ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITY
School of Mechanical, Chemical and Material engineering
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Introduction to Engineering Materials

NAME ID .NO SECTION

kerod sahle UGR/30776/15 5

SUBMISSION DATE: March 21, 2024.

SUBMITTED TO: DR. shimelese

1, Classify each of the following materials as to whether it is a metal, ceramic, or polymer.

Justify each choice: (a) brass; (b) magnesium oxide (MgO); (c) Plexiglas; (d)
polychloroprene; (e) boron carbide (B4C); and (f) cast iron.
(a) Brass: Metal. Brass, known for its golden hue and use in decorative elements, is classified as
a metal due to its malleability and electrical conductivity, distinguishing it from ceramics and
polymers.

(b) Magnesium oxide (MgO): Ceramic. Magnesium oxide, formed by the reaction of magnesium
with oxygen, exhibits typical ceramic properties such as brittleness and high melting point,
making it distinct from metals and polymers.

(c) Plexiglas: Polymer. Commonly used in transparent applications, Plexiglas, or polymethyl

methacrylate (PMMA), is a polymer known for its organic composition and flexibility, setting it
apart from metals and ceramics.

(d) Polychloroprene: Polymer. Polychloroprene, commercially known as Neoprene, is a synthetic

rubber polymer valued for its elasticity and chemical stability, characteristics that differentiate it
from metals and ceramics.
(e) Boron carbide (B4C): Ceramic. Boron carbide, with its exceptional hardness and resistance to
high temperatures, is categorized as a ceramic due to its brittle nature and non-metallic
properties.

(f) Cast iron: Metal. Cast iron, prized for its strength and durability, is an alloy of iron and
carbon, making it a metal distinguished by its metallurgical properties and usage in various
industrial applications.

2.The atomic radii of Mg2+ and F- ions are 0.072 and 0.133 nm, respectively.
a.Calculate the force of attraction between these two ions at their equilibrium interionic
separation (i.e., when the ions just touch one another).
b.What is the force of repulsion at this same separation distance?
-To calculate the force of attraction and repulsion between the Mg2+ and F- ions, we can use
Coulomb's law:

Given: Atomic radii of Mg 2+ and F− ions: 0.072 nm and 0.133 nm, respectively.

Formula: Coulomb's law-

F= k⋅∣q 1 ⋅q 2 ∣ /r^2

- k is Coulomb's constant (8.988 × 10^9 N m^2/C^2).

Substitute the known values:
F_(attraction) = 8.988 × 10^9 · |+2e · -1e|/((0.205 × 10^(-9))^2)
F_(attraction) = (8.988 × 10^9 · 2e^2)/((0.205 × 10^(-9))^2)
F_(attraction) = (8.988 × 10^9 · 2 · (1.6 × 10^(-19))^2)/((0.205 × 10^(-9))^2)
F_(attraction)≈ 3.680 × 10^(-9) N
(b) Force of Repulsion - is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. The force of repulsion
between the ions:
F_(repulsion)≈ -3.680 × 10^(-9) N

3,Niobium (Nb) has an atomic radius of 0.1430 nm and a density of 8.57 g/cm 3. Determine
whether it has an FCC or a BCC crystal structure.
The APF for FCC is 0.74, while the APF for BCC is 0.68.
First, we need to calculate the atomic packing factor for niobidium:
A. Calculate the volume of the unit cell:
The volume of a FCC unit cell can be calculated using the formula: V = a^3, where a is the edge
length of the unit cell.
Given that the atomic radius of niobidium is 0.1430 nm, the edge length of the unit cell (a) can
be calculated as:
a = 2 * r = 2 * 0.1430 nm = 0.2860 nm
V = a^3 = (0.2860 nm)^3 = 0.02363 nm^3
B. Calculate the volume occupied by the atoms in the unit cell:
In a FCC structure, each unit cell contains 4 atoms.
Volume per atom = (4/3) * π * r^3 = (4/3) * π * (0.1430 nm)^3 = 0.01426 nm^3
Total volume occupied by atoms in the unit cell = 4 * 0.01426 nm^3 = 0.05704 nm^3
C. Calculate the atomic packing factor (APF):
APF = Volume occupied by atoms / Total volume of unit cell
APF = 0.05704 nm^3 / 0.02363 nm^3 ≈ 2.42
Since the calculated APF is greater than 0.74, niobidium does not have an FCC crystal structure.
So, niobidiumhas a Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) crystal structure, as it has an APF closer to the
value for BCC.

4, Calculate the number of vacancies per cubic meter in gold (Au) at 900 oC. The energy for
vacancy formation is 0.98 eV/atom. Furthermore, the density and atomic weight for Au are
18.63 g/cm3 (at 900 oC) and 196.9 g/mol, respectively.
First, we need to convert the density from grams per cubic centimeter to kilograms per cubic
meter:
Density (ρ) = 18.63 g/cm^3 = 18630 kg/m^3
Now, we can calculate the concentration of vacancies using the equation:
n = exp(-E / (k * T))
Where:
- k is the Boltzmann constant (8.617 x 10^-5 eV/K)
Plugging in the values:
n = exp(-0.98 * 1.6 * 10^-19 / (8.617 x 10^-5 * 1173))
n = exp(-1.568 x 10^-19 / 0.1008)
n = exp(-1.556 x 10^-18)
n = 1.23 x 10^-7
Now, we need to convert this concentration to the number of vacancies per cubic meter:
Number of atoms in a mole of gold (N) = Avogadro's number = 6.022 x 10^23 atoms/mol
Number of vacancies per cubic meter = n * ρ / A * N
Number of vacancies per cubic meter = 1.23 x 10^-7 * 18630 / (196.9 * 6.022 x 10^23)
Number of vacancies per cubic meter ≈ 1.16 x 10^22
Therefore, at 900 degrees Celsius, there are ≈ 1.16 x 10^22 vacancies per cubic meter in gold.

5, Calculate the energy for vacancy formation in nickel (Ni), given that the equilibrium
number of vacancies at 850 oC (1123 K) is 4.7 x 10 22 m-3. The atomic weight and density (at
850 oC) for Ni are, respectively, 58.69 g/mol and 8.80 g/cm3.
To calculate the energy for vacancy formation in nickel, we can use the equation:
n_v = n × exp(-Q_vkT)
Given:
- Atomic weight of Ni = 58.69 g/mol
- Density of Ni at 850°C = 8.80 g/cm^3
Calculate the volume of one mole of Ni:
Volume = 1density = 18.80 = 0.1136 cm^3/g
Calculate the number of atoms in one mole of Ni:
Avogadro's Number = 6.022 × 10^23 atoms/mol
Number of Atoms = Avogadro's Number ×1Atomic Weight = 6.022 × 10^23×158.69 = 1.025 ×
10^22 atoms/mol
Calculate the total number of lattice sites (atoms) in the material:
n = Number of Atoms = 1.025 × 10^22 atoms/mol
Now, plug in the values into the equation to solve for Q_v:
4.7 × 10^22 = 1.025 × 10^22× exp(-Q_v8.617 × 10^-5× 1123)
4.71.025 = exp(-Q_v/96.53)
4.5854 = exp(-0.01066Q_v)
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides:
ln(4.5854) = -0.01066Q_v
Q_v = -ln(4.5854)0.01066
Now, calculate Q_v:
Q_v = -ln(4.5854)0.01066 = -0.0305 eV

6, An aluminum bar 125 mm (5.0 in.) long and having a square cross section 16.5 mm (0.65
in.) on an edge is pulled in tension with a load of 66,700N (15,000 lbf) and experiences an
elongation of 0.43 mm (1.7 x10-2 in.). Assuming that the deformation is entirely elastic,
calculate the modulus of elasticity of the aluminum.
E = F · LA ·Δ L
Where:
- E is the modulus of elasticity (Young's Modulus)
- F is the applied load (66,700 N)
- L is the original length of the bar (125 mm or 0.125 m)
- A is the cross-sectional area of the bar (16.5 mm x 16.5 mm or 0.0165 m x 0.0165 m)
- Δ L is the elongation of the bar (0.43 mm or 0.00043 m)
First, calculate the cross-sectional area of the bar:
A = 0.0165 m × 0.0165 m = 0.00027225 m^2
Now, plug in the values into the formula to find the modulus of elasticity:
E = 66,700 N × 0.125 m0.00027225 m^2 × 0.00043 m
E = 8337.50.0001172175
E ≈ 71,074,912.9 N/m^2

7,Consider a cylindrical specimen of a steel alloy (from figure below) 8.5 mm (0.33 in.) in
diameter and 80 mm (3.15 in.) long that is pulled in tension. Determine its elongation when
a load of 65,250 N (14,500 lbf) is applied.

Given the load applied (F) = 66,700 N, the cross-sectional area of the bar (A) = (16.5 mm)^2 =
(0.0165 m)^2, and the elongation of the bar (ΔL) = 0.43 mm = 0.00043 m, we can calculate the
stress (σ) using the formula:
σ=F/A
Substituting the given values:
σ = 66,700 N / (0.0165 m)^2
we can calculate the strain (ε):
ε = ΔL / L
Substituting the given values:
ε = 0.00043 m / 0.125 m
Now, we can rearrange Hooke's Law to solve for (E) the modulus of elasticity :
E=σ/ε
Substituting the calculated values for stress and strain:
E = (66,700 N / (0.0165 m)^2) / (0.00043 m / 0.125 m)
E ≈ 4.55 × 10^10 Pa
Therefore, the modulus of elasticity of the aluminum is ≈ 4.55 × 10^10 Pa.

8,Th Grain growth is strongly dependent on temperature (i.e., rate of grain growth
increases with increasing temperature), yet temperature is not explicitly included in
Equation 7.9.

(a) Into which of the parameters in this expression would you expect temperature to
be included?

(b) On the basis of your intuition, cite an explicit expression for this temperature
dependence.

(a) Parameters affected by temperature:

Temperature affects various factors related to grain growth, such as diffusion rates,
activation energies, and mobility of grain boundaries. Therefore, we would expect
temperature to be included in parameters related to these aspects. For instance,
temperature might influence the coefficient of grain growth (K), the grain boundary
mobility (M), or the activation energy (Q).

(b) Explicit expression for temperature dependence:

A common expression to represent the temperature dependence of grain growth in

materials science is the Arrhenius equation, which relates the rate of a reaction or process
to temperature and the activation energy (Q):

K=Ko exp(-Q/RT)
This equation suggests an exponential relationship between temperature and the
coefficient of grain growth (K) through the term exp(−Q/RT), where higher temperatures
lead to higher rates of grain growth. The activation energy (Q) represents the energy
barrier that must be overcome for the process to occur, and it determines the sensitivity of
grain growth to temperature changes.

Incorporating temperature dependence into Equation 7.9 using an expression similar to

the Arrhenius equation would provide a more comprehensive model that accounts for the
influence of temperature on grain growth.

9,A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked steel has a Brinell hardness of 240.

(a) Estimate its ductility in percent elongation.
(b) If the specimen remained cylindrical during deformation and its original radius
was 10 mm (0.40 in.), determine its radius after deformation.
(A) To approximate the ductility in percent elongation, we can use the relationship between
hardness and ductility in metals. harder materials are less ductile. A rough estimate for the
percent elongation (EL) based on Brinell hardness is given by the equation:
EL ≈ 110 - HB
where HB is the Brinell hardness number. Given that the steel specimen has a Brinell hardness of
240, we can calculate the estimated percent elongation:
EL ≈ 110 - 240 = -130
This negative value suggests that the estimated ductility in percent elongation based on the
Brinell hardness is not meaningful. It indicates that the material is very hard and not expected to
exhibit significant ductility.
(B) If the specimen remained cylindrical during deformation, we can use the principle of volume
conservation to determine its final radius after deformation. The volume of the cylinder remains
constant before and after deformation. The volume of a cylinder is given by:
V = π r^2 h
Initially, the volume is:
V_initial = π (10 mm)^2 h
After deformation, the volume is not changed, so:
V_initial = V_final = π r_final^2 h
Given that the height remains constant, we can equate the two volume expressions:
π (10 mm)^2 h = π r_final^2 h
Solving for r_final:
r_final = 10 mm = 0.40 in.
Therefore, the radius of the steel specimen after deformation remains at 10 mm (0.40 in.) since
the volume is conserved .

10,(a) For a ceramic compound, what are the two characteristics of the component ions
that determine the crystal structure?
• List down type of ceramic materials with brief explanation of their properties
• Write the type of crystal structure for ceramic materials and provide exemplary
materials for each structure

(a) Characteristics of Component Ions Determining Crystal Structure in Ceramics:

Ionic Radii: The size of the component ions influences the packing arrangement within the
crystal lattice. Smaller ions tend to form close-packed structures, while larger ions may lead to
more open structures.
Charge: The charge of the ions affects the balance of electrostatic forces within the crystal lattice.
Oppositely charged ions tend to attract each other, forming stable crystal structures.
(b) Types of Ceramic Materials and Their Properties:
Oxides: Oxide ceramics are compounds composed of oxygen and a metal. They often have high
melting points, excellent electrical insulation properties, and good mechanical strength.
Examples include alumina (Al2O3) used in high-temperature applications and zirconia (ZrO2)
known for its high strength and toughness.
Nitrides: Nitride ceramics consist of nitrogen and a metal. They possess high hardness, excellent
thermal conductivity, and resistance to chemical corrosion. Silicon nitride (Si3N4) is widely used
in cutting tools, bearings, and engine components due to its exceptional mechanical properties.
Carbides: Carbide ceramics are compounds of carbon with a metal, typically transition metals
like tungsten, titanium, or silicon. They exhibit extreme hardness, high melting points, and
excellent wear resistance. Examples include silicon carbide (SiC) used in abrasive materials and
tungsten carbide (WC) widely employed in cutting tools and wear-resistant coatings.
Silicates: Silicate ceramics are based on silicon and oxygen, often with additional metal ions.
They are widely abundant and versatile, exhibiting properties ranging from heat resistance to
optical transparency. Examples include porcelain, used in pottery and electrical insulators, and
glass, known for its transparency and thermal resistance.
(c) Crystal Structures and Exemplary Materials:
1.Cubic (Simple Cubic, Face-Centered Cubic, Body-Centered Cubic):
Exemplary Materials:
Simple Cubic: Polonium (Po).
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC): Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) in its corundum form.
Body-Centered Cubic (BCC): Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) in its hematite form.
2.Hexagonal:
Exemplary Material:
Hexagonal Boron Nitride (h-BN).
3.Tetragonal:
Exemplary Material:
Zirconia (ZrO2) in its tetragonal phase.
4.Orthorhombic:
Exemplary Material:
Barium Titanate (BaTiO3).
5.Rhombohedral:
Exemplary Material:
Calcite (CaCO3).
6.Monoclinic:
Exemplary Material:
Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) in its rutile form.
7.Triclinic:
Exemplary Material:
Potassium Feldspar.
These crystal structures are observed in various ceramic materials, each imparting unique
properties suitable for specific applications.

11,(a) Cite one reason why ceramic materials are, in general, harder yet more brittle than
metals.
(b) Briefly describe the process used to produce ceramics
(a) Ceramic materials are, in general, harder yet more brittle than metals due to their atomic
structure and bonding. Ceramics typically have strong ionic or covalent bonds, which provide
high hardness. However, these bonds are rigid and less able to undergo plastic deformation
compared to the metallic bonds found in metals, leading to brittleness.

(b) The process used to produce ceramics involves powder processing techniques such as
mixing, shaping (e.g., pressing, molding), and sintering. Ceramic powders are mixed with
binders and additives to form a green body, which is then shaped into the desired form. The
green body is subjected to high temperatures in a process called sintering, where the ceramic
particles bond together to form a dense, solid structure.

12,Compare thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers on the basis of mechanical

characteristics upon heating and according to possible molecular structures.

Thermoplastic polymers soften when heated and can be reshaped multiple times, whereas
thermosetting polymers undergo irreversible chemical crosslinking upon heating, becoming rigid
and unable to be reshaped. Molecularly, thermoplastics have linear or branched structures with
weak intermolecular forces, allowing for easy mobility of polymer chains upon heating.
Thermosetting polymers have a network structure with strong covalent bonds formed through
crosslinking, providing high stiffness and heat resistance.

13,Briefly explain how each of the following influences the tensile or yield strength of a
semicrystalline polymer and why:
a. molecular weight
b. degree of crystallinity
c. deformation by drawing
d. annealing of an undeformed material
(a) Molecular weight: Higher molecular weight generally leads to higher tensile strength due to
increased entanglement of polymer chains, which hinders molecular motion and deformation.

(b) Degree of crystallinity: Higher crystallinity usually results in higher tensile strength due to
the alignment and packing of polymer chains in crystalline regions, providing more resistance to
deformation.

(c) Deformation by drawing: Drawing (stretching) of a polymer increases its alignment and
orientation, enhancing tensile strength by improving chain alignment along the direction of
stress.

(d) Annealing of an undeformed material: Annealing can increase tensile strength by relieving
internal stresses and promoting further crystallization, leading to improved molecular alignment
and packing.

14,(a) What is the distinction between matrix and dispersed phases in a composite
material?
(b) Contrast the mechanical characteristics of matrix and dispersed phases for fiber-
reinforced composites.
(c) Cite two reasons why there must be a strong bond between fiber and matric at their
interface
Ans-
(a)-The matrix and dispersed phases in a composite material refer to the components that make
up the composite. The matrix is the continuous phase that surrounds and supports the dispersed
phase, which is distributed throughout the matrix in the form of particles, fibers, or other
reinforcements.
(b) Mechanical characteristics:
Matrix: Typically a polymer, metal, or ceramic, the matrix provides cohesion, transfers load to
reinforcements, and protects them from environmental factors. It may exhibit properties such as
toughness, flexibility, and resistance to chemical corrosion.
Dispersed phase: Fibers or particles provide reinforcement, enhancing strength, stiffness, and
other mechanical properties of the composite. Dispersed phases are usually stronger and stiffer
than the matrix, contributing to the overall mechanical performance of the composite.
(c)- Reasons for a strong bond between fiber and matrix:
Load transfer: A strong bond ensures efficient transfer of loads between the fiber and matrix,
maximizing the composite's mechanical performance and preventing premature failure.
Prevention of delamination: A strong interface minimizes the risk of delamination or separation
between the fiber and matrix, maintaining structural integrity and durability of the composite.

15,(a) List down the type of composite materials and explain briefly their properties.
(b)Write with reasoning one product can be made using for each type of composite
materials.
(a) Types of composite materials and their properties:
Fiber-reinforced composites: Consist of high-strength fibers (e.g., carbon, glass) embedded in a
matrix (e.g., polymer, metal, ceramic). Offer high strength-to-weight ratio, stiffness, and
corrosion resistance.
Particulate composites: Contain small particles (e.g., ceramic, metal) dispersed in a matrix.
Enhance properties such as hardness, wear resistance, and thermal conductivity.
Laminar composites: Constructed by layering thin sheets or films of different materials (e.g.,
carbon fiber reinforced polymer). Provide tailored mechanical properties and can withstand
bending and shear loads.
(b) Example products:
Fiber-reinforced composites: Bicycle frames made from carbon fiber reinforced polymer offer
lightweight yet strong construction for high-performance riding.
Particulate composites: Dental fillings containing ceramic particles in a polymer matrix provide
durable and aesthetic tooth restorations with improved mechanical properties.
Laminar composites: Circuit boards made from layers of fiberglass reinforced epoxy laminate
offer electrical insulation, mechanical strength, and dimensional stability for electronic devices.