Valid and Invalid

Arguments
Arguments

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Arguments
Consider the following argument.

If Socrates was human, then Socrates was mortal.

Socrates was human.
Therefore, Socrates was mortal.

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Arguments

First Premise: If Socrates was human, then Socrates

was mortal.
Second Premise: Socrates was human.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates was mortal.
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Arguments
Arguments can be written in symbolic form. For instance,
if we let h represent the statement “Socrates was human”
and m represent the statement “Socrates was mortal,” then
the argument can be expressed as

The three dots are a symbol for “therefore.”

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Example 1 – Write an Argument in Symbolic Form
Write the following arguments in symbolic form.
a. If logic is easy, then I am a monkey’s uncle. I am not a monkey’s
uncle. Therefore, logic is not easy.
Answer:

b. If this number is larger than 2, then its square is larger than 4. This
number is not larger than 2. Therefore, the square of this number is
not larger than 4.
Answer:

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Check Your Progress 1

Write the following argument in symbolic form.

If she doesn’t get on the plane, she will regret it.

She does not regret it.
Therefore, she got on the plane.
Answer:

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Arguments and Truth Tables

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Arguments and Truth Tables
The following truth table procedure can be used to determine
whether an argument is valid or invalid.

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Example 2 – Determine the Validity of an Argument
Determine whether the following argument is valid or invalid.

If logic is easy, then I am a monkey’s uncle. I am not a monkey’s uncle.

Therefore, logic is not easy.

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Example 3 – Determine the Validity of an Argument
Determine whether the following argument is valid or invalid.
If this number is larger than 2, then its square is larger than 4. This
number is not larger than 2. Therefore, the square of this number is not
larger than 4.

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Check Your Progress 2

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Example 3 – Determine the Validity of an Argument

Determine whether the following argument is valid or

invalid.

𝑝→𝑟
𝑟______
∴𝑝

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Check Your Progress 3

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Seatwork – Determine the Validity of an Argument

Use a truth table to determine whether the argument is

valid or not.
𝑟 → ~𝑔
~𝑟______
∴𝑔

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Standard Forms

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Standard Forms/ Rules of Inference
1. Modus Ponens or Direct Reasoning
The most famous form of syllogism in logic that is known to be
valid is called modus ponens. It has the following form:
𝒑→𝒒
𝒑_____
∴𝒒

2. Modus Tollens or Contrapositive Reasoning

Another form of syllogism and a valid argument form is called
modus tollens. It has the following form:
𝒑→𝒒
~𝒒_____
∴ ~𝒑

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Standard Forms: Modus ponens and Modus tollens
Examples. Use Modus ponens and Modus tollens to
determine whether the argument is valid or not.
Standard Forms: Modus ponens and Modus tollens
Examples. Use modus ponens or modus tollens to fill in
the blanks of the following arguments so that they
become valid inferences.

1. If you go to the movie, you will not be able to meet us

for dinner. You were able to meet us for dinner.
Therefore, _________________________.

2. If you show up for work Monday morning, then you

will get the job. You showed up for work on Monday
morning. Therefore, _________________.
Standard Forms/ Rules of Inference
Definition. A rule of inference is a form of argument that is
valid. Thus, modus ponens and modus tollens are both rules
of inference.
Standard Forms/ Rules of Inference

The following are additional examples of rules of inference that

are frequently used in deductive reasoning.

3. Generalization
These argument forms are used for making generalizations.
a. 𝑝 __ b. 𝑞 __
∴𝑝∨𝑞 ∴𝑝∨𝑞

4. Specialization
These argument forms are used for specializing.
a. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 b. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
∴𝑝 ∴𝑞
Standard Forms/ Rules of Inference
5. Elimination
These argument forms say that when you have only two possibilities
and you can rule one out, the other must be the case.
a. 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 b. 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
~𝑞___ ~𝑝___
∴𝑝 ∴𝑞

6. Transitivity
If an argument is a chain of if-then statements, we can conclude that
the first statement implies the last.
𝑝→𝑞
𝑞 → 𝑟__
∴𝑝→𝑟
Standard Forms/ Rules of Inference
Example 4. Use the argument forms to determine whether the
following arguments are valid or invalid.

a. If my glasses are on the kitchen table (𝒌), then I saw them

at breakfast (𝒔). I did not see my glasses at breakfast.
Therefore, my glasses are not on the kitchen table.

b. 𝒎 → ~𝒏
𝒎_______
∴ ~𝒏

c. 𝒉 ∨ 𝒋
~𝒉___
∴𝒋

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Standard Forms/ Rules of Inference
d. If the price of gold rises 𝒈 , the stock market will fall (𝒔). If
the stock market will fall (𝒔), I’m not investing in the stock
market (~𝒊). Therefore, if the price of gold rises, I’m not
investing in the stock market.

e. Abraham Riemann is a mathematician (𝒎) and an engineer

(𝒆). Therefore, Abraham Riemann is an engineer.

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Standard Forms of Two Invalid Arguments
Any argument that has one of these symbolic forms is invalid.
1. Fallacy of the converse
𝒑→𝒒
𝒒_____
∴𝒑

2. Fallacy of the Inverse

𝒑→𝒒
~𝒑___
∴ ~𝒒

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Standard Forms/ Rules of Inference

Example 5. Determine whether the following arguments are

valid or invalid.

a. If you can read this book (𝒓), you can go to college (𝒄). You
cannot read the book. Therefore, you cannot go to college.

b. If it’s difficult to obtain (𝒅), it can last long (𝒍). It can last
long. Therefore, it’s difficult to obtain.

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Standard Forms/ Rules of Inference
More Examples.
Determine whether the argument is valid or invalid.

1. This real number is rational, or it is irrational. This real number is

not rational. Therefore, this real number is irrational.

2. If Jules solved this problem correctly, then Jules obtained the

answer 2. Jules obtained the answer 2. Therefore, Jules solved
this problem correctly.

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Valid Argument Forms
3. If I go to the movies, I won’t finish my homework. If I don’t finish my
homework, I won’t do well on the exam tomorrow. Therefore, If I go to
the movies, I won’t do well on the exam tomorrow.

4. If the movie was directed by Steven Spielberg (𝑠), then I want to

see it (𝑤). The movie’s production costs must exceed $50 million (𝑐)
or I do not want to see it. The movie’s production costs were less than
$50 million. Therefore, the movie was not directed by Steven
Spielberg.
4. e will not go to Japan (~𝑗) or we will go to Hong Kong (ℎ). If we
visit my uncle (𝑢), then we will go to Singapore (𝑠). If we go to
Hong Kong, then we will not go to Singapore.

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Valid Argument Forms
More Examples.
Hidden Treasure
In the back of an old cupboard, you discover a note signed by a pirate
famous for his bizarre sense of humor and love of logical puzzles. In the
note he wrote that he had hidden treasure somewhere on the property.
He listed five true statements (a–e below) and challenged the reader to
use them to figure out the location of the treasure.
a. If this house is next to a lake, then the treasure is not in the kitchen.
b. If the tree in the front yard is an elm, then the treasure is in the
kitchen.
c. This house is next to a lake.
d. The tree in the front yard is an elm or the treasure is buried under the
flagpole.
e. If the tree in the back yard is an oak, then the treasure is in the
garage.
Where is the treasure hidden? 32
Arguments with quantifiers
Quantifiers
Consider the following argument:

All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man.
∴ Socrates is mortal.

The first premise in the argument uses quantifier and is

considered as quantified statement.

So how do we verify whether an argument that uses quantifiers is

valid?

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Two Types of Quantifiers
There are two types of quantifiers, the existential quantifiers and
the universal quantifiers.
The phrases for some, there exists, and at least one are called
existential quantifiers. The words none, all, and every, are called
universal quantifiers.

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Negation of Quantified Statements
Consider the false statement,
“No mathematicians are good-looking”.

Can you state its negation?

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Negation of Quantified Statements
The table below shows how to write the negation of statements in
quantified form.

Example 6. Write the negation of the following statements.

a. No Mathematicians are good-looking.

b. All prime numbers are odd.

c. Some students love mathematics.

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Negation of Quantified Statements
The table below shows how to write the negation of statements in
quantified form.

Example 6. Write the negation of the following statements.

d. None of my friends remembered my birthday.

e. Everybody enjoyed the sermon last Sabbath.

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Arguments Involving Quantifiers
We use the diagram below to determine validity or invalidity of
arguments involving quantifiers.

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Arguments Involving Quantifiers
Example 7. Determine whether the argument is valid or invalid
using the Euler diagram.

All mathematicians are logician.

Ethan is a mathematician._________
∴ Ethan is a logician.

Example 8. Determine whether the argument is valid or invalid

using the Euler diagram.

No prime numbers are negative.

The number 𝒏 is not negative._________
∴ The number 𝒏 is a prime number.
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Arguments Involving Quantifiers
Seatwork.
Use Euler diagram to determine whether the argument is valid
or not.

Some A students sit in the front row.

All those who sit in the front row are attractive.
∴ Some A students are attractive.

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More Exercises

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