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/ 13
Information Technology Journal & (2): 101-113, 2009)
ISSN 1812-5638
© 2009 Asian Network for Seientifie Information
Car Park System: A Review of Smart Parking System and its Technology
MY Idris, Y.Y. Leng, EM, Tamil, NM. Noor and Z. Razale
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology. University of Malaya,
50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract: Due to the proliferation in the number of vehicles on the toad, waffie prablems are bound to exist,
‘This is due to the fact that the current transportation infrastructure and ear park facility developed are unable
to cope with the influx of vehicles om the road. To alleviate the aforementicred problems, the smart parking
system has been developed, With the implementation of the smart parking system, patrons can easly locate
and secure a vacant parking space at any ear park deemed convenient to ther. Vebicle ingress and egress are
‘also mace more convenient with the implementation of hassle free payment mechanism, With vehicle detection
sensors aplenty on the market, the choices made may defer due tothe different requirement in addition to the
its pros and cons, Subsequently, the various sensor systems used in developing the systems in addition to the
recent research and commercial system on the
the smart parking system,
Key words: Carpark system, intelligent transportation 5
INTRODUCTION
In the year 2006, 458,293 nevr registered vehicles
were reported compared to the year 1999 where there were
only 296,716 new registered vehicles, which makes it a
rough estimate of 54.5% increase in a span of 7 years
(Malaysian Ministy of Transportation, 2007), Referring to
the aforesaid statistics provided by the Malaysian
Ministry of Transportation, the curent wansportation
Infrastructure and car park facilities are deemed
insufficient in sustaining the influx of ychicles om the
road.
‘Therefore, problems such as traffic congestion and
insufficient parking space inevitably erops up. In Asia,
the situation are made worse by the fact thatthe roads are
significantly narrower compared to the West (Inaba etal.
2001), Various measures have been taken in the attempt to
overcome the tuff problems, Although, the problem can
be addressed via many methods, the paper focuses on the
ccar park management system introduced, which is the
smart parking system. This study will review the evolution
of vehicle detection technologies as well as the detection
systems developed over the years,
SMART PARKING SYSTEM
‘The smart parking system implemented mainly in
the Europe, United States and Japan (Shaheen er af, 2008)
is developed with the incorporation of advanced
narket are examined as vehicle detection plays a erucial role in
stem, parking technology, sinatt parking system
technologies and researches from various academic
disciplines, With its deployment in the ear park, it is
hoped that it would solve the aforementioned problems
faced by the patrons within the ear park,
Advantages of smart parking system implementation:
‘Te smart parking system is ecasidered beneficial for the
car pork operators, car park patrons ax well as in
environment conservation (Shaheen et af, 2005;
Chinnangrucng et al, 2007), For the car park operators,
the information gathered via the implementation of the
‘Smart Parking System can be exploited to predict future
parking pattems. Pricing strategies can also te
manipulated according to the information obtained to
increase the company's profit. In terms of environment
conservation, the Level of pollution can be redvoed by
decreasing vehicle emission (air pollutant) in the air
(Shaheen et af, 2005), This can be attributed tothe fact,
that vehicle travel is reduced As fuel consumption it
rectly relate to viele miles travelled it wil e reduces
as well
Potrons are also able to benefit from smart parking
system as parking. space are able to be fully utilized
(Kurogo er al, 1995; Sakai et al, 1995) with a safer
(Shaheen et al, 2008; Chinrunarvong et a, 2007),
optimized and more efficient system implemented
(Sekai er al, 1995, Shaheen etal, 2005). The system is
sade mote efficients vehicle wavel time and search time
are significantly reduced du tothe information provided
Corresponding Author: Mohl Yamani Kina Idris, aculty of Computer Science and Information Technology,
‘University of Malaya, 50003 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
101Inform. Technol. J, 8
by the smart parking system, With the information
provided, drivers are able to avoid ear park that are fully
‘occupied and locate vacant parking spaces with ease
elsewhere. The number of vehioles parked illegally by the
roadside which leads to waffie congestion is also reduced
as it is absorbed into the ear parks (Kurogo et al, 1995),
Most importantly, traffic congestion ean be reduced. All
this would eventually lead to convenience forthe patrons,
Categories of smart parking system: The smart parking,
system can be divided into five major categories: namely,
Parking Guidance and Information System (PGIS),
transit based information system, smart payment system,
E-parking and automated parking (Shaheen et af, 2005),
Further discussion on the implementation and
characteristic of each of the smart parking system
category together with examples of its implementation
around the world will also be provided.
Parking Guidance and Information System (PGIS): The
implementation of Parking Guidance and Information
System (PGIS) encompasses two major categories. The
PGIS can either inchue the enti city area or function
cnly within the car park facility (Shaheen etal, 2005).
Setting aide the differences, both the PGIS implemented
jnnmany maje cities in Europe, Japan, dhe United Kingdon
and the United States (Kurogo etal, 1995, Sakai eta,
1995; Shaheen ef al, 2005; Mouskos et al, 2007) offer
similar advantages similar to those of smart parking
system as discussed earlier, Both provides information
‘hich sids the decision making provess ofthe drivers in
reaching their destination location and aids them in
locating a vacant parking space within the car park
facility. The city wide PGIS is indeed helpful sn assisting
rivers to car park with vacant parking spaces via the
information occupancy status for various car parks
around the city aswell as other relovant information. Cn
the other hand, guidance in locating the vacant parking
space within the car park is ulimately provided by PGIS
Implemented within the ear park.
POIS can be summarize! as consisting of 4 major
components: namely, information disseminating
mechanism, information gathering mechanism, control
center and telecommunication networks similar to the
components stated by Moukos eal. (2007)
Siatioldgnamie Variable Message Signs (VMS) have been
used in providing drivers with disection either on the road.
cor within the ear park, For guidance onthe road, various
‘implementation methods ean be adopted. For example, the
system in Shinjuku and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
segregates the city area into color coded areas for in
providing guidance (Kurogo etal, 1995; Shaheen eta,
101-113, 2000
2005). The PGIS in Pitsbuygh, Pennsylvania ako
functions in directing divers to special attraction inthe
area, Meanwhile, in Yokohama, Japan, the city is divided
fino four cones whereby the information. specificity
increases with each zone thatthe diver cross to ave at
the destination location Additional information on
traffic flow provided by the Aichi Prefectural Police
Headquarters Traffie Control Center and Japan
Highway Public Corporation Nagoya Departinent is alo
provided by the system implemented in Toyota, Japan
(Sakai et al., 1995).
Mobile phones can also be used for guidance based
con the research conducted by Idna and Tamil (2007)
which uilizes Global Positioning System (GPS) for vehicle
detection. map of the driver's current position based on
the GPS data along with the status of three of the nearby
cat park are sent to their motile phones based on the
patron's current location, The GPS technology used are
discussed in detail by Tamil e¢ al, (2007), Besides that, the
parking guidance system developed based on web and
GIS technology (Lin et af, 2006) are able to disseminate
information to the users via intemet, mobile phones
and/or PDA. The guidance system can be with the
conventional parking management system as well. In
order to guide the patrons effectively, the carpark map is
printed on the parking ticket equipped with Radio
Frequency Identification (RFID) tags for guidance
(oa ef a, 2008) 30 that patrons can locate the asigned
parking slot with ease. There are also no worries about
forgetting the location ofthe assigned parking slot during
exit
Vehicle detection sensors are commonly installed at
entranees exits andor individual parking space to detect,
Yehicle occupancy. Indicator lights integrated with
sensors are also sometimes installed at every individual
parking space within the pazking facility. The oceupancy
satus detected by the sensors can either be occupancy
of each individual parking space or in tenns of vehicles
coun in the ar park depending on the installation ofthe
sensors. Moving. on. the control center gathers and
processes the traffic and occupancy information as well
a8 controls the display of information for drivers
‘whereas the telecommunication network focilitaes the
transfer of information among the other three modules
(Mfouskos et al, 2007), With the advent of advanced
technologies, the implementation of devices such 08
jcoventioller and Field Programmable Gate Anay
(FPGA) are incorporated for faster information processing
“Not only that, the teleoommunicaton network no Tonget
dependent on conventional clectrical wiring but wireless
technologies are able to be utilized, Researchers such
as Wang and Chen (2004), Bi et al, (2006), Liu et al, (2006),
192Inform. Technol. J, 8
‘Tang ef al. (2006), Ka eral. (2008), Lee ef af (2008) and
Seong-Eun ef a. (2008) have all used witeless network for
data transfer in the smplementation of their proposed
parking guidance system.
‘Transit based information system: The functionality of
trait based information system implement in counties
such as France, Germany, Ireland, Japan, Switzeriand, the
United Kingelem and the United Statos (Shaheen ef al,
2005) is actually similar to GIS, Th difference exist inthe
fact the Tramsit Based Information System concentrates
con guiding user to park-anderide facilities. It provides
real-time information on the status of each car park and
public tarsportation such as the schedules and waflie
condition 10 the publie. The additional information
provided enables the patrons to plan for transit in
advance without getting into any inconvenience
(Chinrungrueng el, 2007), Among its benefits includes
Inetease in the utilization of public transportation as the
primary means of transportation as they can leave
their vehicle in the car park and switeh to public
twansportaton with ease, This will indirectly lead to an
increase in the transit revenue (Shaheen et al, 2005;
CChinnungrueng ea, 2007).
"No doubt for te trast based information system to
achieve success in its implementation, proper planning
must be conducted. This is especially tue in selecting
the location for the parkand-ide carparks that
maximizes transit wherely the concept of catchment
area/commmutersheds are often wed such as indicated by
Homer and Groves (2007), In the network flow-based
technique introduced, it impraves on the conventional
spatial model used in determining the park-and-ride
facility location by taking into consideration the trafic
flow and works in reducing the vehicle miles travelled by
maximizing the interception of vehicle during the
beginning stage ofthe joumey’
‘There have been many research centered upon using
Geographic Information System (GIS). Among them are
the research conducted for siting perk-and-ide ear parks
in Columbus, Ohio, Farhan ancl Murray (2008)
incorporated multi-objective spatial optimization model in
Tocating the pork-and-ide facilities while considering
numerous objectives and constraints as well as taking
into consideration the existing system, While research by
Farhan and Murray (2008) made no assumption on user
demands, Homer and Grubesic (2001) used Principal
Component. Analysis (PCA) in representing the index of
user demands whieh will be converted to demand points
when coupled with information obtained via Geographic
Taformation System (GIS), Subsequently, additional
caleulaton conducted by Homer and Groves (2007) takes
103
101-113, 2000
into aceount various other factors which includes
‘geographical, network, travel time from demand points to
the location of the park-and-ride facilities and the
constraints of computershed shapes are performed in
determining the location and commutershed azea for the
park-and-ride lots
Smart payment system: The smart puyment system is
implements in tho effortto overcome the limitation of tho
conventional payment methods by revamping the
payment method via parking meter and introduces new
technologies. This is because the conventional method
causes delay and inconvenience for the patrons as they
have to deal with eash. It also reduces maintenance and
requirement for payment handling purposes as
well es trafic control (Chinrungrueng et al, 2007), In
‘general, the Smast Payment System implemented in places
such as Finland, Italy, London and United States (Hinze,
2000, Shaheen etal, 2005, Jones, 2006, Mouskos etal,
2007) consists of contact method, contactless method and
mobile devices. While the contact method involves the
use of smart cards, debit cards and credit cards, the
contactless method involves the use of contactless cards,
mobile devioes as well as Automated Vehicle
[dentification (AVD tag whereby RFID technologies are
utilized (_ouskos ef al, 2007). As contact methods
requites contact of the cards with parking meter of
payment machines in the facility, the Inter offers more
convenience to the patrons
Parking meters have now been improvised with
technologies which revolutionize the payment system via
Implementing various improvements such as the
acceptance of various types of cards such as creditcard,
debit ears (Shaheen ef al, 2005) and smart cards (Hinze,
2000). It also inccrporates other technologies such 28
having solar power source and wireless connectivity. The
PhotoVolaton Meter (Photo Violation Technologies, nd.)
which caters for various types of payment methods ses
ground sensors in detecting vehicle presence. Most
Importantly, technologies such as WiFi connectivity
Photo Violation Technologies, nd), together with its
ability in handling payment of fines and taking photos of
‘ehieles whieh violates parking regulations for evidence
are aso incorporated (Ebling and De Lara, 2007), Personal
parking meters which are essentially placed in the vehicle
have also been introduced in Baffale, New Yerke and
Aspen, Colorado after test studies have been conducted
(ones, 2006).
“The incorporation of RFID technologies in making
payments were implemented in commercial systems such
ax Mobipover Lic, which utilized RFID-hased cellular
technology and EZPass system have also developedInform. Teohnol. J.
payment system via RFID for car parks and toll facilities
(Mouskes et af, 2007). Similarity between the two
aystems exists in the requirement for placement of
transponder unit in the vehicle Moving on, the
implementation of mobile devices sueh as mobile phones
and PDA are normally seen to incorporate other devices
such as parking meters and cards. For some systems such
as those implemented in Groningen, Netherlands
(Shabeen ef a., 2005) and Oulu, Finland (Jones, 2006),
prior registration via the intemet is required. As mobile
phones are utilized, the system implemented in Oulu,
Finland also has the eapability of sending Short Message
Service (SMS) notification to remind the patrons that the
time is almost due and allovr them to settle the payment
for the additional time extension required (Jones, 2006).
‘The main concern hindering the implementation of
the Smart Payment System would have to be skepticism
on the privacy and security issues. This is due to the fact
that confidential data of the patrons such as personal
information and probably account information are being,
ealt with which are highly confidential, With the
emergence of various threats, iis justifiable to be worried.
In RFID implementation alone, exploits, malwares and
worms (Rieback ef af, 2006a), as well as attacks such as
sniffing, spoofing, replay attack and denial of services are
just a fraction of it, Of couse, medheds have been
developed in seouring the data and overcoming the
threats as is it discovered ranging from the eryptography,
letection and evasion as well as temporary deactivation
which are constantly improved from the conventional
method implemented which dates back to World War IL
(Rieback ef al, 20060)
E-parking: E-parking provides an alternative fer patrons
to enquire the availability and/or reserve a parking space
attheir desired parking facility to ensure the availability of
vacant ear park space when they arrive at the parking
facility. The system can be accessed via numerous
methods such as SMS of through the intemet. Some of
the additional benefits of using the E-parking system
aside from those collectively gained by smart parking
system are that it can be extended easily to incorporate
the payment mechanism of smart payment system
whereby payments by the patrons are made hassle free
using the technologies discussed previously. Customized
information can also be provided to the patrons either
before or during their trip to the car park (Shabween etal,
2008).
Ina study by Inaba ef al, (2001), reservations can be
made through the utilization of mobile phones or any
reservation centers convenient to the patrons. On the
other hand, the study by Hodel and Cong (2004) revealed
8 2): 101-113, 2009
‘Youve sone pting at
rereanod at A ou terion
‘els expe wi 30min
=
Fig. 1: Example of parking reservation system message
options of using the intemet via Wireless Application
Protocol (WAP) enabled mobile phones, Personal Digital
Assistanls (PDAs) and even conventional computer in
addition to SMS service for the drivers in accessing
the information as well as making reservations
TTeodorovie et al, (2006) takes the implementation a step
further by incorporating frzzy logic in decision making
whereby the parking reservation request can either
accepted or rejected It also facilitates the enforcement of|
tariff classes to enable the maximization of revenue for car
park operators. The system discussed in (dna and Tamil,
2007) is one of the systems integrating PGIS with E-
parking system, where the patrons are able to reserve
parking slots after reviewing the status ofthe ear park and
its proximity tothe patron’s current location. An example
of the message tothe patrons i shown in Fig. 1
‘Tins far, numerous systems have been implemented
online for city wide implementation, university campuses
as well as complexes. Among the examples of companies
involved in the development of E-parking system are
companies such as ParkingCarma (ParkingCarma, n.d.)
Click and Park (Click and Park, md.) and City and
‘Suburban Parking Ltd, (City and Suburban Parking Ltd,
nd). As the E-porking systems implemented online can
also be considered as E-commerce applications, it has
bbeen proposed that the Unified Modeling Language
(UML) is employed in modeling the systom’s
performance, This an be achieved by converting the
class diagram and sequence diagram to an execution
Gliggram ia an intermediary actor-event graph and
combining it with other necessary information pertinent to
the system (Geetha etal, 2007)
‘As observed, there are many cifferent implementation
methods that can be enforced by incorporating various
technologies. Besides the difference in reservation
method, different reservation types ean also be enforeed
such as proposed by Inaba ef al. (2001), whereby patrons
ean chose not to declare the exit time and park for an
indefinite amount of time. To gain access into the car
104Inform. Technol. J, 8
park, printed receipts, permits or passes are utilized by the
patrons. More sophisticated implementation proposed
which requires the use of smart eards or magnetic cards
(limba er af, 2001) and Bluetooth (Hodel and Cong, 2004)
are also implemented in granting aceess to the patrons. Tt
can also be implemented together with Smart Payment
System payment schemes such as cards (Inaba ef al.,
2001; Hodel and Cong, 2004), pre and post paid methods
‘as well as m-payment (Hodel and Cong, 2004) are utilized
Automated parking: Automated parking involves the use
of computer controlled mechanism, which allows patrons
to drive up to the bay, lock the ears and let the machines
automatically place the vehicle in the allocated space.
‘This type of ear park offers maxinum utilization of space
as it is machine controlled unlike conventional car park
where space is needed for navigation of vehicle within the
ccar park. Among its benefits are that che implementation.
works great in locations, where there ae limited room for
expansion dus to its structure, Besides that, the
Automated Parking System also offers efficiency in car
storage as it allows car stacking and the patron does not
even need to go into the car park which indirectly
provides extra safety measures which covers both the
vehicles and patrons (Shaheen ef al, 2008).
Among the automated parking system reviewed in
countries which includes Japan, Canada and United
States (Shaheen ef al, 2005) as well as the commercial
system developed by companies such as automotion
parking system (Automotion, nd), robotie parking
(Robotic Parking, nd.) and Fata SKYPARKS (Fata
SKYPARKS, nd} it generally uilizes computer controlled
mechanism in placing the vehicles in its storage bay
within the parking facility, Automated parking can also be
implemented in a conventional car park via additional
equipments installed such as developed by Fata
SKYPARKS (Fata SKYPARKS, nd}, There are many
variations whereby the automated parking system can be
implemented, from the design of the car park seuctare (©
the workings of the computer controlled docks/lifs as
well as the placement of vehicles whereby user
participation ate sometimes required.
‘The safety features are geared towards the vehicle
whereby it is important to ensure thatthe vehicle remains
safe and undamaged with all the handling by the
computer controlled mechanisms. Research by Mathijssen
and Pretorius (2007) introduced a three-level sofiware
design which includes: Logical Layer (LL), Safety Layer
(SL) and Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL) to enforce
correct and efficient storage of vehicles ina safe manner.
AAs the car park facility is designed with conveyer belts,
rolatable lifts and shuttles, it has to be coordinated 1
ensure successful and safe placement and retrieval of the
vehicle.
195
101-113, 2009
CAR PARK OCCUPANCY DETECTION
‘The smart parking system relies heavily on the car
park occupancy information as it is not only used in
assisting the divers on the road, but in the management
within the ear park as well, There is abundanes of sensor
system that can be installed to provide this erucial pisce
of information, Having said that, there are many factors
which can affect the oceupaney detection such a8 sensor
chosen car park type and layout, toname a few:
Vehicle detection technology: Vehicle sensors and
detector system can be categorized into two main
categories: namely, intrusive and non-intrusive sensors
(Mimbela and Klein, 2007). Intrusive sensors are sensors
which are typically installed in holes on the road surface,
by tunneling under the road surfaces or anchoring to the
surface of the road whieh leads to invasive procedures of
installation whereas the latter can be installed easily by
mounting the device on the ground or the ceiling of the
ccar park, With the variety of sensors on the market,
factors such as the cost, environmental contition, seale
of implementation as well as the system design would
have to be considered while selecting the sensors
Examples of intrusive sensors include active infrared
sensors, inductive loops, magnetometers, magneto
resistive sensors, pneumatic road tubes, piezoelectric
cables and weigh-in-motion tensors. As denoted by its
name, intrusive sensors typically requites pavement cut
for installation which indirectly decreases pavement li
For installation and maintenance on the road, lane closuse
would have to be conducted, which would lead to
inconvenience of the drivers (Chinrungrueng,et ai, 2006;
Lenz and Edelstein, 2006, Mimbela and Klein, 200
Mouskos etal. 2007).
On the other hand, non-intrusive sensors
encompasses microwave radar, passive acoustic aray
sensors, passive infkared sensor, RFID. ultrasonic and
video image processing. Nor-intrusive sensors can easily
be installed and maintained and does not affect the
surface in the process. Unlike intrusive sensors,
maintenance and installation for non-intrusive sensors
can be conducted without invasive procedures and
disruption of walfic (Kastrinaki er aL, 2008; Mimbela and
Klein, 2007). The description, strength and weaknesses of
the various sensor technologies that are currently utilized
in vehicle detection as compiled by Mimbela and Klein
(2007) together with other research by Kastrinaki et al
(2003), Cheung er al. (2005), Chinrungraeng,e¢ al. (2006),
Lenz and Edelstein (2006), Wolff et af. (2006),
Mouskos ef al. (2007) and Pala and Inane (2007) willInform. Technol. J, 8
subsequently be scrutinized, Bach of the sensors alto has
the ability to provide different detection parameters which
aro also discussed in the aforementioned studios,
Active infrared sensors: Active infrared sensors detects
vehioles by emitting infared energy and detecting the
amount of energy refleted (Mimbela and Klein, 2007,
Mouskos ef al, 2007) By ulilizing the active infared
sensors, multiple lane operations can be conducted. For
sn accurate measurement of vehiele position, spoed and
class, multiple beams are transmitted from the sensor,
However the drawback of the sensor would be its
sensitivity towards environmental conditions such as fog
cr blowing snow which afeets the operation of the
Inductive loop detectors: Inductive Loop Detectors (ILDs)
are wire loops of various sizes which are exited with
signals whose frequencies range from 10 to 50 kFiz. The
oscillation frequency of the inductive loop is direetly
controlled by the inductance of the loop which changes
with vehicle presence. The sensor system proved to be a
mature and well understood technology with large
experience base and extensive research conducted.
Besides that, its flexibility also allows for the
implementation in a large variety of applications. The
Vehicle detection zone can be easily enlarged by
combining the loops together. Compared with other
commonly used techniques, ILD provides the best
accuracy for count data. In fact, induetive loop sensors
became the common standard for obiaining accurate
‘ceupaney measurements,
While the inductive loop detector has its advantages,
it is not without Saw as it is expensive to maintain
(Mouskes et al, 2007). Not cnly does it require multiple
detectors to monitor a specific location, the Wire loops
subjected to wear and tear due to stresses of traffic and
temperature, Detection accuracy would also be
compromised when design requires detection of a lange’
variety of vehicle classes, While it is mentioned by
Mimbeta ant Kein (2007) that itis insensitive to weather
condition such as rain, fog and snow, Mouskos ef al,
(2007) has stated that the sensors are sensitive to element
such as water, especially i the pavement i eracked,
Magnetometer (luxgate magnetometer): Fluxgate
magnetometers works by detecting perturbation (magnetic
‘nomaly) in the earth’s horizontal and vertical magnetic
field. Fhaxgate magnetometers provide the advantage of
being inseasitive to weather condition such as snow, rain
and fog. Itis also more accurate and less susceptible than
loops to stresses of traffic, As the technologies for
wireless transmissions evolves, wireless RF link are also
106
101-113, 2000
used to transmit data in some models Among the
disadvantages of using fluxgate magnetometers are the
small detection zones in some model which requires
multiple units are required for full lane detection as well as
the close proximity requited for accurate detection
(Cheung ef al, 2005; Mimbela and Klein, 2007).
Magnetometer (induction or search coil magnetometer):
Induction or search coil magnetometer identifies vehicle
signature by measuring the change in the magnetic fx
lines caused by the moving vehicle according to
Faraday’s Law of induction (Lenz and Edelstein, 2006,
Mimbela and Klein, 2007). Like the fluxgate magnetometer,
it is insensitive to weather condition such as snow. rain
and fog. Besides that, itis Tess susceptible to stresses of
tsaffie than loops, Special sensor layouts and signal
processing software are required to identify stopped
vchicles. While itis an intrusive sensor, some models can,
be installed without the need for pavement cuts,
Magnetoresistive sensor: As stated by Lenz and
[elstein (2006), magneteresstive sensors encompasses
Anisiotropic Magnetoresistance Sensors (AMR), Giant
Magnetoresistance Sensors (GMR), Magnetic Tunnel
Janetion Sensors, Extraordinary Magnetoresistance and
Ballistic Magnetoresistance that are simply energized by
providing a constant current (Lenz and Bielstein, 2006)
‘The sensors are ight and small which makes it versatile in
plavement (Wolff eta, 2006), Coupled with a wide range
of temperature (-55 to 200°) and low cost, it has been
widely used for vehicle detection. Wolff etal. (2006) have
utilized the AMR sensor in their research for vehicle
detection and has noted its sensitivity to position and
orientation.
Piezoelectric sensors: Piezoelectrie sensors are made
from specially processed material that is able to convert
kinetic energy to electrical energy when subjected to
vibration or mechanical impact. Vehicle differentiation can
also be condneted with extreme precision as additional
information is gathered rather than the passing of vehicle
talon. Not only that, it also provides a more aocurate
reading on vehiele speed and classification of vehicles
based on weight and axle apacing with almost the same
cost as ILD, Among the disadvantages would be the need
touse multiple detectors to instrument a location, Besides
tha, it is also extremely sersitive to high temperature and
traflie stress
Pneumatie road tube: Pneumatic road tube detects vehicle
via the air pressure created which closes a awiteh,
producing signals when a vehicle pass or stop over the
tube, While it offers a low cost solution as well as quickInform. Technol. J, 8
installation and easy maintenance, it hax its
disadvantages, Pneumatic road sensors are temperature
sensitive, Ineeouracies in axle count are also bound to
happen when bus and truck numbers are high. In dition,
the tubes are prone to vandalism
Weight-in-Motion (WIM) sensors: Weight-in-Motion
(WIM) sensors are able to detect the weight of the vehicle
whereby the data acquired are extremely useful to
highway planer, designers and law enforcement
agencies. The four technologies used in WIM system are:
hhending plate, piezoelectric, load cell andl capacitance mat.
Each of the WIM sensors has its own advantages and
disadvantages. While bending plate WIM is more
accurate and costly compared to piezoelectric WIM
system, itis less accurate compared to Toad cell WIM
systems and are considerable cheaper. Although
capacitance mat can be used as portable or permanent, it
is the least accurate WIM system. For accuracy, load cell
WIM system would be preferable as it is the mest
accurate WIM system, with the disadvantage of it being
the priciest. The cheapest WIM system in use is the
piezoelectric system, with a weakness of sensitivity
towards weather and speed variation. Its accuracy is
behind load cell WIM and bending plate. WIM system,
Both the piezoclectric and capacitance mat WIM system
canbe used to monitor upto 4 lanes. All the WIM system
requires replacement or refurbishment every 3 to 5 years.
Microwave radar: Microwave radar seesor transmits
energy (0-30 GH through an antenna and detects vehicle
by the energy reflected back towards the antenna, The
two type of microwave radar sensors being implemented
sme: Continuous Wave Radar (CW) and. Froqueney
Modulated Continuous. Wave Radar (FMCW).
Microwave radar sensors provide the advantage of being
insensitive to inelement weather. Iti also able to conduct
rnulliple lane trafic flow data gathering as wel a provide
direct measurement of vehicle speed Among its
Gisadvantages is that the Doppler sensors would have to
bee equipped with ausiliary sensors in afempt to detect
stopped vehicle.
Acoustic sensors: ‘The acoustic sensors detects vehicle
via the acoustie energy or auclible sounds produced by
the vehiele through microphones installed for vehicle
detection, The advantages offered by acoustic sensors
are support for multiple lane operation in certain models
fas well as passive detection. Not only that, it is also
insensitive to precipitation. Its semitivity towards cold
temperature which affects data acouraey proved to be a
drawback. Certain models are also not recommended with,
slow moving vehicles in stp and go traffic,
197
101-113, 2000
Passive infrared sensors: Passive infrared sensors
identify the occupaney status of a parking space by
detecting changes in the energy emitted by the vehicle
tnd the roads (Mimbela and Klein, 2007; Mouskos eal,
2007). While the sensors are able to be implemented in a
multizone environment to measure vehicle speed, the
sensitivity of the sensor is reduced in heavy rain, snow
and dense fog, Besides that, certain models are not
recommended for presence detection
RFID: The uilization of RFID as @ method for vehicle
detection in conducted in Mouskos ef al, (2007). It is a
universal, useful secure and efficient technology (Pala
and Tnane, 2007) which consist of 3 units which are:
transceiver, transponder and antenna. The transceiver is
used to send and read information from the transponder
lunit which contains the coded information trough the
antenna, Active transponders are also re-programmable
through wireless connection, while passive transponders
have an unlimited lifetime, Radio signals eliminates the
need for contact, no line of sight operation and are able to
penetrate opaque structures. By using RFID sensors, it
provides the means for low cost installation and
maintenance as well as possible detection at high speed
‘The complication actually lies with the need to place
transponders in every vehicle as well as privacy issues
with the patron’s personal details.
Ultrasonic sensors: Ultrasonic sensors transmits pulse
waveforms between 25 to 50 KHz to the road by detecting,
transmitted energy which are reflected back the sensor,
‘Together with a signal processing module, the reflected
ultrasonic energies are analyzed to detect occupancy in a
roadside controller. Its utilization brings the advantage of
dotecting vehicles that exceed certain height limit as well
as multiple lane operation, The ultrasonic sensors are also
easy to install without the need for facility closure
Degraded occupancy measurement cn freeways with
vehicles traveling at moderate to high speeds due to large
ube repetition period are one of the shortcomings of the
sensor, Besides that, temperature changes and extreme ait
turbulence affects the sensor performance, although
temperature compensation has been built into some
models
Video image processor: A Video image processor
typically conists of: one or more cameras, software for
‘mage interpretation and microprocessor based computer
for digitizing and processing. Careful analysis of
continous frames eaphured by the video image processor
can be used in detection of vehicles as it reveals the
differences between subsequent frames, The utilization ofInform. Technol. J, 8
video image processor provides the ease of management
(Kastrinaki e7 al, 2003) and implementation as i is readily
available in most ear park facilities with basic surveillance
systems, Detection zones are also easily added and
modified Besides that, it can easily adaptable to space
of any geometric shape for coverage optimization, with
the detection zones easily added and modified
(Mouskos ef a, 2007), With the wide-area detection
provided when information gathered at one camera
location are linked to ancther, it eaters for multiple lane
detection and reduces the manber of cameras nesded for
monitoring. The detection results gamered can also be
Verified offline and in real-time without the need for delay
(Mouskos et af, 2007).
ve if many detection zones
are required within the field of view of the camera and
200d lighting available. Inclement weather, shadows,
vehicle projection into adjacent lanes, day-to-night
transition, vehicle‘rond comrast and water, salt grime,
iicles and cobwebs on camera Jem can affect
performance, even though temperature compensation and
built into some models. Camera motions due to strong,
winds might also affect some models. The height and
layout ofthe car park facility might also pose a problem as
occlusion (Mimbela and Klein, 2007; Mouskos e al.,
2007) can ocour at certain locations. While the video
cameras are unaffected by construction or maintenance of
the car park (Mouskos ef af, 2007), the camera mounting
height (in side-mounting configuration) required for
optimum presence detection an spesd measurement are
about $010.60" would definitely be a problem in car park
facilites with low roof,
IMPLEMENTATION OF VEHICLE DETECTION
‘TECHNOLOGIES IN SMART PARKING SYSTEM
By further examining the various smart parking
system curently deployed as well as the commercial
system on the market, it provides a brief idea om its
implementation methods ard sensor utilization The
slfferent sermor placements as well asthe implementation
method of the particular system, albeit achieving the same
end results of providing guidance to the patrons, are quite
Slifferent, Information gathered on the various systems
would definitely help in improvising and developing a
better system,
PGIS: Ultrasonic sensors were employed in each
individual parking space for vehicle detection in the
Ballimore-Washington International Airport in the United
States and Blggnae Airport in France (Shaheen et al.,
108
101-113, 2000
2005), Over in the European continent, infrared sensor
applications have been applied in Bristol, United Kingdom
to identify vacant spaces and wansmit the data to a
ceraral computer (Shaheen er af , 2005), In NIIT, inductive
loops were deployed at the ear park entrances and exits
detection (Mouskos ef al, 2007). It is mainly used in
keeping trick of the vehicle count in the ear park. In the
study proposed by the authors on PGIS within the car
park, CCTV cameras were used in detecting the
occupancy status of each of the parking space
(dna et af, 2008),
“Moving on to commercial systems, industrial giants
suchas CODIC (http /Avww parkingireland ie!
showart2.him), E and Dp. //www-enetech
‘group com/E%4208%20D/guide hital.), IDENTIPARK
UIDENTIPARK, nd )and SIEMENS (SIEMENS, nd.) have
developed PGIS using ultrasound sensors for vehicle
tection, whereas VehicleSense (VehicleSense, nd) are
geared towards using magnetic sensors. All. the
commercial systems mentioned have the sensors
placement losation in common whereby the sensors are
placed at each individual parking space for occupancy
detection. It is also used to guide patrons to the
respective vacant spaces through the overhead lights
incorporated which changes according to the occupancy
status. On the other hand, the system developed in
Toyota guides patron through VMS to the available
vacant space (Sakai et a, 1995),
‘Transit based information system: In the case of transit,
besed information system, ultrasonic sensors and laser
scan detectors were installed in Munich whereas
inductive loops were deployed in the city of Cologne
(Shaheen e7 al, 2005). The systems in Cologne and
Munich, which is implemented city wide, both exploits the
use of VMS in providing information to the patrons 8
well as guidance to ear parks with vacant space. The
_guidanice provided by the system in Munich proved to be
more extensive whereby it eautiaues to guide patrons to
the vacant parking space with guidance system within the
car park as well (Shalieen ef al, 2005),
‘Smart payment system via RFID: Commercial systems
such as EZPass as well as those developed by
Mobipower Ltd are vastly different in implementation
although RFID technologies are utilized, The only
similarities are the requitement for the RFID device to be
placed in the vehicle, System by Mobipower such as
described by Mouskos et af. (2007), requires the patron to
activate the RFID wnt nmed Triftiq to start the
transaction and deactivate it 10 indicate end of
transaction. Charges will then be displayed although theInform. Technol. J, 8
actual payments are made when monthly bills arrive, On.
the contary, EZPass system does not require any
activation of the device and immediately deducts the
payments from the patron's account although receeds of
the patron's tansaotion are provided periodically.
IMPLEMENTATION OF VARIOUS VEHICLE
DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES IN COMMERCIAL,
SYSTEMS AND RESEARCH
Subsequent discussion focuses onthe
implementation of various sensors vehicle detection both
onthe rcad and in the car park. As the sensors utilized are
essentially the tame, mote focus will be emphasized on
the different placements and any associated hardware
Ulevices used in conjunction with the sensors. Information
on the different methodologies and hardware devices are
provided whenever availabe in providing a brief overview
fon the various systems reviewed. Apart from the systems
discussed a compilation of the commercial systems
available on the market as well as those still in
research is presented by Mimbela and Klein (2007) and
Kastrinaki ef al, (2008)
Magnetic sensor: Various researches have been
conducted by utilizing the magnetic sensors which are
typically used for vehicle detection whereby the complete
listing of the type of magnetic sensors is provided in the
research by Lenz and Edelstein (2006). In a research by
Wolff etal. (2006), passive magnetoresistive sensors were
installed both along the walls and on the floor,
Microcontrollers were used to handle the communication
with a master via connectivity through a RSA8S bus so
that the data can be transmitted to the PC for processing
‘and displayed on the three VMS installed in the ear park.
The following research iavolves the implementation of
magnetic sensors in a Witeless Sensor Network (WSN)
environment. In the D-Systems Project by the Mobile
Interet Systems Laboratory, University College York
(Benson ef al., 2006; Barton ef al, 2007), the system
consist of a microcontroller and antenna for
communication in the communication layer, magnetic
sensor in the sensing layer and lastly, 2 AA batteries in
the power layer. As the hardvvare is implemented in a
stackable platiorm whereby it can be easily combined and
dismantled, a processing layer consisting of FPGA device
were able to be added (Barton et al, 2007),
Unlike the D-Systems which concentrates on
occupancy detection, implementation by Cheung ef al,
(2005) explored the funetionality of vehicle detection,
Vehicle speed detection, vehicle classification and
re-identification through installation in the ear park and on.
199
101-113, 2000
the road, The sensor nodes consist of microcontroller,
magnetic sensors and radio which are powered by 2A,
batteries are implemented in a (WSN) environment. Both
tre similar in the fact thatthe sensors are installed at each
individual parking space and implemented ia a WSN
environment. Besides that, the components utilized are
similar with the exception af FPGA, device utilization,
Optical sensor: In a research by Chinrungrueng et al,
(2006, 2007), optoelectronic sensors which reacts to light
are utilized in vehicle detection. Each sersior nodes
consist of optical sensor, a microcontroller and radio
frequency transmitter connected in a stat-based WSN
topology environment (Chinrungrueng, er ai, 2006). Its
implementation differs depending on the power
constraints, The sensor nodes can either be scheduled in
‘around robin fashion to moniter waffie and report during
predetermined time or put to sleep and only activated
when performing the function of: vehicle detection or
communication with the server node. Two sensor heads
installed at @ certain distance for vehicle detection to
‘overcome the initial weakness in the system whereby it is
tunable to distinguish vehicles from pedestrians and
motoreycles (Chinrungrueng et af, 2007),
RFID: The system developed by Pala and Inane (2097)
relied solely on RFID technology in detecting vehicles at
the ingress and egress points, Vehicles can enter and exit
the car park without the need stop as there is no need for
the usage of parking tickets and payments are handled via
RFID technology. The authorization on entrance to the
cear park depends on the registration of the vehicle, This
is because the system will search the database for
registered vehicle and confirm that it does not have any
check-in or check-out records before updating the
check-in information into the database and lifting the
barrier for vehicle ingress. Ifthe vehicle is not registered,
it cannot gain entry tothe car park. During egress, system
‘updates the database with the check-out date and time,
Induetiveloop and RFID: In termsof vehicle detection, the
utilization of inductive loop sensors in occupancy’
detections have been conceptualized whereby inductive
loop detectors are installed at each individual parking
space (Shim ef al, 2006). t further extends the application
by incorporating RFID technologies inthe implementation,
whereby a RFID tag is used to provide the vehicle
information in a WSN environment using Zigbee
communication technology. This is to facilitate the
information gathering of the ingress and egress of
particular vehicle, Implementation by Ostojie ef al. (2007)
differs in the sense that it is used to perceive vehicleInform. Technol. J, 8
presence atthe ingress and egress and the RFID tag have
to be put in front of the reader for verification at the
ingress and egress point.
Sensor board with multiple sensors: The sensor board
for research conchucted by Tang et al. (2006) is employed
With a three-layer framework implementation. While the
motes are used in gathering data, the gateway in the
server layer is used to update information in the server
which will be accessed by the client, which is the
application on the client computer. It consists of three
types of sensors: namely, light, temperature, acoustic
sensors. The system is event driven and consists of five
major types of events which are timer, oar-in, driving
status, car-out and field management which triggers the
‘operation and interaction between the modules.
‘Ultrasonic sensors as well as temperature sensors are
available in the sensor node equipped together with a
microprocessor and wireless communication module for
the system developed by Bi er af. (2008), The system also
provides guidance viaa guiding node which also operates
Uough WSN in oblaining information. Both the
Implementation by Tang ¢¢ af, (2006) and Bi etal, (2006)
requires the sensor nodes to be placed at every insividual
parking space for detection,
Vision based: The deployment of surveillance system
generally faces the challenges of multiscale information
gathering, contextual event detection and the deployment
of large systems (Hampapur ef all, 2005), Vision based
aystem or surveillance systems have been utilized in the
detection of both static vehicles and also vehicles in
‘motion. The methods proposed by Hampapur ef al. (2008)
for object detection which includes adaptive background
subsraction and salient motion detection are some of the
‘methods that can be implemented in vehicle detection. As
more researches are conducted, a vast variety of image
processing algorithms can be manipulated for vehicle
tection The main difference between the vision based
aystems developed is essentially the image processing
algorithm without regards of whether the camera is static
or moving.
‘The manipulation of color imege for detecting car
park occupancies have been conducted using various
Image processing methods. While Principal Component
Analysis (PCA) is widely implemented in vehicle
detection, the overall approach is vastly different
Wuret al (2007) delt with ROI region which are cropped
to three parking spaces per patch and uses PCA. for
feature extraction while incorporating it with
preprocessing, color histogram analysis and Support
no
101-113, 2000
‘Vector Machine (SVM) for vehicle recognition. Conflict
resolution and optimization were also implemented with
Markov Random Field. On the other hand, Funck etal
(2004) used PCA in reconstructing the input image via
eigenspace reconstruction based on earlier obtained
model of empty car park pictures to obtain the differences
between the both the images for vehicle classification
Subsequent discussion focuses on the use of
different segmentation techniques for vehicle detection in
determining occupancy status of the car park space. In
the research by Idna ef al. (2005), if a certain percentage
of the pixels are detected to belong to the floor after
segmentation via thresholding, it will be classified as
Vacant. Character recognition using chain ecde and
database are implemented for character recognition ofthe
parking space mumber via the numbers painted on the
floor. A three-layer Bayesian hierarchical detection
framework which encompasses observation layer. labeling
layer and semantic layer has also been introstucod
(Huang ef af, 2008), Here the entre row of ear park space
is extracted as ROT that will eventually be segmented to
obtain the oocupaney status for each indivicial ear park
space,
‘The Car Park Occupancy Information System (COIS)
uses a bistream (Bong e¢ al, 2008) detection to overcome
false detection caused by shadows, Color images were
initially used (Bong et af, 2006), whereby image
subtraction which was subsequently converted into
binary form, Later on, grayscale image was used from the
beginning (Bong et al, 2008) whereby the conversion of
the image to binary form depends solely on the bit-7 of
image pixels. Although, the methods are differen,
segmentation via thresholding is essentially performed on
the image. Calculation with an accumulator is performed
next with a threshold value set to determine the
occupancy status. The second processing stream
utilizes Sobel edge detection to eliminate false reading
by shadows, with median filter were added later on
(Bong etal, 2008).
Although, SVM elassification has been implemented
in Wa ef al, (2007), @ method incorporating image
hhomography was proposed by Lopez Sastre eral. (2007)
By altering the viewpoint of the car park camera to
top view before performing feature extraction wsing
Gabor filter and classification via SVM, the region-of-
interest extraction process will be made easier and
misclassification due to occlusion can be minimized
[As noticed, different algorithm provides different
advantages for the systems developed PCA are often
used to overcome the problem of illumination variance in
the images captured and SYM are robust enough inInform. Technol. J, 8
dealing with occlusion, But more recent techniques whieh
involve using Bayesian probability such as implemented
by are Huang et al. (2008) robust enough to handle both
the problem of ooclusion and illumination invarianee.
CONCLUSION
In this study, the various types of start parking
system and has been presented From the various
examples of the implementation of the smart parking
system being presented, its efficieney in alleviating the
traffic problem that arises especially inthe eity area where
traffic congestion and the insufficient parking spaces are
undeniable, It does so by directing patrons and optimizing
the use of parking spaces
‘With the study on all the sensor technologies used
in detecting vehicles, whieh are one of the most erucial
parts of the smart parking system, the pros and cons of
cach sensor technologies can be analyzed, Although,
there are certain disacivantages in the implementation of
visual based system in vehicle detection as described
eatlier, the advantages far outweighs its disadvantages.
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