities: * They re responsible for the quality as well as quantity of production ted with the responsibility of naintaining good relation in the organization. * They commun ete to the h Q5. I responsibility of a Manager. Ans. Social responsibility is defined as the obligation and commitment of managers to take steps for protecting and improving society's welfare along with protecting their own interest. The managers must have social responsibility because of the following reasons: Je workers prob suggestions, and recommendatory appeals gher level and higher level xoals and objectives to the workers, 1. Organizational Resources - An organ form of men, money, compet these resources in hand, it diverse pool of resources in \cies and functional expertise. When an organi: is in better position to work for societal go: 2, Precautionary measure - I ation lingers on dealing with the social tues now, it would land up putting out social fires so that no time is left for realizing its s more cost-efficient to deal with the ing a large part if managements time. of managers’ social responsibility has position. It is the moral responsibility of the organization to assist solving or removing the social problems, tion has 3. Moral Obligation - The acceptanc been identified as a morally appropriate 4. Efficient and Effective Employees - Recruiting employees becomes easier for socially responsible organization, Employees are attracted to contribute for more socially responsible organizations. For instance - Tobacco companies have difficulty recruiting employees with best skills and competencies, 5. Better Organizational Environment - The organization that is most ve to the betterment of social quality of life will consequently have a better society in which it can perform its business operations. Employee hiring would be easier 2nd employee would of a superior quality. ‘There would be low rate of employee turnover and absenteeism. Because of all the social improvements, there will be low crime rate ‘quently less money would be spent in form of taxes and for protection of land an improved society will create a better business environment But, manager's soci | responsibility is not free from some criticisms, such as = 1. High Social Overhead Cost - 7) hich will not instantly benefit ‘ower the organizational efficieney Cost to Soci and the society 1m + cost on social responsibility is a social cost ation. The cost of social responsibility can costs oF social responsibility ar with themManagement for Engineers sixth Semester, Principles of rs are best at managing ncies - The manage! quired skills for solving social 10-2023 Lack of Social Skills and Compete may not have re« Prot Masimization - Thy Ma gets 7 maximization, Tne organizations sharers while reasonalls the relevance of macroeconomi sues. ; oss matters but they business matters but they issues any organiza trolled by their desire y following the following, , ¢ environment in global Q6. Explain busine: and the forces ctor or region's / overall, broader economy cro environment refers to the bore ‘which focuses on a specific se affecting it versus a microenvironment, which focuses of @ & rn ears Aconoms. There are macroeconomic conditions or factors that affect i a burinansee al operate, which, in turn, affect the economy as a whole. In general, macr‘ deals with: of + Spending , + Price levels oe «Aggregate production Macroeconomic factors affect companies that are more dependent on the overall en health of the economy. Industries involving the production and distribution of staple a goods and services tend to function more independently. It is cyclical industries - which largely involve luxury goods and travel - that are more heavily affected by macroeconomic factors. + A macro environment involves forces that affect the larger economy, Lai * A company should regularly perform a DEPEST analysis in order to best serve a customers and the economy as a whole. * DEPEST refers to the six broad factors affecting the macroeconomy — ae Demographic, Ecological, Political, Economic, Socio-cultural, and Technological. bp Analyzing a Macro Environment fin: a order to strategically manage a company, analysts often perform a DEPEST on yas =u ; eee = demographical, ecological, political, economic, socio- pas , technological factors in the macro i Sopcates onan environment that can affect how tos Dee eae ce down what each of the factors entails to get a better idea 7 ors that shape how companies oj te eae P perate, and, therefore, shape the macro i met (a) Demographic Factors . Demographic forces ultimately involve human populations that patronize ‘usinesses and contribute to the economy. There are a variety of statisties that must alyzed when it comes to demography, including age, gender, size, occupation, and busine: ol 7 bf aly, fi fling the needs of any demographic is the reason that businesses ‘ the st place and why they are ultimately successful. Demographies, then | how a company chooses to operate fi , pany chooses Lo operate and how broader markets develop. "| rely drithe bal ons mies srall aple d by erve socio how idea macro onize must ,and hen, lop. wee SED TROT NRaSD Books: 2025 11 * Population growth and resulting changes to demographics are important ares of study for any business A company needs to understand exactly who is patronizing it to best be of service, and thereby, generate a profit Marketing, for any business, depends heavily on paying close attention to changes in demographies. Knowing how to target new or emerging demographics is critical, Changes also must be pa company continually meet sed on to operations and production to make sure the s clients’ needs. (b) Feological Factors * Ecological fa that shape a macro environment. It is largely shaped by the ease of access to natural resources used in the production and tors are natural force distribution of a company’s goods and services + Environmental concerns affect both access to natural resources and the supply of natural resources a company can utilize. As populations expand, access to natural s, which tends to lead to a depletion of said resources. Pollution 's resulting from population growth also shape the environment, resources inerea increas * For years, there's been a growing shortage of raw materials, and a heavier emphasis is being placed on changing business practices to utilize more sustainable materials. The hopeis that placing less burden on the environment will help to regenerate ecological cycles and make materials both more plentiful and more accessible. (c) Political Factors + Businesses are always limited by the political environment in which they exist, Laws and governments regularly shape how a company can operate and even have sway over the markets that companies can serve. * The primary instance where political factors play a critical influence is when « company tries to move into a new market — specifically one in a different country. The company must understand the laws and regulations that dictate both the industry it operates in and any specific rules it may be subjected to. It may affect whether its financially responsible for the company to enter the new market at all. 's also important to keep abreast of new legislation in the works or tabled for Passage. Understanding shifting political forces can help a company change directions to skirt any serious impact should new regulations or rules be passed. (d) Economic Factors * Economic factors affecting the macro environment relate to forees that affect how consumers spend and their purchasing power. It is important to understand a variety of metrics and data, including: * Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and its real growth rate + Unemployment rates * Inflation Disposable personal income * Existing spending patterns Every business should closely monitor dat a regularly a numbers before moving into new markets in difle \d be fully aware of such erent countries.+ of 12-2023 sixth Semester, Principles of Management for Engineers (e) Socio-Cultural Factors Socjo-cultural factors relate to demographics in a sense but ane are related to populations and how they behave based on preference and values. Different societies ornlalfural groups are characterized by different needs, which are often based on different core values and preferences. Cultures often develop a group mentali general beliefs. It shapes how the individual choose to spend their money on. A business n variances, especially when moving into new markets. ty, which passes along core values and Js in such cultures shop and what they .eeds to pay attention to socio-cultural Technological Factors ~ Technological factors refer to the creation of new technologies and how they shape products, product development, and access to new market opportunities. A perfect example of a strong technological force today is wireless communication. Nearly everyone in the world owns a smartphone, tablet, or laptop that can quickly and easily be connected to the internet. It exerts a serious impact on individuals and societies and their ability to patronize companies freely. Mobile technology is also shaping the development of new technological devices and replacing ones that have become outdated. A company needs to continually use the most up-to-date technology in order to operate at its highest capacity and be aware of how technological applications can better serve customers. a an imp contro and de An: and the making action, v Plas interrel: function As have be« LD 2.D 3.B 4S 5.D 6E 7. De 8. Pl 9.M. Con The is furthe organiza: their pla: Es 2M 3.Ta 4. Fo Q2. Attitude Ans. evaluatio attitudes Person’s a adjustmer into existi Attitu objects in Defin Attitu exerting a situationsd to ieties, od on s and t they altural y shape perfect quickly Is and ces and 1e most of how oy fech|—Akash Book: _Q-1 Explain how planning involves deci an impact later, Assume you have been put in control paper waste in a company as a part of sustainability measure set goals and develop plan what controlling measures would you take? Ans. Planning and dec and there are ma making ion making today that will have charge of creating a program to ion-making are the most important managerial functions, y relations between them. Planning is thinking of doing. Decision @ part of planning. Planning is the process of selecting a future cour. action, where Decision-making means selecting a course of action. aking, organizing, leading and controlling are lanning and decision making is the most important step of all man: Planning and dee interrelated. Pl functions ageri As an Incharge for sustainability devel lopment for developing plan various have been followed 1. Determine the project goals and objectives 2. Determine the project scope Build your work breakdown structure (WBS) Set timelines Determine and plan resources Estimate costs Determine risks and constraints 8. Plan out communication 9. Make plans for quality control and assurance Controlling Measures to be taken The control process of management ensures that every activity of a busines: is furthering its goals. This process basically helps managers in evaluating their organization's performance. By using it effectively, they can decide whether to change their plans or continue with them as they are 1. Establishing goals and standards 2. Measuring actual performance against goals and standards 3. Taking corrective action 4. Following up on corrective action Q2. What are attitudes? Describe its components. Attitudes? Ans. An attitude describes persons’ enduring favorable or unfavorable cognitive evaluations, feelings, and action tendencies toward some object or idea. People have attitudes regarding almost everything such as religion, polities, cloth, music, food.,A person's attitudes settle into a coherent pattern and to change one may require difficult adjustment in many others. Thus, a company would be well advised to fit its product into existing attitudes rather than to try changing people's attitude. Attitude can be defined as learnt predispositions to respond to an object or class of objects in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way. Definition Attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon individual's response to all objects and situations with which it is related. noe iscuss job relatedSixt ri .s of Managemen Ingineers Si inciples of Management fi Sixth Semester Components of Attitude + Cognitive component + Affective component + Behavioral component Se Cognitive component of te i aocated withthe valu statement Te consist of values, bli ideas and attitude is associated with the value st ‘ ay have faith in other information that a person may ha an ee stains enhance brand equity and aro echoved though 2 era positioning stratogies Through brand astciations, marketers establish number of positioning strategies, Through bra marketers establish Geese tenesuie nants eae cee Reames Example: Quality of sincere hard is a faith or value statement that. a manag may have Affective component Affective is the emotive component of consumer attitude. Affective component of attitude is associated with individual feolings about aneuog person, which may be sitive, neutral or negative. ren Panctlnal hepa explains that consumers buy as a result of one of four Psychological functions: adjustment, ego defense, value expression, snd application o prior knowledge Belief importance model analyses affective responses across competing brands. Example: I don't like Sam because he is not honest, or I like Sam because he is Sincere. It is an expression of feelings about a person, object or a situation Behavioral component Intention is the behavioral component of consumer attitude. Behavioral ‘component of attitude is associated with the impact of various condition oc situations that lead to Person behavior based on cognitive and affective components Example: I don’t like Sam because he is therefore, would like to disassociate myself wit therefore I would avoid Sam. Job Related Attitudes, Types of Job-Related Attitudes There are uncountable attitudes a behavior (OB) that minimized the types Simply, attitude by definition is that may be people, work, ete The main types of job (a) Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction me feeling about h person can hold but thanks to organizational of job-related attitudes to only three. @ person's evaluation statem 8 ood, bad, favorable, unfavorable, related attitudes are: ent about something Positive, or negative, Tig Person's positive emotions about his job. Heh * Job. This’ means the person ist Provides such as salary, incentive Satisfied employees tend to h feel motivated, feo attitudes or low Jo sufficient fo as a positive ed with the facilities his job bonuses, and other benefite ave a positive Personality about the sitively contribute. And, empl ; l And, emplo; vels Of job satisfaction feel stressed and ¢] organizational health organization, they ees with negative their contribution is not tot the will one the the is fo and artic | | contro makin Pictur A clearly leader Instea, ExLP. University 1B Techl-Akash Book nL Wh (b) Job Involvem Jo tnvolvement refers to how closely an individual is linked with hi or her job, how ote he or she engages in it, and understanding how ecsental heen her performanee jobs Selworth. It means how strongly pavehologieally a persue eng ith hi job me (©) Organizational Commitment Commitment is about giving. hundred percent, Organizational commitment mean, a High level of loyalty of employees towards their organization. Here, person identifies with a specific organization's aims and aspires to remain a member-ofthetey ation. This is the last job-rel lated attitude that reflects the individual to the organization, Highly loyal and the organization. Q.3. What is differene any two types of leader relevant. strong attachment Lisfied employees desire to got a membership in between leaders! hip styles. Suggest and a management? Describe which situation they are most Ans. Leadership is a quality of influencing people, willingly and enthusiastically. It is not exaetly same one of the major elements of management. so that the objectives are attained ‘as management, as leadership is Management is a discipline of managing things in the best possible manner Ibis the art or skill of geting the work done through and with others. Tt eas ba found in all the fields, like education, hospitality, sports, offices ete One of the major difference between leadership and management, is for formal and organized group of people only, and informal groups. To further is management whereas leadership is for both formal “omprehend the two concepts, take a read of the given article, BASIS FOR COMPARISON | LEADERSHIP MANAGEMENT Meaning Leadership is a skill of leading others by examples, Basis Trust Control Emphasis on Inspiring People Managing activities Power Influence Rule Focus on Encouraging change | Bringing stability Leadership style 1. Authoritarian or autocratic leadership style Authoritarian—also referred to as autocratic—leaders have clear command and control over their peers. Decision-making is centralized, meaning there is one person making the critical decisions. An authoritarian leader has a clear vision of the bigger Picture, but only involves the rest of the team on a task-by-task or as-needed basis. Authoritarian leaders will be personal when giving others praise or criticism but clearly separate themselves from the group, While you might assume an authoritarian leader would be unpleasant, this isn’t typically true. Rarely are they openly hostile Instead, they're typically friendly or, at times, impersonal Examples of an authoritarian or autocratic leader's style: * Their own learnings re more important than those of the team,gement for Engineer sixth Semester, Principles of Management fi - hin the company, their view is typically the right ong 1 inet ean many vices speaking we cant get the ob dnc » Gpputng opinion ce a prefect Ti in charge f dn’ matter + Opposing opinions on a ‘ Advantages of an authritrion eaderahip spl ssn tino crane « Authoriarian lndare have the ably to eumplts peeoots in + Authoritarian leaders have th tocomplet + This style i helpful when decisive action is Fee > pata leadership is successful when the leader is the most ki member of the group. 2, Participative leadership style ; = c leaders welcome everyone's opinions and encour Participative or democratic leaders 3 sons and encourage calaboraton. While ther might have the Saal ty these hes dtvoons a responsibilty of making decisions to everyone. Participative leaders are part of the team, They invest their time their colleagues’ growth becau: goal. If you excel in coll style, and energy in they know it will, in turn, help them reach the end laborative group environments, this might be your leader=hi Examples of a participative leader's styl * In disagreements within the com then come to a solution. any, we should hear everyone's opinion and + The more people we have working * Opposing views because it will on a project, the better the outcome will be make the end product better Advantages of a participative leadership style: Participative leadership leads to higher quality contributions. pret is more creativity and group members feel engaged * Everyone understands the bigger picture .24-Management by objective isa strategic pproach to increase company. Performance by aligning company and freg objectives. In light of this statement explain MBO in detail, Ans, and is motivated to reach the end goal And coment, ities throughout an organization and boost e Management by Objectives ; MBO outlines five ste technique into practice. } Hither determine or po mployee (MBO) in 5 Steps PS that organ Hons should use to put the management ad on ter ae Vise or, nizational objectives r the ent broad a ‘lew should be derived from the firm's mission a = oc Svpany Ti * Translate the orgar zation; loves. Inn used the RP a acronym SMART specif xpress the concept 7 loyees. In 193 "Measurable, acceptable, re 1, George T. Dors alistic, time-bound)t any espdyeable toute the energy in. h the en end goal ompany of this del that ives that having a {among employee gement y. This Doran ind) t0 LP. University-IB-Tech|-Akash Books 2028-17 + Stimulate the participation of nployees in settin the organization's objective individual objectives. After ire shared with employees from the top to the bottom, employees should be encouraged to help set their own objectives to achieve these larger organizational objectives. This gives ent ‘mployees greater motivation since they have greater empowerr + Monitor the progress of employees. In step two, a key component of the obje was that they are measurable for employees and managers to determine how well the are met + Evaluate and reward employee progress, This step includes honest feedh: ack on what was achieved and not achieved for ¢ ach employee + The term “management by objectives (MBO)" w. in his 1954 book titled The Practice of Management Advantages s first used by Peter F. Drucker + Bmployees take pride in their work and are assigned goals they know they can achieve that match their strengths, skills, and educational experiences, # Assig ing tailored goals brings a sense of importance to employees, boosting their output and loyalty to the company. + Communication between management and employees is increased. + Management can create goals that lead to the success of the company. Q.5. What is decision making? Citing relevant examples, explain rational and bounded rationality decision making model. Ans. Decision-making is a soft skill that involves choosing between possible solutions to a problem. It is a highly valued skill that many recruiters and hiring managers look for when secking new talents. Typically, the person making a decision follows a step-by-step process, including collecting information, weighing pros and cons and reviewing alternative solutions. Process for making decisions: 1. Identify the decision Once you realise you must make a decision, define its nature and conditions. Find any variables that relate to the problem for consideration as well. It is important to understand if a decision is worth making. Not all situations require a tough decision, especially when other areas have a greater need for similar resources. 2. Collect information Gather all the information you can regarding the situation and the decision. Determine what information you need and the best sources for it. Additionally, consider seeking out information both internally and externally for every situation, For example, you might gather some information internally through a self-assessment process by simply looking at what is in front of you. Find other information externally online, in books or from other sources. 3. Figure out alternatives ‘Think about all the possible solutions or choices to your decision. This is a step that you can perform continuously throughout your decision-making process, Try to come up with and carefully consider each option, even if at first you are tempted to dismiss it 4. Evaluate your evidence Use both your intuition and reason to assess your evidence. Analyse and predict what could be the outcomes of each option and which outcome would best fit the needsh Semester, Principles of Management for Engineer sn vixth om a " fix or choice and see if a winning idea becomes cle Ino bo «1 combination of your various options, depending on it vrsutitanes tad theo that you have considered both thos ach option before making your final choice nstances and the particular decision, Make su the potential benefits and drawbacks of 6. Take action = Implement your decision. Begin taking action to make your decision happe ‘This ‘way involve notifying your team or company leaders, acquiring resources or making a budget, Continue evaluating your decision ax you put it into action and make changes ‘or optimizations as needed Rational decision-making model "he rational decision-making model involves identifying the criteria th the biggest impact on your decision's outcome against those ¢ will have 1nd then evaluating, possible alternatives teria, The steps of the rational decision-making model are Step 1: Define the proble ntifying the issue you are (ving to solve or the goal you are trying to achieve with your decision. Stop 2: Def ia: The next step is to define the criteria you in yourdeeision. For instance, ifyou are deciding riteria such as spaee, fuel efficiency, and safety fou'l want to start by re looking for ‘on a new ear, you might be looking for all of the eriteria you define are equally important {« you, then you gun skip this step. I'some factors are more important, you will want ty ia based on how important assign « numerical value to your evite ach factor is. Step & Generate alternatives: Having defined and weighted the criteria yo looking for, it’s time to brainstorm ideas ‘and develop a few alternatives that meet your Step 5: Evaluate your alternatives: you should evaluate it against yo vou weighted more heavily. Step 6: Choose t select the option that Step 7: Implem, making For each possible solution you our criteria, giving extra consideratio come up with, to the criteria make a decision, Looking at your de You decide if you should use the a When to use this model The rational decision-making ons to consider and ple where this model might prove model is bes Y of time to eval st employed when luate them, One es you have numerous usefull is choosing a n w hi oa cane vinta, neat detsionmaking modgh 2 * PO! candidates in searching for the igh” option is better than vale ¥- solution. The bounded rations it your options to . ach once HAE meets your extern ae’ € 8 Manageable et i meets your criteria rather they conducting at decision-making ma host posib and then eb hose the f exhaustive Wh The the esse est dec extender making is costly. a6. and mat ‘Ans. are direct rules, rol The: within th down, wi various KEY Ano the goals * Su within thi oA structures ° Th matrix st of organiz: culture of Diffe: Fune Funet structure, skills are } departmen departmen There departmen: staffing. 4 location wit Projects bec Funetio thathave m Fesourees, don't have a Matrix A comb organizationmate N the V both a. This aking a anges vill have portant | vant to vou are et Your pwith, riteria atives, meyou | an help nerous nario ates, than ality e set g an UP University I Techl Akin mone V9 fo use this model The bounded rationality decision-making move! in heat employed when time i of {he essence. ICs the best model to use when ination is more evetly thee ae uakangy Ue best decision. For example, suppose your eampuny hts eneonnlered see bona cae iy extended downtime. In that ease, you may want to use the bounded rationality decee making model to quickly identify the first acceptable solution since every minutes tal is costly Q.6. What is organizational stru and matrix organizational stra Ans. An organizational structure is a system thal outlines how certain activitie are directed in order to achieve the goals of an organization, ‘These activities ean mnchigh rules, roles, and responsibilities, bier Liate between functional The organizational structure also determines how information flows between level within the company. For example, in a centralized structure, decisions flow from thy top down, while in a decentralized structure, decision-making, power is distributed annony various lovels of the organization, KEY TAKEAWAYS An organizational struet the goals of an or outlines how certain activities are directed to achieve * Successful organizational structures def within the overall system, ne cach employee's job and how it fits * A centralized structure has a defined chain of command, while decentralized structures give almost every employee receiving a high level of personal ay 's include functional, divisiona * Types of organizational struct matrix structures. flatarehy, and * Senior leaders should consider a variety of factors before deciding which type of organization is best for their business, including the business goals, industry, and culture of the company Difference between functional and matrix organizational structure. Functional organization structure Functional is the most common type of organizational design. In this type of structure, the organization is grouped into departments where people with similar skills are kept together in forms of groups, such as the sales department, marketing department and finance department. This helps companies ensure that each group or department performs at its peak. There is usually a manager or a top-level executive managing a particular department, handling all decisions related to budget, resources, decision-making and staffing. A functional structure works best for those companies that operate in one location with a single product category. It also works well for small teams and small Projects because resources can be more easily controlled and managed Functional organizational design tends to be difficult to adopt by larger companies that have many geographical locations because of expense and the difficulty of containing resources. Work also takes place in a silo, which means that sometimes team members don't have access to people outside of their division. Matrix Organization Structure A combination of two or more types of organizational structures, the matrix, nization can help companies improve efficiency, readiness and market adaptationzement for Engineer rinciples of Management 20 20235 Sixth Semester, P' 1 startups and other companies operat ks best for 7 : a ter to market or customer den, ‘they often can respond f i time to create a new product. ager moves vertic: functional manager moves rads, and roves sideways. Since these authorities flow dow nwarg i a tion structure. A manage, This type of structure w dynamic environment si while decreasing the ‘The authority of a See this ructure is called the matrix organi: ting lines to bos ganization has two or more upward report Monet il va pusiness dimension, such as produc, region, customer, capability represent a different business £ fi ' ise to corporate silos. or function. It’s often a respon: se cam ele Skills are better utilized under a matrix structure, so companies can aa capable employees in order to deliver projects. In addition, matrix structures ca sive alebel customers by integrating business functions and responding to customer © global customers by integra ally downwards, and the 1s who each demands quickly : Q.7. Explain cross cultural leadership? sine ‘Ans, Leadership in a cross-cultural environment means understanding n to come together through a shared sense of motivating a culturally diverse team to together through a shared sense and purpose, which moves the team closer to the company’s goa ‘The Benefits of Leading a Cross-Cultural Team Tee eee benefits employees actively seek Successful leaders understand that one of the top benefits empl a 7 1 ment that optimally performs, flexibility, In order to foster a positive work environ ptimally its important to Keep this top of mind as itereates a culture of trust and loyalty when employees fel their time and efforts are valued and appreciated. This is more important now than ever as the workforce evolves into a virtual capacity composed of a globalized team, However, when a team is led successfully despite the barriers, there are a number of benefits Increased employee engagement - When employees know they work for a company that prioritizes and works with a diverse group of talent, they're more likely to appreciate the organization and believe in the company’s mission, which results in more motivation, productivity, and overall engagement, Gartner. Research reveals that inclusive teams improve performance by at least 30° Knowledge-sharing through new perspectives- A diverse team can learn a lot from each other. They can share skills, experiences, and information that hat help inspire the team to think ereatively in ways they've not thoweht rechgaeapastives: This greatly improves teamwork amongst indwviduale hers dea ce frantounds. When the group is able to apply the unique knowledge they have gained om thei colleagues, collaboration is more eficient and often innesatne Greater innovation ~ According to Maryville Unie {0 become market leaders. This is likely becouse reg eee 884 LT times more like thre gag leader, Th because your team is feeling motivated ved Adtraste and ta cmtersbi that makes them feel included and tate ‘acts and keeps top talent ~ An increas rir work environments that valu cee EE Humber of tp "his allows the potential employee t got a elim poe inn diversity in the workplas gain more interes ‘yee to get a glimpse into your ce ts an Ved. qualified, and A-list job seekers wher on ee PeEY’S Values, Yo diversified eam. Asan added benefit, spate titize hiring ahi in your industry ” Your company’s reputation gains nos "¥ 8 You positively interact with eanch ae ndidates, bring aboard new hirest respeel the company’s NYS mission, and o ler aligned in their values and goals, Sane eee ca i ain your top py formers, alent ar - helping to ret the by out inv the res} defi in sor not him hav. com uuneo actu: root face. conf of th lang awar stateana the vard ager each vility 4 the es can, tomer g and nse of uture. when } rtant ized | mber | | for a likely Its in s that | learn help ult of ferent ined | | ith a} ikely 10 do| are | lace. | oul | sply tio® hat is LP. University-1B.TechI-Akash Book 20232 ‘ed profits ~ As employee satisfaction within the company inereases, so does employee performance and productivity, ultimately resulting in higher profits. In a survey conducted by the Harvard Business Review, over 1,700 companies aeross eight countries were examined to assess if there was any correlation between having diverse teams and a company’s overall innovation and perfo was that in all eight countries, there was a stati diversity and innovation, The study continued to show tha higher revenue, CMS Wire also echoed a si 36% more likely to see financial returns that exceed nance. The result of the survey ically important relationship between diverse companies had 19% finding. Companies in the top quartile for racial and ethnie diversity industry the average for their particul A cross-cultural team can yield so many benefits for the company by bringing in fresh perspectives, new ideas, and inspiration for more inspired creativity, all of which help cultivate a positive work environment Cultural Environments "he Challenges of Leadership in Cros A multicultural environment is not without its complexities. Common expressions that we normally don’t think twice about in everyday life can be by others from different cultures, exclus ily misinterpreted ecially in the absence of context. Working in an ely remote capacity exacerbates miscommunication in virtual teams For example, in a talk given at a TEDx event in Barcelona by Ricardo Fernandez, he outlined some of the challenges he experienced as a leader of teams located in multiple countries and the communication challenges that arose internally. One notable story involves a routine conference call with his team in South Africa. By the end of their meeting, one of his team members relays that he would call Ricardo “just now.” Ricardo ended the team call and waited. And continued waiting until, after 15 minutes, he sent a message asking if they were going to speak soon as he was under the impression they were going to speak shortly after the meeting. His team member responded, repeating what he had said and sending an image of how South Africans define some expressions of time. Fernandez had thought that they were going to speak in a matter of minutes, while his team member explained that they would talk in the near future, but not necessarily right at that moment. Fernandez was astounded that something as simple as expressions of time led to a misunderstanding. Fernandez also noted that while he was glad the miscommunication happened internally — allowing him an opportunity to digest the difference in expression — he considered that this may have not gone as well if it had happened in a meeting with a client. ‘This was an instance of the difference in forms of expression. Here are some other common cross-cultural misunderstandings that are common in work environments: Attitudes towards confliet: Generally, any conflict in the workplace is considered uncomfortable and something to be avoided; however, in some cultures, conflict is actually viewed as a positive thing. In most cases, we are often encouraged to identify the root of the issue and begin the steps necessary to come to a resolution, likely involving a face-to-face discussion. Adversely, most Eastern countries like to address interpersonal the preferred way to solve conflict quietly and prefer written communication Communication style: Having effective communication in the workplace is one of the biggest challenges for teams. This is especially true for diverse groups where language barriers may continuously lead to misunderstanding. Leaders must also be aware that certain cultures often use open-ended questions, rather than declarative statements.Sixth Semester, Principles of Management for Engineers 22-2023 Work Style: Leaders should be conscious of the different working hours 7 nd ting zone differences of the people on their global team to maximize work output and ens egular communication. It's important to have an understanding of the various holidays, ‘apectations of time off, and overall work schedule that allows the team to maintain flexibility within their personal lives. — sin isi 2 ods of leadership are certainly Decision-making: Different, more inclusive meth on the rise. However, the general view of decision-making primarily in the United States is that of the top-down system. Decisions are made at the top and then rolled down to those who will carry out the assignments and execute those instructions. For some cultures, especially in Japan, decision-making is a collective effort, in which consensus among the entire team is the favored method. Remember that individuals will likely approach decision-making from their cultural frame of mind. Q8. Explain Environmental forecasting with its methods. Ans, In today's business world rapid changes are to frequent. It would be erucial for ever-changing business environment managers to invent new ways of surviving in the ever-changing ia They would have to build up the capacity of a firm to face the changes and adapting themselves to changes. They would have to find out new ways of creating opportunities of profitability and growth. The new rules and regulations also create more pressure on business, Toprepare for such ongoing eventualities, managers will have to prepare themselves for really understanding the remote and the immediate environments of business and mechanisms of changes that affect their industry or firm, The changes have not only affect smaller companies but also the giants of various industries. It creates an awareness of environmental forecasting. 1. Environmental Forecasting Methods: Everyone can understand that the economic, technological, political and social changes are a part of organizational life. Given that fact, the obvious questions, how can these changes be forecast ‘To say the least, forecasting is a most difficult process. Some forecasting rules are the following: (a) It is very difficult to forecast, especially, the future, {) The moment you forecast you know youre going to be wron know when and in which direction. : ee Rein to : (oI'youe right, never lt them fonget it (d) Regardless of the possibi ity of error, forecast tei ftare envi Forecasting methods and levels of s ~ you just don't to be successful, organizations must eo j ophistication vary greatly. The methods loved may vary from educated guesses to computer projections using sophisticated fauuistical analyses. Several factors determine the most appropriate methods of these ining — of the desired forecast, the available expertise, and All forecasting techniques can be classified Qualitative techniques are based pri techniques are based primarily techniques. Several qualitative . 2. Qualitative Forecastis (a) Sales Force Compos ‘ales is determined by as either qualitative or quantitative pinions and judgments. Quantitative s of data and the use of statistical techniques are available to business on the analysis and quantitative ing Techniques: ite: Under the combining the sales of si sales force composite method, a forecas Predictions of experienced sales people disa’ quot Indis pere to do devi simp base part each to gi opini pane not ¢ com} inter larg carr met! Past extr iden the ¢ opini and \ futurind time d ensure holidays, maintain certainly ted States ed down to For some will likely vironment d adapting portunities ure e press hemselv busine: have not reates an ind social ions, how rules are just don’t jons must methods histicated thods of tise, and titative. titative tistical siness. srecast veople- | LP. University-IB.Tech|-Akash Books 2023-23 Because sales people are in constant contact with customers, they are often in a position to accurately forecast sales Advantages of this method are the relatively low cost and simplicity. The major disadvantage is that sales personnel are not always unbiased, especially if their sales quotas are based on sales forecasts: (b) Customer Evaluation: This method is similar to the sales force composite {the customers expect to buy except that it goes to customers for estimates of wh Individual customer estimates are then pooled to obtain a total forecast This method works best when a small number of customers make up a large percentage of total sales, Drawbacks are that the customer may not be interested enough to do a good job and that the method has no provisions for including new customers. (e) Executive Opinion: With this method, several managers get together and devise a forecast based on their pooled opinions. Advantages of this method are mplicity and low cost. The major disadvantage is that the forecast is not necessarily based on facts. (d) Delphi Technique: The Delphi technique is a method for developing a consensus of expert opinion. Under this method, a panel of experts is chosen to study a particular question. The panel members do not meet as a group and may not even know each other's identity. Panel members are then asked (usually by mailed questionnaire) to give their opinions about certain future events or forecasts, ‘After the first round of opinions has been collected, the coordinator summarizes the opinions and sends this information to the panel members. Based on this information, panel members rethink their earlier responses and make a second forecast. ‘This same procedure continues until a consensusis reached or until the responses do not change appreciably. The Delphi technique is relatively inexpensive and moderately complex. (e) Anticipatory Surveys: In this method, mailed questionnaires, telephone interviews, or personal interviews are used to forecast customer intentions. Anticipatory survey is a form of sampling, in that those.surveyed are intended to represent some larger population. Potential drawbacks of this method are that stated intentions are not necessarily carried out and that the sample surveyed does not represent the population, This method is usually accompanied by medium costs and not much complexity. 3. Quantitative Forecasting Techniques: (a) Time-Series Analysis: + ‘This technique forecasts future demand based on what has happened in the past. The basic idea of time-series analysis is to fit-a trend line to past data and then to ‘extrapolate this trend line into the future «Sophisticated mathematical procedures are used to derive this trend line and to identify and seasonal or cyclical fluctuations. Usually a computer progran's used to do ries analysis. the calculations required by a time-ser this technique is that it is based on something other than nificant amount ofhistorieal datais available Tatively stable, The disadvantage is that the * One advantage of opinion. This method works best when asi and when the environmental forces are re! future may not be like the past.