Foreign Workers' Working and Living Condition

in Japan

著者 MORI Hiromi
出版者 Institute of Comparative Economic Studies,
Hosei University
journal or Journal of International Economic Studies
publication title
volume 10
page range 23-63
year 1996-03
URL http://doi.org/10.15002/00002129
JournaloflnternationalEconomicStudies（1996),No.１０，２３－６４
o1996ThelnstituteofComparativeEconomicStudies,HoseiUniversity

IbreignWorkers,ＷＯｒｋｉｎｇａｎｄＬｉｖｉｎｇＣｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎｉｎＪａｐaｎ

HiromiMori
FhCmJtyO/ＥＣＯ"omZCS,HOsejUmUe7sjｶﾉ鶚

Abstract

ForeignersinJapanhlllintodistinctgroupsintermsoftheeligibilityoftheallowedscope
ofeconomicactivitiesinthelightofimmigrationcontroLSomearelegallyentitledtowork，
whileothersarelimitedinthescopeofactivitiestoparticularqualifiedjobs,ormthetotal
amountofweeklyworkhours・Othersareabsolutelynotallowedtowork・Whenthevisaa
fbreignerholdshasexpired，residenceitselfisillegaLResidentstatusbasicallydetermines
fbreigners，workingaswellaslivmgconditions・Besidestheseinstitutionaldeterminants，
therearemanyfactorswhichafYもctfbreigners'workingconditions・Thispaperaimstoanalyze
theworkingandlivingconditionsbycategoryoffbreignersinJapan．

1．ＷＯｒｋｉｎｇＣｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎｓｏｆＥｔｈｎｉｃＫｏｒｅａｎｓａｎｄＣｈｉｎｅｓｅ

Ｔｈｅｔｅｒｍ“old-comers,，isoftenusedwithaspecialsocialconnotationrefbringto
KoreansandChinesewhohaveresidedsincetheSecondWorldWarandwhofbrm，
togetherwiththeiroffBpring,peculiarethnicgroupsinJapanasahistoricallegacy･
However,mostanalytiCalworkaswellasdiscussionsoncontemporalypolicyissues
onmigｒａｎｔｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｈａｖｅｔｅｎｄｅｄｔｏｆｂｃｕｓｏｎｔｈｅｖａｒｉｏｕｓｓｏｃｉａｌａｎｄｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃ
ｐｒｏblemswhichhavederivedfi･omtherecentrapidaccumulationofnew-comers，
Agradualdecreaseintheold-comerpopulation，ｄｕｅｂｏｔｈｔｏａｇｅｉｎｇｏｆｔｈｅｆｉｒｓｔ
ｇｅｎｅｒationandnaturalizationamongyoungergenerationinrecentdecades,together
withadramaticincreaseofnew-comers,hascreatedasignificantdeclineintheratio
ofold-comerstototalfbreignresidents・Notwithstanding,ｔｈｅｙｓｔｉｌｌａｃｃｏｕｎｔｅｄｆｂｒ４６
ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｒｅｇｉｓｔｅｒｅｄｆｂｒｅｉｇｎｅｒｓａｔｔｈｅｅｎｄｏｆｌ９９２．Ｔｈｅｙａｒｅｏｆｒｅｍａｒｋａｂｌｅ
ｉｍｐortance,notonlybecauseoftheirsignificantproportioninthefbreignpopulation，
ｂｕｔａｌｓｏｂｅｃａｕｓｅｏｆｔｈｅｉｒｓｐｅｃｉａｌｒｅsidentsituationAnanecdotalpolicydispute
illustratesthis・Thelabourpermitsystem，proposedinareportbythecommittee
establishedtofbrmulatemeasureｓｔｏｄｅａｌｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｉｎcreaseofillegalmigrant
workers，wasseriouslycriticizedbygroupsofethnicKoreanresidentsandtheir
supporterswhocitedthepossibilityofimposingadditionalrestrictiveburdenson
theirwork

Thefbreignpopulationbeingcomprisedofthｅｓｅｔｗｏｓｅｇｍｅｎｔｓｒｅｎｄｅｒｓｔｈｅｉｓｓｕｅｏｆ

＊4342,Aihara-machi,Machida-shi,Tokyo,194-02,Japan

2３
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditiol1inJapan

fbreignworkersandcorrespondingｐｏｌｉｃｙｍｏｒｅｃｏｍｐｌｅｘｉｎｎａｔｕｒｅｔｈａｎｉnother
labour-importingcountrieｓｗｉｔｈｏｕｔｓｕｃｈａｄｉｃｈｏｔｏｍｙ、ThefbUowinganalysisis
greatlymdebtedtoacomprehensivesurveyonethnicKoreanandChineseresidents
ｃａｒｒｉｅｄｏｕｔｉｎｌ９８４ｂｙｔｈｅＫａｎａｇａｗａＰrefbcturalOfYice（theKanagawasurvey),1,’
whichprovidesextensiveinfbrmationontheirworkingconditions．

L1CharacteristicsofKoreanandChineseSelfemployedFirms

(1)GeneralCharacteristics

Old-comersaredistinctfiPomothercategoriesoffbreignersintheirremarkably
highinvolvementintheselfemploymentsector・Accordingtothel985Population
Census，theselfemployedsectoraccountsfｂｒ２４８ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｔｈｅＫｏｒｅａｎａｎｄ
Ｃｈｉｎeseworkingpopulation，ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓｂｙ９ｐｏｉｎｔｓｈｉｇｈｅｒｔｈａｎｔhatfbrthetotal
population、ＴｈｅＫａｎａｇａｗａｓｕｒｖｅｙｇｉｖｅｓｌ/Ｌ４ａｓｔｈｅｒａｔｉｏｏｆｓｅｌｆＬｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｔｏ
ｅmployees,whereasthecorrespondingratiofbrtheprefbctureisl/8.5［Kanagawa，
1986,ｐ28].Theseresultsconfirmold-comers'higherinvolvementinthissector・
Ｃｏｍｐａｒｅｄｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｌ９８１ＢｕｓｉｎｅｓｓＳｕｒveyresults,theKanagawasurveyrevealsa
relatｉｖｅｌｙｓｍａｌｌｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｍｅｎｔｉｎｍａｎｕｆＨｃｔｕｒｉｎｇｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｉｅｓａｍｏｎｇＫｏｒｅａｎａｎｄ
ＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｓｅｌｆＬｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｆｌｒｍｓｉｎｔｈｉsprefbcture・Ｔｈｅｙａｒｅｓｕｂｓｔａｎｔｉａｌｌｙｏｖｅｒ‐
representedinthewholesaleandretailtrades・Among271proprietorsrespondingin
thesurvey，fbod-dispensingbusinessesnumberedlO4，fbllowedbyconstruction28，
scrapmaterialdealers22,realestateagentsl6[Kanagawa,1986,ｐ47]・
TheseselfLemployedfirmsaremostｌｙｓｍａｌｌｉｎｓｉｚｅ,ｗｉｔｈll8percentconsisting
onlyoftheselfemployedpersonand491percentwithonlyonetothreeemployees，
includingfamilymembers・KoreanandChinesefirmsshowamarkeddifYbrencein
size、while１２．９ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆＫｏｒｅａｎｆＩｒｍｓａｒｅｒｕｎｗｉｔｈnootheremployees，the
correspondingfigurefbrChinesefirmsisconsiderablylowerat５．３ｐｅｒcent,Despite
theoverwhelmingpreponderanceofsmall-sizecompanies，ｔｈｅａveragenumberof
employedis9､４personsinKoreancompaniescomparedwith５．７personsinChinese
ones・ThisseemingcontradictionsuggeststhatKoreancompaniesaremorevariedin
sizethanthoseofChinese
TheKanagawasurveyshowsthat756percentofselfLemployedflrmsenjoyno
durabletraderelationswithothercompanies[Kanagawa,1986,ｐ58],whichsuggests
thatKoreanandChinesefirmsarelikelytobesegregatedintermsofeconomic
transactions､Ｏｎｅｃａｎａｓｓｕｍｅｔｈａｔｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｌｙｓmallshareofmanuftlcturingmay
contributetolowermgtheirsubcontractingratio,ｗｈｉｃｈｒｅｍａｉｎｓａｔａｌｅｖｅｌｏｆ８､５per
centofrespondingfirms・Theconstructionindustry，however，isasingleexception；
ｔｈｅｈｉｇｈｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｃｙｄｅｍｏｎｓｔｒａｔｅｓｔｈａｔＫｏｒｅａｎａｎｄＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｓｅｌｆｅｍｐｌｏｙｅd
constructionfirmsaremostlyincorporatedinafHliatedfirmsinatotallyhierarchical
systemledbyconstructiongiants．

(寒）Kanagawapre化cturetogethel･ｗｉｔｈＴｏｋｙｏｉｓｋｎ(〕ｗｎａｓ（)neorthelargesthabitati()ｎｒｃｇｍｎｏｆｅｔｈｎｉｃ
ＫｏｒｅａｎａｎｄＣｈｉｎｅｓｅresidentsineasternJapan、Accordingtoregistrationstatistics，thepreHecture
standssixthinJapaｎｗｉｔｈａｂｏｕｔ４８,ＯＯＯｏｆｔｈｅｍａｔｔｈｅｅｎｄｏｒ１９８４．

2４
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

(2)DiscriminationinBusinessActivities

ＫｏｒｅａｎａｎｄＣｈｍｅｓｅｃｏｍｐａｎｉｅｓｗｉｔｈｓｅlfemployedproprietorsfHcevarioｕｓ
ｃｏｎｓｔｒａｉｎｔｓｉｎｔｈｅｉｒａｃｔｉｖｉｔｉｅｓｓｔｅｍｍｉｎｇｆｒｏｍｉｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｉｏｎａｌａｎｄｉｎformal
discrimination、Accordingtothesurvey，３０．７ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｐｒｏｐｒｉｅｔｏｒｓｈａｖｅｉｎｓｏｍｅ
wayorotherexperiencedvariouskiｎｄｓｏｆｄｉｓｃｒｉｍｉｎａｔｉｏｎｉｎｂｕｓｉｎｅｓs，andan
additiona１７．７percentwitnessedsimilarexperiences［Kanagawa，1986,Ｐ57]、
However,themagnitudeofdiscriminationdiffbrsaccordingtothetypeofbusiness
activities
Raisingfimdsfbrestablishingfirmsandfbrtheircurrentoperationsisofcrucial
importancefbrselfLemployedproprietors、Ａｓｆｂｒｆｉｎａｎｃｅ，banksarereluctantto
accommodateaKoreanwithmoney[Park,1957,ｐ94]・ＴｈｅＫａｎａｇａｗａｓｕｒｖｅｙｇｌｖｅｓ
ｏｎｌｙ２７､７ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｒｅｓｐｏｎｄｉｎｇｐｒｏｐｒｉｅｔｏｒｓａｓｈａｖｉｎｇｎｏｅｘｐｅｒｉｅｎｃｅｏｆ
ｄｉｓｃｒｉｍｉnationinprocurmgfilndsfi･omofYicialfinancialmstitutions,where“offlcial，，
denotesallfInancialinstitutionsbutKoreanandChinesecompatriotinstitutionsand
corporations31percentofproprietorsreferredtotheirownexperiencesof
discriminationinfinance・Anticipatingadiscriminatoryatmosphere，２２．１percentof
respondentsreportedthaｔｔｈｅｙｈａｄａｂａｎｄｏｎｅｄａｎｙａｔｔｅmptataccesstoofTIcial
financefiFomtheoutset[Kanagawa，1986,ｐｐ52,531Accordｉｎｇｔｏａｓｕｒｖｅｙｃａｒｒｉｅｄ
ｏｕｔｉｎｌ９８７，ｏｎｌｙ３１ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆＫｏｒｅａｎｐｒｏｐｒｉｅｔｏｒｓｐｒｏｃｕｒｅｆＵｎｄｓｆｒｏｍｎｏｎ‐
compatriotfinancialinstitutionｓ［Ｍin，1994,ｐ､30911tisalsoreportedthatthe
reactionvariesfromrefnsingfinanceonaccountofbeinganon-nationaltorequiring
additionalguarantorswhowerenotrequiredfbrnationalborrowers，
Asaconsequenceofsuchdiscriminatoryconstramts，KoreanandChineseself
employedfirmsarefbrcedtobeselfcontainedintermsoffinanceThatis，besides
raisingthenecessaryfnndsbyselffinance，theyrelymoreontheircompatriotor
unofficialfinancialresources・Ａｍｏｎｇｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅｅｘｔｅｒｎａｌｃｒｅｄｉｔｏｒｓｆｂｒｆｉｎａｎｃｅ，
compatriotfinancialinstitutionsareofprimaryimportance，providing２８．８percent
ofrespondingfirmswithfinancialopportunitieswhichslightlyexceedsfinanceg1ven
bycreditunionsoｒｇｕｉｌｄｓａｔ２４７ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔａｎｄｃｏｍｍｅｒｃｉａｌｂａｎｋｓａｔ２２１ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ,It
isworthnotingthat，ｗｈｉｌｅｔｈｅｓｈａｒｅofpublicfinancestaysatonlyl０．７ｐｅｒcent，
borrowingfromrelativesandfTiendsormutualbenefItsocietiesaccountsfbrl９．９
ａｎｄ５．９percent,respectively[Kanagaｗａ,1986,ｐ５０１
ＡｍｏｎｇＫｏｒｅａｎａｎｄＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｏｌd-comersmanypossess，ｂｅｓｉｄｅｓａｎａｍｅｉｎｔｈｅｉｒ
ｏｗｎｎａｔｉｖｅlanguage,aJapaneseonewhichiscommonlyusedintheirdailylifb,The
Kanagawasurveydocumentedthaｔ８３ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆＫｏｒｅａｎａｎｄＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｓｅlfLemployed
proprietorsusetheirＪａｐａｎｅｓｅｎａｍｅｉｎｓｏｍｅｗａｙｏｒｏtherindoingtheircurrent
businessactivities･Ａｍｏｎｇｔｈｅｍ,３２．９ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｍｏｓｔｌｙａｎｄ３８２ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｍｏｒｅoften
thannotusetheirJapanesenaｍｅｓ[Kanagawa,1986,p58lOld-comersarefbrcedto
abandononeofthemostmtegralfbaturesoftheirnationalandethnicidentityin
ordertoadapttoconventionalpracticeinbusinessactivities．

L2CharacteristicsofKoreanandChineseEmployees

(1)GeneralCharacteriStiCS

Astablelshows,theyconcentrateinthewholesaleandretailtradesaswellasm

２５
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditioninJapaｎ

TablellndustrialandOccupationalPrOfilesofOld-comerEmployees
（inpercentl1985）

Total KoreanS＆
population Chinese KoreansChinese

AgTiculture,fbrestryandHshery 1.0

０４２６６５２００１－７９６２７２２０１
３０８１６，４７８４’６４４５０８８８２

０５２６５５２００１’６９６２７３１０１
２２８４０５４２９４－５５７６６８９２２

１３１３０１２４Ｏ１ｌ１
２６１６３４３８３５－１８００５３７３３
●●■●●●●。①ｂ●■■■●Ｃ●●●

．．．．．．．．．．－凧８４ＬＬ４０ＬＬ
Construction 9.5

１２

１２
Manufacturing 27.6

２
Transportandcommunications ７．７

Wholesale/retautradeandrestaurants ２１．８

４
Financeandinsurance ３．８

Realestate ０８

Sewice ２２．１

２
Govemment ４６

Others薊 １２
－－－－－－－--－－－－-－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－g

Profbssionalandtechnicねns １０．５

Managers ４．７

Clericalworkers ２２１

１１

１１

１１
Salesclerks １３．５

Workersintransportandcommunications ４．９

Craftsmen,productionprocessworkers,labourers ３５．２
３１

３１

２２
Serviceworkers1》 ７９

Agricultural,fbrestryandfisheryworkers ０９

OtherWorkers『 0.1

Note:ａ:Includesmining,electricity,gas,hcatandwatersupplyandmdustriesnotelsewhereclassifled
b：Includesprotectiveserviceworkers．
ｃ：Includesminingworkers・
Source:StatisticsBureau,ＰｒｉｍｅMinister，sOlYIce,、/ieI985POp皿/nnolDCe"sus．

restaurants・Asregardsold-comers，occupationalprofiles，therelativelyhigh
percentageinmanagementispartlyaccountedfbrbytheprevalentselfLemployed
sector・Workersintransportandcommunicationsaswellasserviceworkersarealso
highlyover-represented
KoreanandChineseold-comeremployeesmarkedlydifYbrfiPoｍｅａｃｈｏｔｈｅｒｉｎ
ｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｉａｌａｎｄｏｃｃｕｐａｔｉｏｎａｌｐｒｏｆｎｅｓ・Ｋｏｒｅａｎｓａｒｅｍｏｒｅｌｉｋｅｌｙｔｏｓｐｅｃｉａｌｉｚｅｉｎ
ｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｉｅｓａｎｄｏｃｃｕｐａｔｉｏｎｓｓｕchasconstruction，transport，Ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎｓ，
craftsmen,productionprocessworkersandlabourers,whereasChinesetakejobsin
thewholesaleandretailtrades，restaurants，andinprofbssionalandtechnicalwork
andservices・

TheKanagawasurveydocumentsthatKoreanａｎｄＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓｔｅｎｄｔｏｂｅ
ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｓｍａｌｌｅｒ－ｓｉｚｅｃｏｍｐａｎｉｅｓ、Ｔｈｅｐｒｏｐｏｒｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｅｒｓｏｎｓｗｏｒｋｉｎｇｆbr
companieswithmorethanlOOemployeesareremarkablylower,accountingfbronly
l3・Ｏｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ,whereasthecorrespondingfigurefbrtheprefbcturalpopulationiｓ２４２
ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ［Kanagawa，1986,ｐ､631TheemploymentprofIlebyfIrmsizediffers
2６
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

significantlybygenderandethnicoriginWhile９.Ｏｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｍｅｎａｎｄ１２．９ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ
ｏｆＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｗｏｒｋｅｒｓａｒｅｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｃｏｍｐａｎｉｅｓｗｉｔｈｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎ５００employees，
ｗｏｍｅｎａｎｄＫｏｒｅａｎｓｒｅｍａｉｎａｔｏｎｌｙ２､４ａｎｄ５２ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ,respectively､Interestingly，
irrespectiveofgenderandethnicorigin，younglabourmarketentrantsinthe25-29
agesegmenttendmoretobehiredbylargerCompanies［Kanagawa，1986,ｐ､64L
whichsuggestsagradualtransitionfromthetraditionalpatternwhereemployment
inthesmall-sizeselfLemployedsectorwasdominant．

(2)WorkingConditionsofKoreanandChineseEmployees

ＫｏｒｅａｎａｎｄＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｏｌｄ－ｃｏｍｅｒｓｄｉｓｐｌａｙａｍａｒｋｅｄｃｏｎｔｒａｓｔｗｉｔｈＪａｐａｎｅｓｅ
employeesinchannelsfbrfindmgjobs・PublicEmploymentSecurityOfficesprovide
publicjobplacementservicesinJapan,andeducationalinstitutionsareauthorizedin
providingtheserviceexclusivelyfbrnewschoolgraduatesAlongwithpublic
institutions,anumberofweeklyrecruitmentjournalsandappointmentcolumns
providejobseekerswithvacancyinfbrmationlnfbrmalchannelssuchaspersonal
connectionsalsoplayacertainroleinjobplacement、
TheKanagawasurveyofYbrsremarkableresultsregardingchannelsfbrfinding
jobs・Althouglleducationalinstitutionsgenerallyplayasubstantialroleinoffbring
jobsfbrnewlygraduatedstudentsinJapan,ｅmploymentthroughpublicchannels，
includingPublicEmploymentSecurityOffices，ａｍｏｕｎｔｓｔｏｎｏｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎ３０ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ
ａｍongKoreanandChineseemployeeswithhighereducationstandinｇａｔｌｅｓｓｔｈａｎ
ｏｎｅ－ｔｈｉｒｄｏｆｔｈｅｇｅｎｅｒａｌａｖｅｒａｇｅｉｎＪａｐａｎ・UnofHcialchannelssuchasparents，
relativesandfiiendsarethepredominantmeansofflndingjobs,includingsuccession
inaparents，business［Kanagawa，1986,p319157percentstillfIndtheirjobs
throughpersonalconnections[Kanagawa,1986,p7611nparticular,fbod-dispensing
businesses，ｔｈｅｗｈｏｌｅｓａｌｅａｎｄｒｅｔａｉｌｔｒａｄｅｓａｎｄotherserviceindustrieswhere
compatriotcompaniesareprevalent,tendtorelyonunofYicialchannels、
TheKanagawasurveyevidencesthatvariousfbrmsofdiscriminatiｏｎｉｎｊｏｂ
ｆｉｎｄｉｎｇｏｎａｃｃｏｕｎｔｏｆｎａｔｉｏnalityexist・Ｎｉｎｅｐｅｒｓｏｎｓｏｕｔｏｆ３３ｒｅｆｂｒｒｅｄｔｏｔhe
experienceofbeingrejectedduetobeinganon-nationaLFurthermore,４６outof83
respondentsdemandedthatdiscriminationbeabolishedinjobfIndingandafnrther
l61hatthedooｒｂｅｏｐｅｎｅｄｔｏｐｕｂｌｉｃｗｏｒｋｓｃｈｅｍｅｓ［Kanagawa，1986,ｐｐ358,359]、
Senior-highschoolgraduatesfblcemoreseverediscriminationthancollegegraduates
intheirsearchfbremployment[ＫｉｍａｎｄＬｅｅ(ed.),1985,ｐユ02]、They,consequently，
stayalooffrompublicchannels・However，ｔｈｅｓｕｒｖｅｙｒｅｓｕｌｔｓａｌｓｏｓｈｏｗａｎｅｗ
ｔｅndencyamongtheyoungergenerationtorelymoreonpublicchannels［Ｋｉｍａｎｄ
Ｌｅｅ(ed.),1985,ｐ７７１
Ａ１ｔｈｏｕｇｈ６８５ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆＫｏｒｅａｎａｎｄＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓａｒｅｈｉｒｅｄａｓｒegular
employees，theirrelativeproportionglveninthesurveyissubstantiallylowerthan
thatfbrnationals;thecorrespondingprefbcturalaveragecameto78.1ｐｅｒcent・These
figuresdemonstratethefnctthatold-comeremployeesarehiredundercomparatively
lessstableconditionsthannationals[ＫｉｍａｎｄＬｅｅ(ed.),1985,Ｐ72]．
while４９．５ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｏｌｄ－ｃｏｍｅｒｓａｒｅｈｉｒｅｄｍｃompaniesrunonlybyJapanese，
43.4ｐｅｒcentworkfbrcompatriotcompanies,mcludmgthosejointlymanagedwith
Japanese・ＫｏｒｅａｎａｎｄＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓｄｏｎｏｔshowapronounceddiffbrencemthis
regard、ＩｔｉｓｒａｔｈｅｒａｍｏｎｇＫｏｒｅａｎｓｔｈｅｍｓｅｌｖeｓｔｈａｔｏｎｅｎｏｔｉｃｅｓｓｕｂｓｔａｎｔｉａｌ

２７
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditionmJapa、

diffbrences、５１．５ｐｅｒcentofemployeesofNorthKoreanoriginworkfbrcompatriot
companies，whereasthecorrespondingfigureiｓｏｎｌｙ３８５ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔａｍｏｎｇＳｏｕｔｈ
Ｋｏｒｅａnｓ[ＫｉｍａｎｄＬｅｅ(ｅｄ),1985,ｐ､661NorthKoreansaregenerallycharacterized
bystrongerethnicidentityandmuchintensetiesamongthemselves［Hiatt，1990,
Stalker，1994,ｐ､2531Suchremarkablediscrepanciesseemtostemfromthe
diffbrencesinthesocial,economicandpoliticaldeterminantsoftheirsettlement，
ＫＯreanandChineseregularemployeesarecharacterizedbylongworkinghours，
AccordingtotheKanagawasurvey,ｔｈｅｉｒｗｅｅｋｌｙｗｏｒｋｈｏｕｒｓｃｏｍｅｕｐｔo485hourson
average，ｅｘｃｅｅｄｉｎｇｂｙａｂｏｕｔ２０ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｔｈｅｐｒefbcturalaverageofthetotalhours
workedincompanieswithmorethan30employees、Thesurveyalsodemonstrates
thatlongerworkhoursareespeciallyprevalentinfbod-dispensingbusinesses,sewice
industries,transportandcommunicationswheremanyemployingcompaniesarerun
bycompatriots[Kanagawa,1986,ｐ82]、
Ｄｅｓｐｉｔｅｓｕｃｈｌｏｎｇｗｏｒｋｈｏｕｒｓ，ＫｏｒｅａｎａｎｄＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓａｒｅｍａrkedly
underpaidAsthesurveydocuments，theaverageannualincomefbrKoreanand
ChineseregularemployeeswasＹ３．１million，ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓｂｙｙＯ７ｍｉｌｌｉｏｎｂｅｌｏｗｔｈｅ
ｐｒｅfbcturalaveragegivenbycompanieｓｗｉｔｈｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎ３０ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓｉｎｌ９８３
[Kanagawa，1986,ｐｐ､83,84]、Furthermore,wagesaredistinctiveamongold-comer
employees・ChinesearegenerallymorefEwourablypaidthanKoreans［Kanagawa，
1986,ｐ､841．WhileemployeesinJapanese-runcompaniesearnY2､８millionannually，
thoseworkingincompatriotcompanｉｅｓａｒｅｐａｉｄｌｅｓｓｂｙａｂｏｕｔｌＯｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ、Itis
interestingthatthosewhofbundjobsthroughpublicchannelsearnahigherincome
thananyothercategoryofemployees[Kanagawa,1986,ｐ､85],whichstemsfimnthe
factthatjobofYersunderunfavourableworkingconditionsandmarginalwage
paymentisnotacceptedbythePublicEmploymentSecurityOfficesOnecanassume
thatplacementthroughunofficialchannels,whichareprevalentamongold-comers，
provideslow-paidjobs

(3)DiscriminationatWork

Thehigherpropensityofold-comeremployeestoworkinlow-paidjobsinsmall-
sizecompatriotfirmsisanaturaloutcomeofdiscriminatoryresponsebyJapanese
employers・Foreignersareexcludedfrommanyjobsinthepublicsector・Besides,as
theKanagawasuweyreportconcludes,themajorityofJapanese,mostlylargeflrms，
totallyclosethedoortoemployingKoreansandChinese［Kanagawa，1986,ｐ94]・
Furthermore,eveniftheycouldsucceedmfindingjobs,theyaremorelikelytobe
greetedcurrentlybythediscriminatoryattitudesatwork、Ｈｅｒｅｌｉｅｓｔｈｅｐｒｉｍａｒｙ
ｍｏｔｉｖｅａｍｏｎｇｏfYBprmgofold-comersfOrnaturalizationtoavoidsuchunjust
treatment､Alternatively,theytendtolookfbrotherjobsinlessdiscriminatory
companies,whicharefrequentlyrunbycompatriotsandwheretheycansharework
withothercompatriots・Themostdiscriminatorysegmentofeconomicbodiesdonot
employfbreignerslnthisregard，thesurveyinevitablyunderestimatestheactual
degreeofdiscriminationatwork,Accordingtothesurvey,thepercentageofpersons
whohavesufYbredfromadiscriminatolyexperienceincompaniesis３．７ｐｅｒcent，of
whichdissatisfactionwithsuperiors，attitudesandplacementonjobsaccountfbrthe
mainpart[Kanagawa,1986,p3261
ManyemployeesareobligedtoｗｏｒｋｕｎｄｅｒａＪａｐａｎｅｓｅｎａｍｅｓｅｅｍｉｎｇｌｙａｓａ
2８
ＨｉｒｏｍｉＭｏｒｉ

Japanese・Employeesinthiscategoryfalllargelyintooccupationswhichrequirｅ
ｍａｎｕａｌｗｏｒｋｓｕｃｈａｓｄｒｉｖｅｒｓ，ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓａｔｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎｓｉｔｅｓａｎｄｗaitresses
［Kanagawa，1986,p971Japanesenamesaremostlyusedbythoseemployedin
Japanesefirms（59.9ｐｅｒcent),whileamongcompatriotonestheuseｏｆａＪａｐａｎｅｓｅ
ｎａｍｅｉｓｍｕｃｈｌｏｗｅｒ（37.8ｐｅｒcent)．TheKanagawasurveyreportsthat，among
employeeswhofbundtheirjobsthroughpersonalconnections,theratioofJapanese
nameusersremainsat40-50percent,whereasamongthosefindingjobsinthe
newspapersorweeklyrecruitmentjournalsitreaches656percent[Kanagawa,1986,
p97lTheseresulｔｓｓｕｇｇｅｓｔｔｈａｔｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｏｕｓｅｎａｍｅｓｏfethnicoriginaremore
likelytofindjobsinthecompatriotfirmsthroughpersonalrecruitmentchannels，
ｗｈｅｒｅａｓｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｏｉｎｔｅｎｄｔｏｗｏｒｋｉｎＪapanesefirms，whichoftenrecruitemployees
throughjobcolumnsorotherofYicialchannels,arefbrcedtouseaJapaneseｎａｍｅ
Ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓｕｓｉｎｇｎａｍｅｓｏｆｅｔｈｎｉｃｏｒｉｇｉｎｃａｎｎａｔｕｒａｌｌｙｂｅｆｂｕｎｄｍｏｓｔoftenin
workshopswhereallothercolleaguesarecompatriots・Theratiodecreasesfi･om396
percentinworkshopsemployiｎｇｏｎｌｙｃｏｍｐａｔｒｉｏｔｓｔｏ６８ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｉｎworkshopswith
onlyJapanesecolleagues[Kanagawa,1986,p97lThesurveyalsoindicatesserious
apprehensionamongemployeesworkingundeｒａＪａｐａｎｅｓｅｎａｍｅｏｆｂｅｉｎｇｅｘｐｏｓｅｄａｓ
anon-nationalatwork，with370percentofthemprofbssinganxietyofworsening
humanrelationshipswithJapanesecolleagues・Ａｆｉｌｒｔｈｅｒｌ３０ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｔｈｅｍ
ａｃｋｎｏwledgedthepossibilityofevenbeingfbrcedtoquittheirjob[Kanagawa,1986,
ｐ９３ｌ
ＴｈｅＫａｎａｇａｗａｓｕｒｖｅｙｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｄａｓｕｂｓｔａｎｔｉａｌｌｙｌｏｗｅｒｒａｔｉｏｏｆＫｏｒｅａｎｓａｎｄ
Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｃｌｅｒｉｃａｌｗｏｒｋ［Ｋａｎａｇａｗａ，１９８６，p361However，ifthe
conditionswhichgovernKoreａｎａｎｄＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓ，especiallyinJapanese
companies，areconsidered，ｉｔｉｓｌｉｋｅｌｙｔｈａｔｔｈｅｒｅａｒｅｑｕｉｔｅａｆｂｗｉｎsuchoccupations
whorefilsedtopaｒｔｉｃｉｐａｔｅｉｎｔｈｅｓｕｒｖｅｙｆｂｒｆｂａｒｏｆｄisclosureoftheirethnicorigin
Discriminationatworkiswidespread，ｆｒｏｍharmfnlbackbitingbycolleaguesand
customerstodisadvantageoustreatmentincompaniessuchasdelayedpromotion，
discriminatoryjobplacements,ｌｏｗｐａｙａｎｄｓｏｏｎ､Itgoeswithoutsaymgthattheuse
ofaJapanesenamerepresentsonlyoneaspectofbroaddiscriminationwhiｃｈｏｌｄ－
ｃｏｍｅｒｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓｍｃｅｉｎｔｈｅirdailyactivitiesatwork・However,thismtegTalaspect，
ｉｎｓｅｐａｒａｂｌｙｃｏｎｎｅｃｔｅｄｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｉｒｅtｈｎｉｃｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｙ，specificallyrenectsthe
discriminationagainsttheminJapan・
Basedonstatisticaldocumentatiｏｎ,theKanagawasurveyclystallizedtwodistinct
typesofold-comeremploymentpatterns:employeesworkingmcompatriotcompanies
undernativeethnicnames，andemployeesworkinginJapanesecompaniesunder
Japanesenａｍｅｓ［Kanagawa，1986,ｐ67]・Employeeswhobelongtothefbrmer
categoryworklongerhoursinthesamecompanyinspiteoflessfavourableworking
conditions、Meanwhile，thelattertypeofemployeesearnmorethanthefbrmer，but
areobligedtochangejobsmoreoften
KｏｒｅａｎａｎｄＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｏｌｄ－ｃｏｍｅｒｓｉｎＪａｐanhavearelativelylongersettlement
historycomparedwithmigrantworkerswhoarrivedinEuropeanlabour-importing
countriesinthel960s・DespitesettlementovermorethanfWedecades，old-comers
arestillexposedtoseriousdiscriminationnotonlyatworkbutalsointheirdaily
lives・Thisfactsuggeststhatmanypolicyｔａｓｋｓａｒｅｌｅｆｔｕｎｓｏｌｖｅｄｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｔheir
socialintegration・Ｊａｐａｎｅｓｅｇｏｖｅｍｍｅｎｔａｎｄｓｏｃｉｅｔｙａｔｌargeseemtohavesofar
learnedvelylittlehomtheexperienceofdealingwithold-comers．
2９
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditioninJapam

２NikkeiWOrkingandLivingConditioｎｓ

ＴｈｅｉｎｆｌｏｗｏｆＮｉｋｋｅｉｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｄａｔｅｓｂａｃｋｔｏｔｈｅｂｅｇｉｎｎｉｎｇｏｆｔｈｅｌ９８０ｓ
[Mori,Hiromasa,1994,ｐ､491However,theirU-turnmigrationtoJapanwasarather
sporadicphenomenonatfirst・Themigrationflowchangedtrendbythemid-1980s・
Anarticleheadlined``TheAgeofU-turnEmigrationtoJapan'，whichappearedina
JapanesenewspaperdistributedamongsettlersinBrazilinl985symbolizesthe
turnaroundcorrespondingtotheinitiationoftheorganizedrecruitingactivitiesby
Japan，srecruitmentagents[Kanagawa,1992,ｐ２４７１
ＳｉｎｃｅｅｍｉｇｒａｎｔｓｏｆｔｈｅｆｉｒｓｔｇenerationretainJapanesenationality，theywere
treatedasJapanesereturneesuponlanding・Nikkeiofthesecondgenerationｗｅｒｅ
ａｄｍｉｔｔｅｄｔｏｒｅｓｉｄｅｕｎｄｅｒｔｈｅｐｒｅ－１９９０ｓｙｓｔｅｍｆｂｒｕｐｔｏ３ｙｅａｒｓａｓａｃｈildofa
Japanese・ThirdgenerationNikkeiwithextensivedocumentationontheirJapaneｓｅ
ａｎｃｅｓｔｒｙｃｏｕｌｄａｐｐｌｙｆｂｒａｓｐｅｃｉａｌｓｔａｔｕｓｏｆｒｅｓｉdence，theso-called“４－１－１６－３，，．
However,conditionsonapplyingfbrthisstatuswereratherrestrictiveandrequireda
lengthyapprovalprocess・
Thel990immigrationpolicyrefbrmｏｐｅｎｅｄｔｈｅｄｏｏｒｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｔｏＮｉｋｋｅｉｏｆthe
thirdgenerationbuteventonon-Nikkeimarriedtoasecondgenerationemigrant
enablingthemtoresideunderthenewlymtroducedlongtermresidentstatusfbrone
tothreeyears・Japaneseimmigrationpolicyprohibits，inprinciple，fbreignersfrom
engaginginunskilledwork、However，sinceNikkeicanresideunderstatuｓｅｓｏｆ
"permissibleestablishment，，category,theyarelegallypermittedtoworkinunskilled
jobs・
Ｔｈｅｉｎｉｔｉａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｎｅｗｓｙｓｔｅｍｓｅｅｍｓｔｏｈａｖｅｂｒｏｕｇｈｔａｂｏｕｔｓｉｇｎｉｆｌｃａｎt
modificationsintheemploymentoffbreignworkers・Penaltyprovisionsfbrthe
employmentofclandestineworkersintroduｃｅｄｂｙｔｈｅｒｅｆｂｒｍ，urgedemployersto
replaceillegalｗorkerswithlegalones、Theenfbrcementofthenewsystemcreated
anexpandeddemandfbrlegalworkersNikkeiwithunrestrictedworkpossibilities
wereonemaJorsupplysourceoflegalunskilledworkers・Large-sizefirms,whichhad
beenhesitantinhiringillegalfbreignworkers，startedfillingemergmgvacancies
withNikkei・Manyemployerswhohademployedclandestineworkers,replacedthem
withNikkeifbrfbaroflegalpunishment・However,ｔｈｅｙａｒｅｕｎｌｉｋｅｌｙｔｏｂｅｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄ
ｉｎｓmaIl-sizefirms、InterviewscarriedoutinalocalLabourStandardsInspection
Officeiｎａｒｅｇｉｏｎｗｉｔｈａｎｏｕｔｓｔａｎｄinglyhighconcentrationoffbreignworkers
evidenceddistinctemploymentpatternsoflegalandillegalfbreignworkersbyfirm
size・Insmall-scalecompanieswithlessｔｈａｎｔｅｎｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｅｓｔｈｅｍＥＵｏｒｐａｒｔｏｆfbreign
employeeswerenon-Nikkei，whereasinfirmswithlO-49employeesNikkeiaccount
fbrthedominantpart，ａｎｄｃｏｍｐａｎｉｅｓｗｉｔｈｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎ５０ｅｍｐｌoyeeshireNikkei
exclusively[Chiba,1994,pl8l・
Nikkeiwererecruitedenmassethroｕｇｈｖａｒｉｏｕｓｃｈａｎｎｅｌｓｔｏｍｅｅｔｅｍｅｒｇｉng
labourneeds・ThelargestsuppliersweretheSouthAmericancountries・TheMinistry
ofForeignAffairsestimatedthepopulationofJapaneseancestryinSouthAmerican
countriestobeapproximatelyL4millioninl989、BrazilhasthelargestNikkei
populationwithL28million,fbllowedbyPeru(80,000),Argentina(50,000),Paraguay
(7,000）andBolivia(6,000).ＴｈｅｙｄｉｆｆｂｒｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｉｎｔｈｅｓｉｚｅｏｆＮｉkkeipopulation,ｂｕｔ

３０
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

alsoinmanyotheraspects・ＴｈｅｅｍｉｇｒａｔｉｏｎｆｌｏｗｔｏＰｅｒｕａｎｄＢｒａｚilhasalonger
historythantherest・AmaJoremigrationflowtoArgentinaoccurredinthepostwar
period・ParaguayandBoliviawerethelatestdestinationcountries・Thediffbrencein
emigrationhistoryinfluencesthecharacteristicsofU-turnmigrantsthroughthe
advaｎｃｅｉｎｇｅｎｅｒａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｔｈｕｓｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｅxpandingculturaldistance，including
profIciencyinJapanese、Thesecountriesarealsodiffbrentintermsofeconomic
fbrtunes・Ｔｈｅｍｏｒｅｓｅｒｉｏｕｓｔｈｅｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃｃｏｎｄｉtionstheyftlce，ｔｈｅｓｔｒｏｎｇｅｒｉｓｔｈｅ
ｍａｇｎｉｔｕｄｅｏｆｅｍｉgrationpressureandmigrants，settlementdesireinJapanThe
fbllｏｗｉｎｇｓｅｃｔｉｏｎｗｉｌｌｅｘａｍｉｎｅｖａｒｉｏｕｓｉｓｓｕｅｓｃｏｎｃｅｒｎｉｎｇｗｏｒｋｉｎｇａｎｄｌｉｖｉｎｇ
ｃｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎｓｏｆＮｉｋｋｅｉｉｎＪａｐａｎｔｏｇｅｔｈｅｒｗｉｔｈｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃａｎｄｓｏcial
consequencesofthemovetoNikkeisocietyinhomecountries．

2.1NikkeiU-turnMigration

(1)U-turnMigrants，DemographicAttributes

MaleworkersaccountedfbrthemEUorpartofNikkeiU-turnmigrantsthroughout
thel980s、Ａｄｒａｍａｔｉｃｃｈａｎｇｅｏｃｃｕｒｒｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｇｅｎｄｅｒｃｏｍｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎａｒｏｕｎｄｌ９９０，
AmongBrazilianarrivals,fbrexample,thepercentageofwomenincreasedfiPom366
percentinl989to３９．３ｉｎｌ９９０ａｎｄｔｈｅｎｔｏ４ａ８ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｉｎｌ９９ＬＰeruvians,ｗｈｏａｒｅ
ｔｈｅｓｅｃｏｎｄｌａｒｇｅｓｔＵ－ｔｕｒｎｍｉｇｒａｎｔｇｒｏｕｐａｆｔｅｒＢｒａｚｉｌｉａｎｓ，havingfirstbeen
exclusivelymen,havealsograduallyseenthewomen'sratiogrowfiQom25,６ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ
ｉｎｌ９８９ｔｏ３７､４ｉｎｌ９９０ａｎｄｔｏ３９１ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｉｎｌ９９１、
Ｓｅｖｅｒａｌｆａｃｔｏｒｓｓｅｅｍｔｏｂｅｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｉｂｌｅｆｂｒｔｈｉｓｃｈａｎｇｅ、First，ｃｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎｓ
discriminatmginftlvourofNikkeiintroducedunderthenewinstitutionalfTamework
pavedthewayfbrtheirmassiveintroductionasalegalworkfbrce・Sincethetotal
sizeoftheNikkeipopulationinsupplyingcountriesisnotlargeenoughtomeetthe
everexpandinglabourneedsinJapan，ｉｔｗａｓｎｏｔｌｏngbefbretheJapaneselabour
markethadexhaustedthesupplyofmaleworkersofthefirstandsecondgeneraｔｉｏｎｓ
Ｔｈａｎｋｓｔｏｔｈｅｒｅｆｂｒｍ，employerscouldefYbctivelymobiｌｉｚｅｗｏｍｅｎｏｒｙｏｕｎｇｅｒ
ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｏｆｔｈｉｒｄｏｒｆｎｒｔｈｅｒｇｅｎｅｒａｔｉｏｎｓｔｏｆｉｌｌｔｈｅｅｎｏｒｍｏｕｓｎｕｍｂｅｒｓｏｆｅｘｉｓｔｉｎｇ
ｖａｃａｎｃ１ｅｓ･

Second，ｉｔｉｓｅｎｔｉｒelyrationalbehaviourthatamigrantworkerwhointendsto
returntohisorherhomecountryafterachievingworkobjectives,ｔｒｉｅｓｔｏｍａｋｅ
ｍａｘｉｍｕｍｕｓｅｏｆｔｈｅｐｅｒｉｏｄｏｆｓｔａｙｆｂｒｔｈｅｅｍｐｌｏｙｍｅｎｔｐｕｒｐｏｓes・Evenaslight
difYbrenceinthewagerateamongfirmsisenoughofaninducementtoswitchjobs
ThefTequentjobhoppingprevalentamongNikkeiisarefIectionoftheirremittance‐
orsaving-orientedemploymentbehaviounRecruitingagents，whoraisedenormous
sumsinchargesupontheirrecruitment,alsoinduceNikkeitochangejobsThｅｙ
ｕｓｕａｌｌｙｔａｋｅａｃｕｔｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｃｏｎｔｒａctworkers’ｇｒｏｓｓｉｎｃｏｍｅ・Ｔｈｕs，ｗｉｔｈｔｈｅ
ｄｉｍｉｎｉｓｈｉｎｇｓｕｐｐｌｙｏｆａｄｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｔｈｅｙａｔｔｅｍｐｔｅｄｔｏｍａｋｅｔａｋｉｎｇｓｎｏｔ
ｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｅｘｐａｎｄｉｎｇｔｈｅｎｕｍｂｅｒｂｕｔｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｒａｉｓｉｎｇｔｈｅｐｅｒcapitaprofitability・
Moreover，mediationchargesprovideagentswithanadditionalprofit・Underthese
circumstances,employerssuffleringfmmNikkeivoluntaryorinducedjobhopping
werefbrcedtodefbndthemselvesfi･omlosingessentialworkers・Itwasinthiscontext
thatemployersinvitedNikkeifnmiliesasaworkfbrce，expectedtobelessmobilein
termsofjobchangesthansingleworkers．

３１
ForeignWolkers，Ｗ〔)rkingandLivingConditi〔)ｎｉｎＪａｐａｎ

AsfbrthecharacteristicsofNikkeｉｂｙａｇｅ,asurveycarriedoutbytheMinistryｏｆ
Ｊｕｓｔｉｃｅｉｎｌ９８９ｓｈｏｗｓｔｈａｔ，disregardingthoseintheirteens，４８．２ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔａｒｅｉｎ
ｔｈｅｉｒ２０ｓ[MOJ,1990,ｐ73]・Asurveyconductedinl991bytheJapanlnternational
CooperationAssociation（theJICAsurvey）andasurveybytheJapanStatistics
Researchlnstituteinl992（theJSRIsurvey）gavesimilarresultswithregardtothe
relativeimportanceofthoseintheir20s,５０．２ａｎｄ５３６ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ,respectively[JICA，
1992,ＪSRI，l9931AlthoughrespondentｓｉｎｔｈｅＪＳＲＩｓｕｒｖｅｙｉｓｃｏｎｆＩｎｅｄｏｎｌｙto
NikkeiBrazilians,theresultsdocumentthatthemamparｔｏｆｍｉｇｒａｎｔｓａｒｅｆｒｏｍｔｈｅ
youngergeneration・Togetherwiththeseresults，medicalinspectionrecordsfbrvisａ
ａｐｐｌｉｃａｎｔｓｉｎＳａｏＰａｕｌｏｓｈｏｗｅｄａｃonsiderableshifttotheyoungergeneration，
ｎａｍｅｌｙｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｔｅｅｎｓａｎｄ２０ｓ，ａｓｍｉｇｒａｎｔｓｈａｖｅｍｃｒｅａｓｅｄｉｎｎｕｍｂｅｒ
especiallyafterthelatterhalfof1989[Kanagawa,1992,ｐ2501
Thebiassedagedistributionistheｏｔｈｅｒｓｉｄｅｏｆｔｈｅｃｏｉｎｍｔｈｅａｆｂｒｅｍｅｎtioned
change-overofgenerationsamongNikkeiU-turnmigrants、Theapplicationrecords
fbrvisasaｃｃｅｐｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅＣｏｎｓｕｌａｔｅＧｅｎｅｒａｌｉｎＳａｏＰａｕｌｏｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｓａｇｒａｄｕａｌ
ｄｉｍｉｎutionofthefirstgenerationintherelativeshareasaresultoftheextensive
involvementofthesecondandthenthirdgenerations、
Asfbrtheeducationalbackgroundofmigrants，ｔｈｅＪＳＲＩｓｕｒｖｅｙｇｉｖｅｓ２ａｌｐｅｒ
ｃｅｎｔｏｆthetotalrespondentsaspossessingahigheducationalattainment[JSR1,
1993,ｐ８]・ＡｓｒｅｔｕｍｓｉｎｔｈｅｓｕｒｖｅｙｃｏｖｅｒａｌｍｏｓｔallNikkeiemployedmthefirms
studied,ｔｈｅｒｅｓｕｌｔｓａｒｅｅｘｐｅｃｔｅｄｔｏｂｅｌｅｓｓｄependentuponthesurveybiasthan,fbr
example，surveysbasedonvoluntaryresponsewhichtendtoover-representthose
highlyeducatedOnecansafblyassessthepercentageofNikkeiBrazilianswitha
higheducationalbackgroｕｎｄｔｏｂｅａｒｏｕｎｄ２５ｐｅｒcent,whichcontrastswiththegross
enrollmentratefbrhigherleveleducationamongpersonsof20-24yearsoldｉｎＢｒａｚｉｌ
ｗｈｉｃｈｗａｓｌｌ２ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｉｎｌ９８９［ＵＮ，1992,ｐ57]．ＴｈｅｒｅｓｕｌｔｓｓｈｏｗｎｉｎｔｈｅＪＳＲＩ
ｓｕｒｖｅｙindicatethattheeducationalbackgroundofU-turnmigrantsisoutstandingly
high
NikkeiU-turnmigrantsarealsodistinctiveintermsoftheiroccupationalprofile・
Table2throwslightontheirprofilesoffbrmeroccupationsinBrazil，togetherwith
thedistributionpatternoftheworkingpopulationandthatfbrcentralandwestem
reglonswhereNikkeioverwhelminglysettle
NikkeiU-turnmigrantsareheavilyunder-representedinagricultureintermsof
fbrmeroccupations・Evenincomparisonwiththecentralandwesternreglons,Nikkei
workersinJapanwithfbrmeroccupationsinagriculturenowaccountfbronlyone‐
thirdoftheregionalaverage・ThismaybepartlyattributedtothefactthatNikkei
societymBrazilhasbeenlessandlessdependentuponthissectoroverthedecadesof
settlement・Ｏｃｃｕｐａｔｉｏｎｓｓｕｃｈａｓｐｒｏ企ssionals，technicalandsalesworkersare，by
contrast，over-representedinthesurveyresults、Ｉｔｈａｓｂｅｅｎｒｅｐｏｒｔｅｄｔｈａｔａｎ
ｅｘｐａｎｄｉｎｇｆｌｏｗｏｆＵ－ｔｕｒｎｍｉｇｒａｎｔｓｈａｓｉｎｃｌｕｄｅｄｅｖｅｎｍａｎａｇｅｒｓｏｒｍａｎａgerial
personnelinBraziLThesurvey,however,didnotnecessarilyprovethisnotiｏｎ．

(2)IncentivesOfU-turnMigration

Theirvisitingincentivesorobjectivesarevariedamongnationalities,renecting
thecurrenteconomicconditionsineachcountryandthedegreeofassimilationinto
theemigratedsocietyTable3carriessurveyresultsonthemaininducementfbr

３２
HiromiMo｢ｉ

Table20ccupationalProfilesofU-turnMigrantsinBrazil
(ｉｎｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ）

Migrants，(brmer National central＆

Occupations occupations average Western

Pro化RRiona]sandtechnicians 1０．７ ７．６’ ７．１’

AdministrativestafTandmanagers ３．６ １４８’ １８．５’

Clericalworkers １９．８

Productionandrelatedworkers,transportequipment ２４．Ｏロ 1９．９１

operatorsandlabourers ８．３

Salesworkers １８．５ 10.0, １０．５’

Serviceworkers ８．４ 10.0, '２．５４１

AgricuItural,animalhusbandryandfbrestryworkers ５．８ ２１．４， １７．４１１

Occupationsnotelsewhereclassined ２４．９１， １２．２㈹ １４．６‘’

Note:ａ:l989data
b:IncludesstudentsandIlousewives，
Source:JapanStatisticsResearclllnstitute(1993),ＡＳ”ＤｅｙＯ/・jnpal2eseB'､Qzj/jα"８，Ｗｂl･AjlngQ'ｚｄＬｍｊ"ｇ
Ｃｂ"ｄｉ"o"ｓｉ〃JUpα〃;StatisticalSurveySeriesNo､1,ｐ､9,Ａ〃【（｡ｒｉｏＥｌ$rQtjsZjcodoBm2i／1991,ｐ､263.

Ｔａｂｌｅ３ＭａｉｎＲｅａｓＯｎｆｂｒＶｉｓｉｔｉｎｇＪａｐａｎ
(ｉｎｐｅＴｃｅｎｔ）

BraziliansPeruviansArgentineansBoliviamsParaguayans
Savingmoney 5８．０ ４５．２ 3７．２ ２１．７ 3９．４

SettlepelmanentIy ２．０ ４．８ 5.3 １７．４ １８．２

Unfavourableconditionsofeconomy ２５．９ ４３．４ 44.7 ３０．４ ９．１

Source:JapanlnternationalCooperatio、Association(ＪＩＣＡ)（1992),ARepo〃ｏ〃ﾉVIhAeiWD7hi"ｇｊ〃JtJpa'l
WMBAe(ﾉﾋﾞ〃ハo'UpoSy皿'℃jjttQjcAosn)．

theirvisitbynationality・
Althoughthesamplesizeisnotlargeenoughtodrawanydefmiteconclusionsfbr
BoliviansandParaguayans,theaboveresultsseemtoillustratemanycharacteristic
aspectsofthemigrationHowfTomSouthAmericancountries・Therelativelyhigh
percentageofthosesavingamongBraziliansandpossiblyParaguayansindicatesthat
theirmovementismainlyinducedbytheexistinghugewagedifYbrentialsMigrants
fromArgentinaandprobablyfi･omBoliviaaswellaredistinguishedfiPomthosefiPom
BrazilandParaguaybyarelativelyhighpercentagementioningunftlvourable
conditionsinthehomeeconomy・Savingsandunftwourablecondiｔｉｏｎｓａｔｈｏｍｅａｒｅ
ａｌｓｏｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｆｂｒPeruvians・ＩｔｉｓｓａｉｄｔｈａｔｒｅｃｅｓｓｉｏｎｆｌｒｓｔｈｉｔＡrgentinaandthen
PeruandfinallyBraziLThefirsttwocountriesweremoreseriouslyafYlictedthan
BraziLFurthermore,NikkeiinArgentinahavemainlybeenengagedinproductionof
non-essentialgoodsandserviｃｅｓｓｕｃｈａｓＨｏｗｅｒｇｒｏｗｉｎｇｏｒｍａｋｅｔｉｎgandcleaning，
whichbecamethefirstthingstobecurtailed[JICA,1992,ｐ､l71Braziliansrecorded
theloｗｅｓｔｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｉｎｔｅｎｔｆｂｒｐｅｒｍａｎｅｎｔｓettlementlncomparison，Boliviansand
Paraguayansrevealedthemselvesashavingastroｎｇｅｒｉｎｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｅｔｔｌｅｍｅｎｔｉｎ
Ｊａｐａｎ,whichreflectstherelativeweaknessoftheiridentitywiththeirhomecountry
3３
ForeignWorkers,WorkingandLivingConditioninJapaｎ

[ＪＩＣＡ，1992,ｐp126,1271．Theemigrationflowtothesecountrieshasashorter
historyinthesecountriesthaninothers、Thefirstgenerationstillcomprisesthe
mamsegmentofU-turnmigrants・TheyareculturallytheleastdistanthomJapan
alnongNikkeiSouthAmericans・
WithregardtoNikkeidesirefbrsettlement,theJICAsurveyprovidesinteresting
results,Whileonlyl6percentofBraziliansrepliedashavingpermanentsettlement
intentionsafterhavingexperｉｅｎｃｅｄｌｉｆｂｉｎＪａｐａｎ，Peruvians，andArgentineans，
figuresmorethandoubledcomparedwithfIguresbefbrevisiting[JICA,1992,plO4]、
Ａｓｔｈｅｌａｔｔｅｒｔｗｏｄｏｎｏｔｅｘｐｅｃｔａｎｙｆａvourablechangesinthedesperateconditionsof
thehomeeconomy，theyareinducedtoentertainsettlementintentions・Although
BoliviansandParaguayanｓｏｎｔｈｅｏｎｅｈａｎｄ,andPeruviansandArgentineansonthe
other，demonstrateastrongdesiretosettlｅｉｎJapan，thedeterminantsarequite
different・ThefnctoroflesserculturaldistaｎｃｅｉｓｄｏｍｉｎａｎｔａｍｏｎｇｔｈｅｆＩｒｓｔｔｗｏ，
whereascollapseofthehomeeconomｙｓｅｅｍｓｔｏｂｅｔｈｅｍａ]orreasonfbrPeruvianand
ArgentineandecisionstoremaininJapan

2.2ＥｍｐｌｏｙｍｅｎｔｏｆＵ－ｔｕｒｎＭｉｇｒａｎｔｓｉｎＪａｐａｎ

(1)ChannelsfbrGettingeJobs

ThreeoutoffburrespondentsmtheJSRIsurveyindicatedthattheyhadrelativesm
Japan・KinshipsometimesplaysanimportantroleamongKoreansandChinesein
acceptmgmigrants・Incontrast,itisquiteseldomthatJapaneserelativesinJapanplay
anyactiveroleminvitmgNikkei・NikkeiusuallyfindjobsmJapanmregionstotally
diffbrentfromtheirparents，orgrandparents，hometown[Mori,Hiromi,1993,ｐ６]・
AccordingtotheJSRIsurvey,４４．４percentoftotalrespondentsfbundjobs
throughrecruitmentagents,fbllowedbyfblmilyorrelativesandfriendswhohave
alreadybeenworkinginJapaｎ[JSR1,1993,pl31Moreover,theJICAsurveyshowed
that629percentoftotalrespondentsmadeacontractwithrecruitmentagents
[ＪＩＣＡ，1992,1081Evenamongpersonswhoindicatedinthesurveythatthey
workedunderdirectcontractwithemployers，therearemanyNikkeiactuallyhired
byagents[JICＡ,1992,p231Theseresultsindicatetheactiveroleplayedbyagents
inrecruitingNikkeiworkers,ａｒｏｌｅｔｈａｔｈａｓｇｒｏｗｎｒａｐｉｄｌｙｗｉｔｈｔｈeexpansionofthe
U-turnmigrationtoJapan・Travelagentsinsendingcountrieswithrichexperience
haveextendedｔｈｅｉｒservicestorecruitingactivities、Ｈｕｎｄｒｅdsofnewly-born
agencies,manyofwhicharerunbyNikkeithemselves,aresaidtoparticipateinthis
newbusiness・InclosecontactwithJapanesecounterparts,theyplayacrucialrolein
recruitｍｅｎｔ・

Recruiters，whoworkalsoaslabourdispatchmgagents，allocateworkersamong
contractedemployers，securingemployersadesignatednuｍｂｅｒｏｆｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｂｙ
ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ・Moreover，ｔｈｅｙｏｆｔｅｎｐｒｅｐａｒｅｄｗｅｌｌｉｎｇｓｆｂｒｒｅcruitedworkers・Since
fbreignersencounterdifficultiesinrentingdwellmgsinJapan，accommodationcan
workasanefYbctiveinducementinkeepingrecruitedworkersundercontroLThefact
thatmanyNikkeiworkersrelyonsuchagentsfbrjobfindingaswellasarrangmg
travel，includingtheadvancementoftravelexpenses，oftenrendersNikkeitotally
dependentupontheln
Althoughtheso-calleddispatchingofunskilledworkershasbeenfbrbiddenby

3４
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

law,brokersnotonlysendthemtocontractcompaniesuponrequestofemployersbut
oftensubcontractacertainpartofproduction-linework・Theytakeaportionofthe
contractwagepaidasakickback,SomeNikkeialreadyquitewellacquaintedwith
Japanand,occasionally,gangsterorganizationsalsotakeahand
Havingbeenexposedtomalignantbrokers，someemployershavechangedtheir
policytodirectemploymentandotherstodirectrecruitment，althoughthisfbrces
themdealwithmanyrelatedissuesthemselves，ｆｒｏｍｒｅｃｒｕｉｔｉｎｇｉｎｔｈｅｓｅｎｄｉｎｇ
ｃｏｕｎtriesandlengthyimmigrationapplicationprocedurestopreparingdwellingsfbr
employees，whichbrokerswouldhaveotherwisetakencareofDirectrecruitment，
however，ｉｓｏＨｅｎｔｏｏｃｏｓｔｌｙａｎｄｂｏｔｈｅｒｓｏｍｅｆｂremployers、ＴｈｅＪＳＲＩｓｕｒｖｅｙ
ｄｏｃｕｍｅｎｔｓｔｈａｔｄｉｒｅｃｔｒｅｃｒｕｉｔｍｅｎｔｂｙｃｏｍｐａｎｙｒｅｍａｉｎｓａｔｏｎｌｙ９６ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ
[JSR1,1993,pユ３１Large-scalefirmsarealsodependentupondispatchedworkersbut
fbrotherreasons・Thesefirmsgenerallyemployfbreignworkersonamassivescale，
whichoftenexceedsthescopeoftheirrecruitingcapability・Consequentlyinmany
casestheytendtorelyondispatchedworkerssentfromagentsundercontract、
Ａｓｗａｇｅｒａｔｅｓａｎｄｗｏｒｋｈｏｕｒｓａｒｅｏｆｕｔｍｏｓｔconcernfbremigrants，recruiters
fbcusontheseparticulａｒｉｓｓｕｅｓａｔｔｈｅｔｉｍｅｏｆｒｅｃｒｕｉｔｍｅｎｔ．Ｏtherinfbrmationgwen
toNikkeiinaｄｖａｎｃｅｉｓｑｕｉｔｅｌｉｍｉｔｅｄＤｕｅｔｏｉｎｓｕｆficientinfbrmationbeingoffbred，
mostNikkeifindtheiractualworkingconditionsinJapanmoreorlessunrelatedto
thoseexpectedinadvance・ＩｎｔｈｅＪＩＣＡｓｕｒｖｅｙｏｎｌｙ３０､Opercentansweredthat
conditionstheyenjoyedwereasexpectedHowever,thesurveyalsoshowedthatonly
３．１ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｃｏｍｐｌａｉｎｅｄｏｆｂｅｉｎｇｕｎａｂｌｅｔｏｓｔａｎｄｃｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎｓａｎｄ６１ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｈad
experiencedorintendedchangingjobs[JICA,1992,pllOlTheseresultsindicate
that，despitedissatisfactioninexistingworkingconditions，Ｎｉｋｋｅｉｔｅｎｄｓｏｍｅｈｏｗｔｏ
ｐｕｔｕｐｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｍ,whichmaybeascribedtotheirsubordinationtoagentsandpartly
tounfnmiliaritywiththestateofaflblirsinJapan．However，thisdissatisfactionat
thesametiｍｅ,seemstofbsteramongthemawidespreadlatentmotivefbrchanging
jobs,althoughtheymovelessfiPequentlythanclandestineworkers．

(2)NikkeiWorkers，SectoralandOccupationalProfnes

AccordmgtotheJICAsurvey，７９．７percentofNikkeiworkinfactories，whereas
constructionsitesandshoｐｓｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｏｎｌｙ５､３ａｎｄＯ７ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｅｍｐｌｏｙｍｅｎｔ，
respectively[JICA，1992,pll3]、Nikkeiaredistinguishablefromothersintheir
substantiallyhigherratioofcraftsmenandproductionprocesｓｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｍｔｈｅ
ｍａｎｕｆｎｃｔｕｒｉｎｇｉｎｄｕｓtry・Thegeographicaldistributionpatternshowsanotable
concentrationinreg1onswheremanuflcturing，particularlyautomobileorelectrical
applianceassemblyplants,arelocated,associatedwithnumberlessaffiliatedfactories
However，asNikkeiworkｉｎｇｉｎＪａｐａｎｉｎｃｒｅａｓｅｉｎｎｕｍｂｅｒ，ｔｈｅｗｏｒｋｔｈｅｙｅｎｇａｇｅｉｎ
ｂｅｇｉｎｓｔｏｓｐｉllover,fbrexample,toserviceprovidingjobssuchascaddiesingolf
courses,salesclerksandprivatesittersattendingpatients[Kanagawa,1992,ｐ2521
Inspiteofrelevantskillsandqualificationsorprevlousqualifiedworkintheir
homecountries,NikkeimainlyengageinunskilledjobsinJapan[JICA,1992,ｐp２９，
３０１AstheJICAsurveydocumentsintheOccupationalbreakdownofNikkeiworkers，
unskilledjobsaccountfbrmorethanhalffbllowedbysemi-skilledworkersandofIIce
workers・Thosepersonswhoworkasprofbssioｎａｌｔｅｃｈｎｉｃｉａｎｓａｒｅｌｉｍｉｔｅｄｔｏ２０ｐｅr
cent・Itisratherunrealistictoexpectthattheycanmasterskillsorknowledｇｅａｔ
3５
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditioninJapaｎ

workwhichwillbehelptotheminfiltureemploymentbackhome[JSR1,1993,ｐ２１]、

2.3NikkeiWorkingConditions

(1)WOrkhours

Ｔｈｅｌ９９０ｉｍｍｉｇｒａｔｉｏｎｐｏｌｉｃｙｒｅｆｂｒｍｈａｓｐａｖｅｄｔｈｅｗａｙｆｂｒｍａｓｓｉｖｅＮｉｋｋｅｉ
employmentinlargebusinessenterprisesEmploymenttheredoesnotnecessarily
promiseattractiveemploymentconditionsbecauseNikkeiusuallysharejobsasnon‐
regularnativeemployeessuchastemporalyorpart-timeworkeｒｓ[Kanagawa,1992,
p､211．AsurveycarriedoutbytheMinistryofJusticeinNovemberl989,whenthe
Japaneseeconomywasabouttoreachthefinalstageofexpansiｏｎ,documentedthat
５１．６percentofNikkeiworkedmorethantｅｎｈｏｕｒｓａｄａｙ［ＭＯＪ，1990,ｐ73]・The
JSRIsurveyconductedinNovember-Decemberl992,whentheeconomyhadalready
enteredthedownturnphase，gaveshorterlabourhours・Theratioofworkerswith
morethantenhourworkdayswas378percent[JSR1,1993,ｐ､17]・Japan，seconomy
expemencedaturnroundinthebusinesscycleinmid-199LGrowingemploymentwas
replacedbytheshrinkinglabourneedsAccordingtotheMonthlyLabourSurveyby
theMinistryofLabour,totalmonthlyhoursworkedintheautoInobileindustrywere
reducedby８．５ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｄｕｒｉｎｇ３ｙｅａｒｓｓｉｎｃｅl989Non-scheduledhoursworked
recordedastrikmgdecreasebymorethan35percentoverthecorrespondingyears、
NikkeiworkerscouldnotbutbeaffbctedbysuchadramaticchangeinJapan'slabour
market、
ＴｈｅＪＳＲＩｓｕｒｖｅｙｓｈｏｗｓｔｈａｔ６９８ｐｅｒｃｅntoftotalrespondentsworkovertimeon
workdays・Theaverａｇｅｌｅｎｇｔｈｏｆｏｖｅｒｔｉｍｅｉｓ２､３hours，ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎｔｗｉｃｅａｓ
ｍｕｃｈａｓｔｈeaverageovertimerecordedintheautomobileindustry、About70per
centofNikkeiworkersansweredtohaveexperiencedworkduringholidays[JSR1,
1993,ｐｐ､17,18}．Longerworkdays,includingworkonholidays,however,ｉｓｎｏｔ
ｎecessarilyunwelcometoNikkei，whorathercomplainaboutthescarcityofwork、
Theysometimeschangejobsfbrlongerworkhoursandholidaywork・Relative
tolerancetothelongerworkhoursamongNikkeicanbeattributedtotheirstrong
orientationtoearningmoney、Ｔｏｍａｋｅｔｈｅｍａｘｉｍｕｍｕｓｅｏｆｔｈｅｉｒｌｉmitedperiodof
staytorepaytraveldebtsandrealizetheiroriginalobjectives,Nikkeiprefbrhigh
incomejobswithlongworkhourstodecentincomejobswithshortworkhours
However,jobsbeingpromisedwithlargeamountsofsavingsorremittancesina
relativelyshortperiodoftimehavebeｃｏｍｅａｍｙthFurthermore，manycompanies
werefbrcedtoreducelabourcostsRetrenchmenthaspushedoutNikkeiatthefirst
stagesofemploymentadjustment,becausetheyaremostexpensiveamongunskilled
fbreignworkerS

(2)Earnings

Asasurveyconductedinl989-1990bytheTokyoMetropolitanlnstituteofLabour
(theTMILsurvey)showed,fbreignworkersemployedinsmall-sizefIrmsintheTokyo
metropolitaｎａｒｅａｗｅｒｅｐａｉｄａｌｉｔｔｌｅｈｉｇｈｅｒｏｒａｌmostatacomparableratewith
nationalpart-timeworkers［TＭＩＬ，1991,ｐ､189lAnothersurveycarriedoutbythe
People，sFinanceCorporationResearchlnstitute（thePFCRIsurvey）ｉｎｌ９９１ｈａｓ
3６
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

evidencedasimilarfact・

AsfbrNikkei，theJICAsurveyglvesanaveragehourlywageratefbrmaleday‐
workersofY1,332andY924fbrfbmaleworkers・Nightworkgivesacorresponding
figuresofyl,622ａｎｄＹ1,250ｗｉｔｈｏｖｅｒｔｉｍｅｗｏｒｋａｔＹ１,637ａｎｄＹ1,162,respectively
[JICA,1992,pl20]．Monthlyearningsbefbretaxandsocialsecuritypaymentsare
estimatedat￥336,600ｆｂｒｍｅｎａｎｄ￥204,400fbrwomenworkers[JICA,1992,pl20]、
ＴｈｅＰＦＣＲＩｓｕｒｖｅｙｇ１ｖｅｓａｎｈｏｕｒｌｙａｖeragewageratepaidtoBraziliansunderdirect
employmentandfbrdispatchedworkersofY1,l98andY1,621,respectively[Inagami，
eta1.,1992,ｐ209]・
SincethewagesystemisoftendifYbrentbetweennationalandNikkeiworkers,ｔｈｅ
ａｂｏｖｅｗａｇｅｇａｐｓｄｏｎｏｔａｌｗａｙｓｍａｋｅＮｉｋｋｅｉｃｏｍｅｏｕｔａｔｔｈｅｔｏｐｂｅｃａｕｓｅ，while
seasonalbonusesconstituteastructuralpartofwagepaymentfbrnationals，fbreign
workersarelesslikelytobenefitfromthemlfactuallypaid，theamountisusually
marginaLTheyare，moreoftenthannot,notcoveredbyvariousfrmgebenefitsand
othergratuitieSAlthoughduetotheirlegitimacyNikkeiarecomparativelycostlier
thanclandestineworkersorfbreignstudents,theyarestilllesscostlythannationals
intermsoftotallabourcosts．

AsthePFCRIsurveydemonstrates，dispatchedworkerswereabout35percent
morehighlypaidthandirectlyemployedNikkei［Inagami，ｅｔａ1.,1992,p209l，
However,dispatchedworkersfInallyreceivｅａｎａｌｍｏｓｔｃｏｍｐａｒａｂｌｅａｍｏｕｎｔｉｎｗａｇes
withdirectlyemployedones,whichisfarsmallerthantheoriginalpaymentarranged
bycontractfirms・Becauseofagents，interposition,actualemploymentcostsofNikkei
workersbecomegreaterthantheabovesurveyresultshows，bytheamountoftheir
margins、Ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅｉｔｏｆｔｅｎｏｃｃｕｒｓｔｈａｔnotonlytaxesandsocialsecurity
deductions，butdispatcher,ｓmarginsaresubtractedbefbrefinaｌｐａｙｍｅｎｔ・These
uncleardeductions，ｗｈｉｃｈｓｏｍｅｔｉｍｅｓｉｎｃｌｕｄｅａｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒａｂｌｅａｍｏｕｎｔｏｆｍａｒｇｍｓ，
causedissatisfblctionamongNikkei．

(3)DiscriminationatWOrk

Whenfbreignworkersmaintamtheirworkandlifbstylemhostcountries，they
moreorlessexposethemselvesｔｏｖａｒｉｏｕｓｋｉｎｄｓｏｆｈａｒａｓｓｍｅｎｔｂｙｅｍployersand
nationalworkers・Nikkeiworkersarenotanexception・ＯｎｅｏｕｔｏｆｆｂｕｒＮｉｋｋｅｉｉｎｔｈｅ
ＪＳＲＩｓｕｒveyhasexperiencedsomesortofharassmentbyJapanesepSRI，1993,
ｐ,221TheJICAsurveyoffiersmoredetailedinfbrmationonfbrmsofdiscriminatory
treatment・Amongpersonswithsuchexperience，morethanhalfcomplainofbeing
fbrcedtodoharderworkthanJapanesecolleagues，fbllowedbylessbonusreceived
thanJapanese，lowerwagesthanJapanesｅａｎｄｕｎｆｔｌｖｏｕｒａｂｌｅｈｏｕｓｉｎｇconditions
[JICA,1992,pll91
Nikkeigenerallyenjoymorefavourableworkingconditionsthan,fbrinstance，
clandestineworkers・However,workingconditionsareoftendistinctevenamongthe
NikkeithemselvesduetopeculiarfactorsinherentinJapaneseancestry．ＩｎＰｅｒｕ，
whereJapaneseemigrationhasthelongesthistoryinSouthAmerica,ｔｈｅｒｅａｒｅｑｕｉｔｅ
ａｆｂｗＪａｐａｎｅｓｅＰｅｒｕｖｉａｎｓｗｈｏｌｏｓｔｔｈｅｉｒｄｏｃｕｍｅｎｔｓｐｒｏｖｉｎｇＪａｐａｎｅｓｅａｎｃｅｓｔｒｙ、
FamilyregisterscertifyingJapaneseancestryhadsometimesbeenatransactedin
themarket・EvenmedicaloperationswhichenablｅｏｎｅｔｏｐｒｅｔｅｎｄｔｏｂｅａＮｉｋｋｅｉａｒｅ
ｓａｉdtohaveacquiredacertainpopularityamongpeopleintendmgtoworkmJapan．
３７
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditioninJapan

DuetothepossiblemclusionoffakeNikkei,thegovernmentauthoritiesbecameｍｏｒｅ
ｗａｒｙｏｆＰｅｒｕｖｉａｎｓｔｈａｎｏｆｏｔｈｅｒnationalitiesingivingpermissioｎｆｂｒｃｈａｎｇｅｏｆ
ｓｔａｔｕｓｏｒｅｘｔｅｎｓｉｏｎｏｆｐｅｒｉｏｄｏｆｓｔａｙ・Ｉｎｏｒｄｅｒｔｏａｖｏｉｄｔｒｏｕｂｌｅｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏthe
immigrationapplication，Ｐｅｒｕｖｉａｎｓａｒｅｍｏｒｅｌｉｋｅｌｙｔｏｂｅｓｈｕｎｎｅｄｂｙｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｒｓ・
DiversetreatmentsinimmigrationpracticereplacedPeruvianswithBraziliansin
manyfirms．

3．NikkeiLivingConditions

3･lSomeAspectsofNikkeiLifeineJapan

(1)Accommodation

FindingaplacetoliveisofcrucialimportancefbrmigrantworkersinJapanltis
wellknownthatextremelyhighhousingcostsareprevalentinurbanareaswhere
mostmigrantsfindjobslnadditiontothehighhousingcosts,owners,orlocalreal
estateagentsastheirproxy，usuallyrequireanationalcounterparttostandas
securityfbrrentingadwelling・Theyoffenclosethedoortotallytofbreigntenants・
AccordingtoasurveycarriedoutbytheTokyoMetropolitanOfYice,ｏｎｌｙｌｌｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ
ｏｆｏｗｎｅｒｓａｔｔａｃｈｎｏｃonditionstofbreigntenants［Ｍin，1994,ppl75，176]・These
restrictivepracticesleadfbreignnew-comerstoshareaccommodationindwellings
wheretheirffiendsorpredecessorshavealreadysettledortothosemadeavailableby
recruitersoremployers・Ｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｅｘｃｅｐｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｓｍａｌｌｎｕｍｂerofqualified
fbreigners，itdoesnotmakeasubstantialdifYbrencewhethertenantsarelegalor
illegalworkers・
Ｏｎｌｙ４３ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆＮｉｋｋｅｉｆｂｕｎｄａｄｗｅllingthrougharealestateagency・They
livemostlyinhousesorflatsprovidedbyemployersorbyrecruitingagents[JSR1,
1993,ｐ､251Consequently,theoverwhelmingpartofNikkeiworkerstakealeaseon
accommodationwithacompany,whichｍａｙincludeadispatchingcompany[JICA，
1992,ｐ､132lSinceorganizedrecruitmenteithｅｒｂｙａｇｅｎｔｓｏｒｂｙｅｍｐｌｏｙｉｎｇ
ｃｏｍｐａｎｉｅｓａｒｅｐｒｅｖａｌｅｎｔａｍｏｎｇＮｉｋｋｅｉ，ｔｈｅｙａｒｅｍｏｒｅｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔｕｐｏｎ
ａｃｃｏｍｍodationprovidedbytheseorganizationsthananyothercategoryoffbreign
workers
ThesetwosurveysreveaｌａｌｍｏstidenticalresultsintermsofNikkeiresidential
profile,２０percentliveinacompanydormitory,６０percentinarentedapartmentor
condominiumandl3-14percentinadetachedhouse[ＪＩＣＡ,1992,ｐ132,ＪＳＲ1,1993,
ｐ25]・AccommodationisusuallyfUrnisheｄｗｉｔｈｏｎｅｏｒｔｗｏｂｅｄｒｏｏｍｓａｎｄａｐｒｉｖａte
kitchｅｎ，bathroomandtoilet・Ｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎ４０ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆＮｉｋｋｅｉｌｉｖｅｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｉｒｏｗｎ
ｍｍｉｌｙ,whereａｓ３２．７percentshareaccommodationwithNikkeico-workersand16.6
ｐｅｒcentwithnon-Japanesefriends・Ａｍｏｎｇｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｏｌｉｖｅｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｉｒｆｎｍｉly，the
averagenumberofresidentswhoshareadwellingareabout４．５[JICＡ,1992,ｐ､251．
Nikkeifamiliesaresometimesobliｇｅｄｔｏｓｈａｒｅｄｗｅｌｌｉｎｇｓｗｉｔｈｏｔｈｅｒｃo-workers・
Dissatisfnctionwithaccommodationmayinducethemtochangejobs、
Asfbrmonthlyrent，ｔｈｅJSRIsurveyshowedatypicaldistributionpattemwith
twopeaksunderY20,000ａｎｄｙ50,000-60,000［JSR1,1993,ｐ28]、Sincethesurvey

3８
ＨｉｒｏｍｉＭｏｒｉ

methoddidnotspecifyeitherhouseholdorper-capitarent,theｓｅｔｗｏｐｅａｋｓ
ｃｏｒｒｅｓｐｏｎｄｔｏｔｈｅａｖｅｒａｇｅｈｏｕｓｅｈｏｌｄａｎｄｐｅｒ－ｃａｐｉｔａｒｅｎｔ、Theinterviews
implementedalongwｉｔｈｔｈｅＪＳＲＩｓｕｒｖｅｙｄｏｃｕｍｅｎｔｔｈａｔｅｍployerschargeNikkei
tenantsY15,OOOperpersonasmonthlyrent，ｗｈｉｌｅａＭｉｎｉｓｔｒｙｏｆＪｕｓｔｉｃｅｓｕrvey
carriedoutinl989givesY5,000-10,000［ＭＯＪ，1990,ｐ､701Supposingthissurvey
coversnearlｙｔｈｅｓａｍｅｒｅｇｉｏｎｓａｓｔｈｅＪＳＲＩｓｕｒｖｅｙwithdiffbrentperiodoftime，
increasingrentonhousingduetothemassivesettlementofNikkeiinthesurveyed
reglonmayaccountfbrthisdiscrepancy．

(2)NikkeiProficiencyinJapanese

Unlessthemigrantpopulationislaｒｇｅｅｎｏｕｇｈｔｏｆｂｒｍｉｔｓｏｗｎｅｔｈｎｉｃsociety，
proficiencyintheindigenouslanguageisofcrucialimportancefbrfbreignerstoadapt
tothecultureandｃｕｓｔｏｍｓｏｆｔｈｅｈｏｓｔｃｏｕｎｔｒｙ・ＮｉｋｋｅｉｗｏｒｋｉｎｇｉｎＪａｐａｎａｒｅｎｏｔ
ａｌｗａｙｓｐｒｏｆｉｃｉｅｎｔｉｎＪａｐａｎｅｓｅ・ＡｓｕｒｖｅｙｃｏｎｄｕｃｔｅｄｂｙｔｈｅＰeople，sFinance
CorporationResearchlnstitute（ｔｈｅＰＦＣＲＩｓｕｒｖｅｙ）ｄｏｃｕｍｅｎｔｓｔｈａｔａｍｏｎｇｎｅｗ－
ｃｏｍｅｒｓＰakistanisandBangladeshisaremostproficient・Brazilianstogetherwith
Chinesestandinthemiddleintermsofproficiency[Inagami,ｅｔａＬ,1992,p210l
ProficiencyinJapanesealsodifYbrsremarkablyamongNikkei・TheJICAsurvey
highlightsmarkeddifYbrencesinthelinguisticabilityinJapanesebynationality、
Ｗｈｉｌｅｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎ７０ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆＰａｒａｇｕayansandBolivianscouldspeakJapanese
fluently，correspondingfiguresfbrArgentineansandBrazilianswereabout30per
cent､Peruviansdemonstratedanexceptionallysmallpercentage,５．７ｐｅｒcent・Ｎｉｋｋｅｉ
ｆＴｏｍｔｈｅｆｏｒｍｅｒｔｗｏｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓａｌｓｏｆａｒｅｘｃｅｅｄｅｄｏｔｈｅｒｓｍｒｅａｄｉｎｇ，oral
comprehensionandwritingabilitiesIJICA,1992,ｐｐ､14,151
TheexistingobviouslydifYbrentlevelsofproficiencyamongNikkeirenecttheir
diffbrenthistoricalbackgroundsofemigrationaswellasdiverseconditionsintheir
homecountries・ThehistoryofJapaneseemigrationtoBoliviaandParaguayisshort
whencomparedwithothermainrecipientcountriesinSouthAmerica，Moreover，in
thesetwocountriesJapaneseemigrantsfbrmedgeographicallyconcentratedethnic
colonies[JICA,1992,ｐ,13１Japaneseisstillwidelyusedintheirdailylivesamong
peopleofsecondgenerationmigrantsIncontrast，amongJapanesePeruvians,who
haveacentenaryhistoryofemigration,Japaneseisusedlittle
IntheearlierstagesofU-turnmigrationfromBrazil，Ｎｉｋｋｅｉｏｆｔｈｅｓｅｃｏｎｄ
ｇｅｎｅｒａｔｉｏｎｃｏｍprisedtｈｅｍａｉｎｃｏｍｐｏｎｅｎｔ・ＳｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｙｗｅｒｅｂｒｏｕｇｈｔｕｐｂｙｆＩｒｓｔ
ｇenerationparentsusuallyspeakingJapaneseathome，ｔｈｅｙｗｅｒｅｔｏｓｏｍｅｅｘｔｅｎｔ
ａｃｃｕｓｔｏｍｅｄtoJapanese・AstheexpansionindimensionsofU-turnmigrationbrought
inayoungergenerationofNikkeiBrazilians，ｏｎｅｃａｎｓａｆｂｌｙａｓｓｕｍｅｔｈａｔｔｈｅｌａｔｅｒ
ａｒrivalswerelessproficient・
Obtaininginfbrmationnotonlyaboｕｔｄａｉｌｙｌｉｆｂｂｕｔａｌｓｏｏｎｔｈｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔeconomic
andpoliticalsituationinthehostａｎｄｈｏｍｅｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓｉｓｏｆｎｏｔａｂｌｅｉｍｐortancefbr
NikkeiU-turnmigrants，Friendsandclosehabitationprovidesinfbrmationon
variouspleasuresandconveｎｉｅｎｃｅｓｉｎｄａｉｌｙｌｉｆｂｓｕｃｈａｓｎａｔｉｏｎalfbodsandmusic
cassettesonwhicｈａＵｓｅｅｍｋｅｅｎ,AssociationatBrazilianrestauraｎｔｓａｎｄｔｅａ－ｒｏｏｍｓ
ａｌｓｏｗｏｒｋｓａｓａｎｅｆfbctiveinfbrmationsourceonconcernssuchasworkingconditions，
includingwageratespaidandemergencyassistance・However，fbrinfbrmatｉｏｎｏｆａ
ｍｕｃｈｗｉｄｅｒｄｉｍｅｎｓｉｏｎｓｕｃｈａｓthecurrenteconomicandpoliticalsituationofJapan

3９
Foreig11Workers,WorkingandLWingCondiMoninJapan

aswellastheirhomecountries，ｔｈｅｙｃａｎｏｎｌｙｒｅｌｙｏｎｔｈｅｍａｓｓｍｅｄｉａ・Accordingto
theJSRIsurvey，７１．１ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆＢｒａｚｉｌｉａｎｓｏｂｔａｉｎｎｅｗsaboutJapanthrough
televisionPortuguesenewspaperspopularamongNikkeiBraziliansworkasanews
sourcefbr３９．３ｐｅｒcent,fbllowedbyfiiends[JSR1,1993,ｐ､31]・Ａｓｆｂｒｔｈｅｍｅａｎｓｔｏ
ｏｂｔａｉｎｃｕｒｒｅｎｔｎｅwsaboutBrazil，ｔｈｅｙｏｖｅｒｗｈｅｌｍｉｎｇｌｙｄｅｐｅｎｄｏｎＰｏｒｔuguese
newspapers，fbllowedbyfriendsandtelevisionSeveralPortuguesenewspapersare
publishedinJapan，subscribedtomainlybyNikkei，ＳｉｎｃｅＪａｐａｎ,smediaseldom
coversnewsaboutBraziLNikkeiBraziliansareobligedtoobtaininfbrmation
throughPortuguesenewspapers・ThereadershipofJapanesenewspapersisquite
negligible・ＩｎｓｕｆｆｉｃｉｅｎｔｌｉｔｅｒａｃｙｉｎＪａｐａｎｅｓｅｒｅｎｄｅｒｓＮｉｋｋｅｉａｃｃｅｓｓｔｏｃｕｒｒｅｎｔ
ｉｎfbrmationquitelimited．

(3)Leisuretime

TheJSRIsurveylistsseveralpossibilitiesfbrhowNikkeispendtheirｄａｙｏｆｆ：
RespondentswererequestedtomarkｔｈｅｔｏｐｔｗｏＧｏｉｎｇｓｈｏｐｐｉｎｇａｎｄｄｏｉｎｇhouse
workarethetwomaJoractivitｉｅｓｏｎｄａｙｓｏｆＺＡｍｏｎｇｗｏｍｅｎｔｈｅｅｘｔｅｎtofthesetwo
pursuitsreaches60-70percent､Thelongworkhours,includingovertime,whichused
tobeprevalentaroundtheperiodwhenthesesurveyswereconducted,confinetheir
useofdaysofTexclusivelytonecessaryhouseholdaffairsApartfTomthem,Nikkei
BraziliansspendtheirleisuretimeingoingoutwithfiPiendsanddiningout,fbllowed
bybeingidle［JSR1,1993,ｐ31]、However,theyseldomassociatewithJapanese
outsidetheirworkBeingisolatedfromneighbouringJapanesesociety,Nikkeikeep
companychieflyamongthemselves・
Ｄｉｎｉｎｇｏｕｔｉｓｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｆｂｗａｍｕｓｉｎｇｗaysofspendingtheirsparetime、The
surveyprovidedaninterestingdichotomy､Whereａｓ４６．４ｐｅrcentoftotalrespondents
answeredthattheyseldomvisitedBrazilianrestaurantsanddiscos，３８．３percent
respondedseveraltimesaｗｅｅｋ[JSR1,1993,ｐ､221Marriedworkersofmiddle-age
accompaniedbyfamiliesontheonehand，ａｎｄｙｏｕｎｇｓｍｇｌｅｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒ，
accountfbrthis・

ＴｈｅｓｕｒｖｅｙｒｅｓｕltshighlighttwoheterogeneoussubgroupsofNikkei，revealing
difYbrentbehaviourintermsofspendingtimeoHBrazilianworkersaccompaniedby
familiesormarriedworkerswholefttheirflElmilybackhomeinBrazilgenerallyenjoy
diningoutquiteoftenandspendtheirleisuretimevisitinghiendｓ（mostlynon-
Japanese）ｏｒｓｉｍｐｌｙｋｉｌｌｔｉｍｅｂｙｂｅｉｎｇｉｄｌｅ・Periodicaldispatchofremittancesor
savingfbrsomedistinctobjectivesfbrcesonthemafiugallifb・Meanwhile,ｔｈｅＪＳＲＩ
ｓｕｒｖｅｙｄｏｃｕｍｅｎｔｓａｎｏｔｈｅｒｇｒｏｕｐｏｆＮｉｋｋｅｉｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｗｈｏｄｅｍｏｎｓｔｒatedatotally
difYerentwayofspenｄｉｎｇｔｉｍｅｏ征Ａｍｏｎｇｙｏｕｎｇｓｉｎｇｌｅｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｔｈｅｒｅａｒｅｑｕｉｔｅａｆbw
whoarenotnecessalilyremittanceorientedTheyfi･equentlyvisitrestaurants，tea-
roomsanddiscoswithfiPiendsandenjoytheconsumerlifbinJapan．

(4)DifficultiesmLifeandCounseUing

Nikkeiworkersoftenfacevarioussortsofproblemsordiflicultiesintheirdailylifb
coveringawiderangeofsubjectsThelargestproblemamongthemishomesickness，
fbllowedbyJapaneselanguage［JSR1,1993,ｐ32]・Besidethese，separationfrom
fnmily，puzzledbyJapan,sdifYbrentcustomsandnopossibilityofimprovingtheir

４０
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

abilitiesrecordedarelativelyhighscore［ＪＩＣＡ，1992,pl291WhiletheJapanese
languageandJapan，sdifYbrentcustomsaremoreorlessubiquitousamongNikkei，
homesicknessandseparationfi･omfamilyaretroublingissuesinherentinmigrants
unaccolnpaniedbyfamily・YoungqualifiedNikkeiwithhigheducationalbackgrounds
showintensedissatisfactionwithnopossibilityofimprovingtheirabilities・
Superiorsinthecompany，Japaneseco-workersandrecruiterｓｓｅｅｍｎｏｔｔｏｂｅ
ｈｅｌｐｆＵｌａｓａｄｖｉｓｏｒｓｉncopingwiththeseproblemsraisedbyNikkeiworkers・Ｔｈｅｙ
ｍｏｓｔｌｙｃｏｎｓｕｌｔｗｉｔｈｆａｍｉｌｙａｎｄｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｓ，Brazilianco-workers，friendsand
acquaintancesontheseissues｛ＪＳＲ1,1993,ｐ､３３１０fTicialinstitutionssuchas
goverｎｍｅｎｔｏｆｆｉｃｅｓａｎｄｔｈｅＢｒａｚｉｌｉａｎＣｏｎｓｕｌａｔｅｄｏｎｏｔｗｏｒｋｅｆＴｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙｆｂｒ
consultation、SinceNGOsarestilllittledevelopｅｄｉｎＪａｐａｎ，NikkeiBrazilianscan
seldomcoｎｓｕｌｔｖｏｌｕｎｔｅｅｒａｉｄＴｈｅｌａｃｋｏｆｏｆＹＩｃｉａｌａｓｗｅｌｌａｓｉｎｆｂｒｍａｌｃｏｎｓｕｌｔｉｎｇ
channelscompelNikkeiworkerstotackletheproblemsamongthemselves．

(5)EthnicOrNationalldentityandlntegration

AboutoneoutofthreeNikkeistatedthattheyadaptedquicklytolifbinJapan，
22.3percentadaptedbutrequiredacertaintime・Ｏｎｌｙ３．７percentofrespondents
fbunddifficultyinadjustingtolifieinJapan[JICA,1992,pl221However,Nikkei，
especiallydescendantswhohadgroｗｎｕｐｍａｔｏｔａｌｌｙｄｉｆＹｂrentculturalbackground，
sometimescomeacrossunexpectedeｍｂａｒｒａｓｓｍｅｎｔｉｎＪａｐａｎｃａｕｓｅｄｂｙｖａｒｉｏｕｓ
ｍｉｓｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｓｂａｓｅｄｏｎｔｈｅｉｒｐｈｙｓｉｃａｌｒｅｓｅｍｂｌａｎｃｅｏｎｔｈｅｏｎｅｈａｎｄ，ａｎｄ
cultural,mentalandotherdiffbrencesontheother・
VariousunexpectedreactionbynationalsandunfamiliarexperiencｅｓｉｎＪａｐａｎ
ｍａｋｅｔｈｅｍａｗａｒｅｔｈａｔｔｈｅｙarefbreigners，ｓｉｍｉｌａｒｔｏｔｈｅｒｅｇａｒｄｃａｓｔｕｐｏｎｔｈｅｍin
theirhomecountriesasnon-nationalsThelong-establishedidentityofNikkeim
theirhomecountryrestrictstheiradaptationinthehostcountry、NikkeiinJapan
oftendeflecttheirdailydiscontentwithJapanesefbodbypreparingtraditional
nationaldishesatpartiesathome・Ethnicmusictapesandvideosarewidelyutilized
toalleviatehomesicknessandfbelingsofisolationinthehostcountry・
EthnicidentityamongNikkeiconsiderablydiffbrsbynationality、Whilethose
PeruviansandBrazilia､ｓｗｈｏｆｂｅｌｔｈｅｍｓｅｌｖｅｓｔｏｂｅJapanesebothbefbreaswellas
afteｒｃｏｍｉｎｇｔｏＪａｐａｎａｒｅｌｉｍｉｔｅｄｔｏｏｎｌｙ９．７ａｎｄｌ２５ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ,amongBoliviansand
Paraguayanstheseflguresreach3０．４ａｎｄ４８５ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ，respectively､Thefbelingof
identitytowardstheｉｒｈｏｍｅｃｏｕｎｔｒｙｉｓｓｔｒｏｎｇｅｓｔａｍｏｎｇＢrazilians，fbllowedby
Bolivians、Interestingly，ｉｎｓｐｉｔｅｏｆｔｈｅｌｏｎｇｅｒｈｉｓｔｏｒｙｏｆｉｍｍigration，ａｆｂｅｌｉｎｇｏｆ
ｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｙｔｏｗａｒｄｓｔｈｅｉｒｈｏｍｅｃｏｕｎｔｒｙｉｓｎｏｔｓｏｓｔｒｏｎｇａｍｏｎｇＰeruviansand
Argentineans[JICA,1992,ｐ1271．Themoresevereeconomicsituationsinthelatter
twocountriesseemtoｋｅｅｐｔｈｅｍｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃａｌｌｙ，ｂｕtalsomentallydistant
fi･omtheirhomecountries．

３．２１ｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｏｆＵ－ＩｍｍＭｉｇｒａｔｉｏｎｏｎＨｏｍｅＣｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓ

(1)RemittanceanditsFutureUse

ｌｔｉｓｅｓｔｉｍａｔｅｄｔｈａｔａｎｎｕａｌｒｅｍｉｔｔａｎｃｅｓｂｙＮｉｋｋｅｉＢｒａｚｉｌｉａｎｓａｍｏｕｎｔｔo2billion
USdollars，ｗｈｉｃｈｃｏｒｒｅｓｐｏｎｄｓｔｏｔｗｉｃｅｔｈｅａｍｏｕｎｔｏｆＢｒａｚｉｌ，ｓｃｏｆＹｅｅｅｘｐｏｒｔｓ．

４１
Fo｢eignWorkers,WorkingandLivingConditioninJapaｎ

AccordingtotheJSRIsurvey,３３．２percentofBrazilianssaveY100,000-200,OOOper
month,ｆｂｌｌｏｗｅｄｂｙ２７９ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｗｉｔｈＹ５0,000-100,000［JSR1,1993,ｐ､14]、The
estimatedaveragemonthlysavingsofNikkeiworkersisY104,000．However，the
savingratiodiffbrsdependmgonwhetheraworkercamealoneｏｒwasaccompanied
byfamilymembers、Ｗｈｉｌｅａｍｏｎｇｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｏｗｅｒｅｕｎａｃｃｏｍｐaniedtheaverage
monthlysavmgisY116,000,ｔｈａｔoftheaccompaniedcounterpartsis￥99,000.Taking
intoaccountyoungsingleNikkeiworkers，consumerbehaviour,thesavingpropensity
ofthosemarriｅｄｗｈｏｌｅｆｔｆａｍｉｌｉｅｓｉｎｔｈehomecountrieswouldbemuchhigherthan
thesurveyresultdemonstrates，IncaseswhereNikkeiareaccompaniedbyftlmily，
thehouseholdismorelikelytohavetwoormoreworkingmembers・Notwithstanding，
thecomparativelysmalleramountoｆｓａｖｉｎｇｓｔｈａｎｆｂｒｓｉｎｇｌｅｓｓｅｅｍｓｔｏｒesultfrom
thegreaterｌｉｖｉｎｇｅｘｐｅｎｓｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｏｎｅｈａｎｄ，ａｎｄｓｍａｌｌｅｒｉｎｃｅｎｔｉｖｅｓｆｂｒｓｅｎｄｉｎｇ
remittancesontheother、

AccordingtoasurveyimplementediｎＮｏｖｅｍｂｅｒｌ９８９ｂｙｔｈｅＭｉｎｉｓｔｌｙｏｆＪｕstice
ontheaggregateamountofremittancesbyNikkeiworkinginJapan，ｏｍｙ４．３per
centoftotalrespondentssentmorethanlmillionyenduringtheirstayand880per
centsentlessthanY500,000,including６３．９percentwithnoremittanceatallＩＭＯＪ，
1990,ｐ､731Thesefiguresindicatethatactualremittancesarenotaslargeas
generallyacceptedinspiteofthemanyvisualsuccessstories、
ＷｉｔｈｒｅｇａｒｄｔｏｔｈｅｆＵｔｕｒｅｕｓｅｏｆｅａｒｎings，ｍｏｒｅthanhalfoftheBraziliansand
PeruｖｉａｎｓｉｎｔｈｅＪＩＣＡｓｕｒｖｅｙｐｏｉｎｔｅｄｔｏｉnvestmentafterreturn・Ａｌthoughamong
otherNikkeithecorrespondingfiguresareslightlyless,thisconstitutestheprimary
objectiveofsavingamongNikkeiworkers・Governments，effbrtstochannel
remittancesintoproductiveinvestments，however，havebeenunsuccessfmdue
largelytｏｔｈｅｌａｃｋｏｆｖｉａｂｌｅｍｖｅｓｔｍｅｎｔｏｐｐortunitiesinmostemigrationcountries
[Arnold,1992,ｐ210]・Moneyusesuchassendingportionstｏｆａｍｉｌｙｂａｃｋｈｏｍｅａｎｄ
ｂｕｙｉｎｇａｈｏｍｅｓcoredhigh［ＪＩＣＡ，1992,ｐ・l041Furthermore，theJSRIsurvey
records２５．４ｐｅｒcentofBraziliansasintendingtouseearnedmoneyfbrfimdsfbr
fUture,ｆｂｌｌｏｗｅｄｂｙｆｉｍｄｓｔｏｓｔａｒｔａｎｅｗｂｕｓｉness,ｂｕｙｉｎｇｌａｎｄｆｂｒｈｏｍｅａｎｄｂｕｙｉｎｇａ
ｎｅｗｈｏｍｅ[JSR1,1993,Pl51
Thesesurveyresultsexpressdｅｓｉｒｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｕｓｅｏｆｍｏｎｅｙｅａｒｎｅｄ・Ｉｔｉｓｈｉｇｈｌｙ
ｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅｔｈａｔＮｉｋｋｅｉｃｈaｎｇｅｔｈｅｉｒｍｉｎｄａｆｔｅｒｒｅｔｕｒｎｕｎｄｅｒｔｈｅｄｉｓｒｕｐｔｅｄｈｏｍｅ
ｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｅｓ・Assumingthathyper-inflationwilｌｃｏｎｔｉｎｕｅｔｏｐｒｅｖａｉｌｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｈｏｍｅ
countries，ｋｅｅｐｉｎｇｍｏｎｅｙｆｂｒｔｈｅｆｎｔｕｒｅｍａｋｅｓａｌｍｏｓｔｎｏｓｅｎｓｅ、Ｏｎｅｏｕｔｏｆｔｗｏ
ｒｅｓｐｏｎｄｅｎｔｓｉｎｔｈｅＪＩＣＡｓｕｒｖｅｙｈａｓｔｈｅｉｎｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｔａｒｔｉngorresumingsome
undertakingsaftertheirreturn[JICA,1992,ｐ､50]・Economicconditionsinthehome
countries,however,ａｒｅｓｅｒｉｏｕｓｅｎｏｕｇｈｔｏｆｂｒｃｅｔｈｅｍｔｏｒeconsidertheirplansltis
quitereａｓｏｎａｂｌｅｆｂｒＮｉｋｋｅｉｔｏｉｎｖｅｓｔｅａｒｎｅｄｍｏｎｅｙｉｎｒｅａｌｅｓｔａｔｅａｓａｐｒａｃｔｉｃａｌ
measuretohedgeagainstinflationManysuccessstorieswithvisibleeffbctshave
encouragedmoreandmoreNikkeitoU-turninordertorealizetheirdesireoｆｏｗｎｉｎｇ
ａｈｏｍｅ，Ｓｕｃｈａｃｏｎｓｕｍｐｔｉｏｎ－ｏｒｉｅｎｔｅｄｕｓｅｏｆｔｈｅｉｒｒｅｍｉｔｔａｎｃｅｓｗｏｕｌｄｎｏｔｏｎｌｙ
ｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｌｉｔｔｌｅｉｎｔｈｅｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔｏｆｔｈｅｉｒｈｏｍｅｅｃｏｎｏｍｙ，butevenfnelthe
acceleratedappreciationofrealestate、
Ｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃｃｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｔｈｅｈｏｍｅｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓ，ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｚｅｄｂｙａｈｉｇｈ
ｕｎｅｍｐｌｏｙｍｅntrateandprogressiveinHation,rarelypromiseappropriatejobsfbr
returnees・Moreover,returneesmaybereluctanttopickuplow-wagejobssincethey
havegrownaccustomedtoaentirelydiffbrentwageratewhileabroad[Arnold,1992,

4２
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

p2141Evenamongthosewhoattainedtheirexpectedolqjectives,therearequitea
fbwwhoreturnagaiｎｔｏＪａｐａｎ・Limitedｅｍｐｌｏｙｍｅｎｔｃｈａｎｃｅｉｎｔｈｅｈｏｍｅｃｏｕｎｔryis
notsufficienttocovertheelevatedlivingstandardbymigration，searnings・Theirlifb
stylecausesthemtobecoｍｅｍｏｒｅａｎｄｍｏｒｅｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔuponmovingbetween
countries．

(2)PossiblelnfluenceofU-turnMigrationonHomeCountry

ThemassiveU-turnmigrationandrelatedpolicyoftheJapan，sgovernmenthas
hadmanysignificantinfluencesupontheeconomyandsｏｃｉｅｔｙｉｎｔｈｅｈｏｍｅｃｏｕｎｔｒｙａｓ
ｗｅｎａｓｉｎＮｉｋｋｅｉｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ・Ｆｏｒｅｘａｍｐｌｅ，ｔｈｅＣｏｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｉｏｎｏｆＢｒａｚｉｌｐｒｏｈｉｂｉts
discrimmatorytreatmentinemploymentonaccountofcolourandethnicorigin・Ｔｈｅ
Japan,simmigrationpolicyrefbrmpartiallyopenedthedoortonon-Nikkeiworkers、
However,thosewhoenjoyfbwourabletreatmentbybeingadmittedaslegalworkeｒｓ
ａｒｅｌｉｍｉｔｅｄｏｎｌｙｔｏｔｈｅｓｐｏｕｓｅｏｆＮikkeiofsecondgenerationThediscｒｉｍｉｎａｔｏｒｙ
ｔｒｅａｔｍｅｎｔｂｙｔｈｅＪａｐａｎ，sgovernmeｎｔｃａｕｓｅｄｄｉｓｃｏｎｔｅｎｔａｍｏｎｇｎｏｎ－Ｎｉｋkeiwho
cannotbenefItfromtheemployment・
Itisestimatedthatapproximately150,000NikkeiwereworkinginJapaninl992，
whichconstituteslO-25percentoftheNikkeipopulationinSouthAmerｉｃａＴｈｅＵ‐
turnmigrationflowseizedthecoregenerationoftheNikkeiworkmgpopulation,who
hadplayedasubstantialrolenoｔｏｎｌｙｉｎＮｉｋｋｅｉｓｏｃｉｅｔｙｂｕｔｉｎｔｈｅｗｈoleeconomyin
theirhomecountries・Ineachcountry,Nikkeihadnotbeenfilllyintegratedbuthad
coveredparticularfieldsofeconomicactivitysuchasproductionanddistributionof
vegetables，fiQuitsandnowersmsuburbanareasandlaundryservicesmcities、Ｔｈｅ
ｅｘｐａｎｄｉｎｇｍａｇｎｉｔｕｄｅｏｆｔｈｅｍｉｇｒａｔｉｏｎｏｆＮｉｋｋｅｉｂｅｇａｎｔｏｓｅｉｚｅｔｈｅｙｏunger
generationsManypostsinJapanesecompaniesabroadorNikkei-runfirmshadbeen
assignedde/bctotoNikkeiThevacanciescreatedbytheoutnowofNikkeibecame
moreａｎdmoredifficulttoflllwithworkersofJapanesedescent・Somecompanies
werefbrcedtocloseduetotheemigrationofmanagersandtheownersthemselves
TheefYbctsｏｆｍａｓｓｉｖｅｄｅｐａｒｔｕｒｅｓｂｙＮｉｋｋｅｉａｒｅnotnecessarilyconflnedto
economicactivitiesDuetotheabsenceofcoreandyoungergenerationswhoarethe
supportersandthedrivmgfbrceoffntureNikkeisociety,itislosingitsvigour・Ｓｏｍｅ
Ｎｉｋｋｅｉｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｔｉｅｓｗｅｒｅｆｂｒｃｅｄｔｏｃａｎｃｅｌｔｒａｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌｅｖｅｎｔｓｉｎｈｅritedthrough
generationsinfbsteringandmaintainingethnictiesamongNikkei､Furthermore,itis
reportedthatJapanesenewspaperspublishedbyNikkeiarefacedwithdifficultiesdue
totherapiddecreaseofsubscribersandabsenceofJapanesetypesettersSomeof
themwereobligedtosuspendorceasepublication．Ｓomehospitalsandclinicshad
providedNikkeiwithmedicalservicesinJapanese・Havmgbeendivestednotonlyof
Nikkeinursesbutevenofmedicaldoctors,someofthemterminatedservices・Asurvey
carriedoutbytheKanagawaPrefbcturalOfficeontheoutcomeofU-turnmigration
pointedoutthesuspensioninactivitiesofvarioussocialmstitutions,includingNikkei
associationsandJapaneselanguageschools[Ｋanagawa,1992,ｐ,2621

4．ＷＯｒｋｉｎｇａｎｄＬｉｖｉｎｇＣｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎｓｏｆⅢｂｒｅｉｇｎＳｔｕｄｅｎｔｓ

Ｔｈｅｓｅｃｏｎｄｈａｌｆｏｆｔhel980swasdistmguishedfrompreceｄｍｇｙｅａｒｓｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｂｙ
4３
ForeignWorkers'WorkingandLivingC(〕nditioninJapan

ｔｈｅｉｎｉｔｉａｔｉｏｎｏｆａｆＵｌｌ－ｓｃａｌｅｉｎＨｏｗｏｆｍｉｇｒａｎｔｗｏｒｋｅｒｓａｎｄｔｈｅｉｒａｐｐｅａrance
spreadingtovarioussectorsｂｕｔａｌｓｏａｓａｎｅｒａｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｆｂｒｅｉｇｎstudents(collegeand
pre-collegestudents)i蓼'especiallyfromAsiancountriesshowedanotableincrease
Thesetwodevelopmentsoverlapeachotherinsomerespects・
Ａｐａｒｔｆｒｏｍａｇｒｏｕｐｏｆｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓｗｈｏａｒｅａｗａｒｄｅｄｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓｈｉｐｓｏｒｒｅｃｅｉｖｅａ
sufficientallowancefromhome，ｍｏｓｔmeetexpensesbytheirownefYbrts、Underthe
existingimmigrationLawfbreignstudentscanworkwithintheauthorizeddaily
workhours.'…'Themajorityofstudentsworkmoreoｒｌｅｓｓｔopaytheirenrollment
fees，ｒｅｎｔ，boardandotherexpenses・Ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｌｅｇａｌｌｉｍｉｔｏｆｗｏｒｋｈｏｕｒｓｄoesnot
yieldsufficientincome，ｓｏｍｅｗｏｒｋａｄｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌｈｏｕｒｓｉｎｖｉｏｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅＬａｗ
[Yamanaka，1993,ｐ８１]・Insomesectorstheyhavealreadybeenincorporatedasa
structuralsegmentofthelabourfbrce・
Ｔｈecollegesorschoolstheyattendarelocatedmostlyinurbanareas,wherethey
settleandtendtofindjobscloseeithertotheirschoolsordwellings・Theirworkis
obviouslyofanurbannature,whichrendersthemsignificantlydiffbrentfromother
categoriesoffbreignworkers，Ｗｈｅｎｏｎｅａｔｔｅｍｐｔｓｔｏａnalyzethestateoffbreign
employmentoneshouldnotdisregardtheworkoffbreignstudents・Thefbllowing
discussionwillhighlighttheirlifbinJapanwithspecialregardtotheirwork

４．１Ｂａｃｋｇｒｏｕｎｄ

Japanhadnotbeenanattractivedestinationcountryfbrfbreignstudentstostudy
fbrmanyreasons・StudentsarepoorlycoveredbyscholarshipsObtainingaPh・D
degree,especiallyinthesocialsciences,ismorediffIcultandgenerallyrequiresmore
yearsthan,fbrexample，ｉｔｍａｙｉｎｔｈｅＵｎｉｔｅｄＳｔａｔes・DegreesacquiredinJapanare
oftenlessappreciatedthanthosefiPomotherdevelopedcountrieswhensearchingfbr
jobsintheirhomecountrieslnaddition,limitedemploymentchancesinJapanafter
fInishmgschooldiscouragesthemfi･omchoosingthiscountryasanoptioｎ．
Theprevioustrendoffbreignstudentinflowdrasticallychangedinthemid-1980s、
Theyhaveshownastrikingincreasesincethen､Theimmigrationpolicychangesin
sendingcountriesaswellasinJapanareresponsiblefbrthisdevelopment，ｉｅ・ｔｈｅ

(:き)TheimmigrationLawinfbrcestipulatesthecategoriesorcoI1egcnndpre-collegestudentsasfb]]ＣＷＳ：
［Collegestudentsl:Applicantsaretostudyatacollegeorequivalenteducationalinstitution，ina
specializedcourseofstudyatanadvancedvDcati(malschool（"Se"sハルgcMBho,,),aneducational
institutiondesignatcdlbrthosewhohavecompletedl2yearsofeducationatschoolsinfbreign
countriestopreparefbrenteringcoⅡｅｇｅｏｒ"kbto-se""IC"gnAAo"．
［Pre-collegestudentsl:Ｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｎｔｉｓｔｏｓｔｕｄｙａｔａｈｉｇｈschool,itsequivalentfbrthebIindorotheｒ
ｈａｎｄｉｃａｐｐｅｄｐｅｒｓons，ａｈｉｇｈｃｒｏｒｇｅｎｅｒａＩｃｏｕｒｇｅ〔》1.ｓｔｕｄｙａｔａｎａｄｖａｎｃｅｄｖｃｃａｔｉｏｎａＩｓｃｈｏｏｌ
（"Sellsハルgﾛﾉﾋﾉﾋo"）oravocationalschool（"KnAl（sハルgQAAo，，）orothereducationaIinstitutions
equivalenttoavocationalschoo]initsfacilitiesandcurriculum・
Source:TheMinistryofJusticeOrdinance,Ｎｏ１６ｏｆＭａｙ２４,1990．

(**)AuthorizeddailyworkhourslbrIbreignstudentsl
categoriesofcourses ｍａｘｉｍｕｍｗｏｒｋｉｎｇｈ〔)urs
post-graduatecourse， ４hours(＃）
under-g1raduatecourse
seminarattendants,auditors ２hours

(advancedWocationalschools ４hours

Note:（＃):８hoursduringsummerholidaysinJulyandAugust．

4４
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

liberalizationofdeparturesonthｅｐａｒｔｏｆｓｅｎｄｉｎｇｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓｓｕｃｈａｓｔhePeople'ｓ
ＲｅｐｕｂｌｉｃｏｆＣｈｍａａｎｄｔｈｅＲｅｐｕｂｌｉｃｏfKoreatogetherwiththesimplificationof
acceptanceproceduresbeingpracticedinJapaninaccordanceｗｉｔｈ“theprogramme
toinvitelOO,OOOstudents',、
Astable4documents，ｔｈｅｙearl988markstheonsetofaparticulartrendofthe
inflowofpre-collegestudentswithmassivearrivalsfromthePeople，ｓＲｅｐｕｂｌｉｃｏｆ
Ｃｈｉｎａｍａｋｉｎｇｕｐｔｈｅｍａｉｎｃｏｍｐｏｎｅｎｔ・Interestingly，theywereheavilyover‐
representedasmiddle-agemen，asrecruitingagentshadimproperlyusedthepre-
collegeｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓｔａｔｕｓａｓａｎｅｆＹｂｃｔｉｖｅｃｈａｎｎｅｌｆｂｒｌａｂｏｕｒｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎＳｔｒｉｃｔer
examinationstandardspracticedshortlyafterwardspreventedfnrthermcreases
AmongthelO3,OOOfbreigncollegeandpre-collegestudentsregisteredml992the
overwhelmingpartwereofAsianorigin（94.1ｐｅｒcent)．Chinesestudents,mcluding
thosefromTaiwanandothercountriesandregions,accountedfbralmosttwo-third§
oftotalfbreignstudents，fbllowedbyKoreans（１９．３ｐｅｒcent)．Besidesthese，
Malaysia,ThailandandthePhilippinessentrelativelylargenumbers・
ＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓｆｒｏｍｔｈｅＰｅｏｐｌｅ,ｓＲｅｐｕｂｌｉｃｏｆＣｈｉｎａａｎｄＴａｉｗａｎｄｉｓｐｌay
interestingcontrasts､AlthoughcollegestudentsfTomthePeople，sRepublicofChina
haveshownastrikingmcreasemrecentyears，especiaUyinpost-graduatecourses，
themaJorpartofthemarepre-collegestudentsattendingJapaneselanguageschools，
whereasTaiwanesearemostlycollegestudents・AlthoughKoreansbasicallycarry
sｉｍｉｌａｒａｔｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｓｔｏＴａｉｗａｎｅｓｅ，ｐｒｅ－ｃｏｌｌｅｇｅｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｍcreaslng
remarkablymrecentyears・Amongothernationalitieswithrelativelylargenumbers
ofstudentsinJapanareMalaysians，Ｔｈａｉｓａｎｄｌｎｄｏｎｅｓｉａｎｓ，characterizedbya
comparativelyhighershareofcollegestudentsintheircomponent・
Withregardtothegeographicaldistributionoffbreignstudents，theyarehighly
concentratedinurbanareasRegistrationdatashowthatTokyoaccountsfbr44.6per
centofcollegestudentswithitsshareofpre-collegestudentsat60.4percentinl992
ConsideringstudentswhocommutefiQomneighbouringreglonstoschoolsinTokyo，
ｏｎｅｃａｎａｓｓｕｍｅｔｈａｔｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｓｈａrｅｏｆｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓｅｎｒｏｌｌedineducational
institutionsinTｏｋｙｏｍａｙｅｘｃｅｅｄ６０ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ．

Ｔａｂｌｅ４ＮｕｍｂｅｒｏｆＦｏｒｅｉｇｎＳｔｕｄｅｎｔｓｍＪａｐａｎ

1985１９８６１９８７１９８８１９８９１９９０１９９１１９９２１９９３
＜ｎｅｗｅｎｔｍｎｔＳ＞

Collegestudents4,797
５，４１９５，８１２6,4357,7779,5289,62010,36810,722
Pre-collegestudents8,942
12,637１３，９１５３５，１０７１８，１８３２０，８５１２０，６５４２７，３６７１８，１２７
＜enrolledconegestudents＞
ｋｂんＨＡｊ2,380
2,9553,303３，９２２４，２５０４，７２６4,7905,2866,158
ＳＡｊＡｊｌＯ,062
12,005１４，３３８１６，４５１１９，５６６23,79127,28730,60833,769
Note：`Ｋｂﾙ皿/bi”denotesstudentsonJapaneseGovernmentScholarships．“SAiAj”includesstudentswho
areawardedscholarshipsbyJapaneselocalgoveｒｎｍｅｎｔｓｏｒけｏｍｔｈｅｉｒｈｏｍｅｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓ，什omprivate
lbundations,imadditionto5elfLpayingstudents
Source:Minister，sSecretariat,MinistryorJustice,Ａ""皿ロノ凡cpo'．、/StuZisZjcso〃Ｌｅｇａ／Ｍｇ'α"ts，
Minister,sSecretanat,MinistryofEducati()ｎ,ScAoolBnsjcSl』ruq)'．
４５
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditioninJapaｎ

4.2.ⅢbreignStudents，ＷＯｒｋａｎｄＬｉｖｅｓ

(1)PrOfH1esofSendingHouseholds

AsurveyimplementedbytheTokyoMetropolitanlnstituteofLabourinl991(the
TMILsurvey）providedinterestingresultsoncharacteristicsofstudent-sending
households・ＡｌｍosthalfofstudentsfromthePeople，ｓＲｅｐｕｂｌｉｃｏｆＣｈｉｎａｗｅｒｅｆｒｏｍ
ｈｏｍｅｓｗithparentsinmanagerialorprofbssionaloccupations,fbllowedbyclericalor
technicaloccupationsForstudentsfiPomTaiwａｎ，theRepublicofKoreaandHong
Kong,householders'occupationssuchasselfemployedtradersorentrepreneursare
prevalent・Farmersandlabourersrarelysendchildrenabroad[TMIL,1991,pl291
Abouttwo-thirdsoffbreignstudentsregardtheirhouseholdintheirhomecountryas
averagｅｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｉｎｃｏｍｅｌｅｖｅｌａｎｄｏｎｅ－ｔｈirdasrelativelyhighOnlylpercenｔ
ｃｌａｉｍｅｄｔｏｂｅｆｒｏｍａｌｏｗｉｎｃｏｍｅｌｅｖｅlhousehold［TＭＩＬ，1991,pl29]．Foreign
studentsstudyinginJapanarepresumablyfTomrelativelywell-ofThouseholdsin
ｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｌｉｖｉｎｇｓｔａｎｄａｒｄｓｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｈomecountries・Economicallylessfnvoured
householdscannotaffbrdtosendchildrenabroadThisparticularattributeinherent
instudents，householdsmakesstudents，worklessremittance-oriented．

(2)ForeignStudents，Ｗｏｒｋ

SurveysconductedbytheTokyoMetropolitanOffice（theTMOsurvey）inl988
andl991givealmostidenticalfiguresfbrfbreignstudents，labourfbrceparticipation
rate；about55percentofcollegestudentｓａｎｄ６５ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｐｒｅ－ｃｏｌｌｅｇｅｓｔｕｄents
work、TheparticipationratesaresignifIcantlydiffbrentbetweenkokuhiandshihi
collegestudents・Ｗｈｉｌｅｔｈｅｒａｔｅｒｅｍａｉｎｓａｔ２１ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｉｎｔｈｅｆｂｒｍｅｒ,corresponding
figuresfbrshihicollegestudentsaccountfbrthema]orpartoffbreignstudentswith
57pｅｒｃｅｎｔ[ＴＭＯ，1992,p291AsurveyimplementedbytheJapanlnternational
EducationAssociationinl993（theJIEAsurvey）givesshihistudents，labour
participationrateat67percent[MAC〃Aeizojs/zj"6“’４Mayl994]・
Thecontributionofscholarshipsfbrmeetingstudents'variousexpensesisquite
limitediｎｔｅｒｍｓｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｏｆｃｏｖｅｒａｇｅｂｕｔｉｎｔｈｅｓｉｚｅｏｆｔｈｅａｍｏｕｎｔｐａｉｄ、Leaving
asideafbwkokuhistudentswhoarecompletelycoveredbyJapａｎ，sgovernment
scholarship，３５．９ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｓｈｉｈｉｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓａｎｄｏｎｌｙ３・Opercentofpre-coUege
studentshavemeanstocovereveryeventuality､Pre-collegestudents，ａｍｏｎｇothers，
aretotallyexcludedfromofficialsupport,andthissituationmakestheirdependence
uponworkparticularlysubstantiaLTable5showslabourparticipationbyoccupation
Asthesetwosetsofsurveyresultsillustrate,fbreignworkingstudentsareheavily
over-representedinservicesintheiroccupationalprofIle・Theretailtradeand
restaurantsareespeciallyimportantinprovidingthemwithemployment､Incontrast
toNikkeiandclandestinemenworkers,fbreignstudentsinvolvedinindustriessuch
asmanufacturmgandconstructionarequitefbw
Moreflexiblｅｗｏｒｋｓｈｉｆｔｓａｎｄｐａｒｔ－ｔｉｍｅｅｍｐｌoymentinherentinmanyservice-
providingjobsofYbrmoreadequateopportunitiesthanothersfbrstudentswhoare
requiredtoreconcileworkwithschoolingTheyoftenshareworkwithmiddle-age
nationalhousewivesandstudentsworkingpart-time・Nightorearly-morningwork
suchaｓｎｉｇｈｔｗａｔｃｈｍｅｎ，ｓｈｏｐｃｌｅｒｋｓｉｎ２４－ｈｏｕｒ‘`conveniencestores'，，ｎｅｗｓpaper
4６
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

Table5ForeignStudents,Lab⑥urParticipationbyOCcupation
(inpercent）

(Ａ） （Ｂ） Collegestudents Pre-coIlege

Occupations average KokuhiShihi students

Waiters/Waitressesanddishwashers ３１８

Ｉ
StoTeclerks １２６
49.2 1２．７４５．６ ６１．２
Cooks ６．３

Deliverers ５．２

｝
L2bourers ９．７
1５．７ ８．５１２．９ ２２．８
Cleaners ５．６

Clericalworkers ９．６ ５．６ １１．７ ５．２

Interpretersandlanguageteachers ７．２ １４．８ ５７．７ １７．２ ４．５

Others ２１．６ １０．７ １５．５ １２．６ ６．３

Source:(Ａ):TheTokyoMetropolitanlnstituteofLabour(1991)，Ｅｍｐﾉq)'"ie"ｍｌｚｄＷＯｒｈｍｇＣｂ"dj"o"s/br
Fbmejg7zWbrhel?si〃Tbﾉb'０:β'1α/'℃polT(moJb'oZo〃joAer皿gα』ん。ｈ〃i〃rodoeryα〃ｏｓｈⅢroji"αj),ｐ､124;(Ｂ):The
TokyoMetropolitanOffice（1992),ＡＳ[ｗｅｙｏ〃ｔｈｅＬＪ/１９０／FCFC喀几ＣＯ"ｅｇｅｕ"dPre-coZegeSmde几ｔｓ
(RyⅢgnhwsejSyUga虎…j〃ＯＳＧ』ん｡ts皿几ｉｈａ"s【ｲrujj"αjcAosQ),ｐ､33.

deliverersandcarriersinpublicwholesalemarketsandtransportindustry，which
womencouldhardlytakeandwhichhavebecomeincreasinglyshunnedbynational
youths,nowlargelyrelyonfbreignstudents，
Amongothers，waitingandkitchenjobsinrestaurantssuchasthatof
waiters/Waitresses,cookassistantsanddishwashers,especiallyinJapanesetaverns，
ａｒｅｍｏｓｔｐｏｐｕｌａｒａｍｏｎｇｆｏｒｅｉｇｎｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓ・Ｍａｎｙｒｅａｓｏｎｓａｃｃｏｕｎｔｆｂｒｔｈｅｉｒ
ｃｏｎｃentrationintheseoccupations・Ｆｉｒｓｔｏｆａｌｌ，ａｆｂｗｈｏｕｒｓ，eveningworkisquite
compatiblewiththeirdaytimeschoolattendanceonweekdaysOnweekendsthey
canspendlongerhoursworking，Second，theyusuallyliveclosetopublictransport
terminals，whichaffbrdsstudentseasiercommuting・Ａｎｄｔｈｉｒｄ，mealsareoften
providedatworksuchasintaverns,whichalsomakesthesejobsattractivefbr
workingstudentswhoaremostｌｙｓｉｎｇｌｅ
ＴｈｅＴＭＯｓｕｗｅｙｓｈｏｗedamarkeddiffbrenceinoccupationaldistributionamong
thevariouscategoriesofstudents・Kokuhistudentsenjoyrelativelyfavoured
conditionsinfIndingtheirsidejobsasinterpretersorlanguageteachersBycontrast，
onlyalimitednumberofpre-collegestudentscomeacrosssuchjobsorcanmakeuse
oftheirownspecialabilities・Consequently,pre-collegestudentsfindjobsinunskilled
work

Thediffbrentcategoriesoffbreignworkingstudenｔｓａｒｅａｌｓｏｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆ
ｗａｇｅrates，Whilekokuhistudentsarehighestpaidwithanaveragehourlywageof
Y1,492,shihicollegestudentsandpre-collegestudents,ｅａｒｎｍｇｓｒｅｍａｉｎａｔａｌｅｖｅｌｏｆ
Ｙ１,369ａｎｄ￥1,090,respectively［ＴＭＯ，1992,ｐ､391ThehourlywagepaiddifYbrs
substantiallyamongnationalities・Studentsfi･omEnglish-speakingcountriesenJoy
thehighesthourlywageofoverY2,000,fbllowedbystudentsfi･oｍＨｏｎｇＫｏｎｇａnd
EuropeancountriesotherthantheUnitedKingdom，ａｔＹ1,500-2,000．Koreansand
TaiwaneseconstitutethethirdgroupwithY１，０００－１，５００，whileChinesefromthe
People，sRepublicofChmaandstudentsfromASEANcountriesarepaidonaverage
4７
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditioninJapaｎ

lessthanY1,000[TMIL,1991,pl531
Thepronounceddiffbrencesinwageratesbycategoryoffbreignstudentand
nationalityiscloselyrelatedtotheiroccupationalproｆｉｌｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｏｎｅｈａｎｄ，and
existmghierarchiesofoccupationalwageratesontheother・Astable6illustrates，
languageteachersandinterpretersenJoyahigherwagerate，withkokuhistudents
fiPomEnglish-speakingregionsbeingmorelikelytotake．
Ｆoreignstudentsshowaheavyconcentrationinservice-providingjobs､This
particularsectorisoutstandingintermsoffindmgjobsandingeneratingamarked
inequalityinworkingconditions・WhetheraworkerisproficientmJapaneseornot
usuallybringsaboutamarkeddifYbrencenotonlyinwageratesbutalsoingratuities
suchasseasonalbonusesandotherfringebenefits、Inrestaurants，thosewhocan
communicateinJapaneseareplacedinwaitingjobs,whicharebetterpaidthan
kitchenworkerssuchascookassistantsanddishwashersAccordingtotheTMIL
survey，whilepart-timewaitersenJoyanhourlywageofY700-1,000,wagespaidfbr
cookassistantsanddishwashersareataroundY650-850・Waitersarealsogenerally
paidtwiceaseasonalbonusofY50,000-100,000,whereasnooronlyamarginalbonus
ispaidtokitchenworkers・Thesetwocategoriesofjobsarealsodiffbrentintermsof
wageincreasesandotherprovidedbenefits［TＭＩＬ，1991,ｐｐ57,58]．Newspaper
deliverybusinesseshavebecomemoreandmoredependentuponfbreignstudents
ThisoccupationisopenalmostexclusivelytoChineseandKoreanswhocanmanage
toidentifysubscribers,namesThosewhohavedifficultyincommunicationtendto
findphysicallydemandingworksuchaslongshoremen,cleanersandlabourers・
Ｈｏｗｍａｎｙｈｏｕｒｓｄｏｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓｗｏｒｋ？ＡｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇｔｏｔｈｅＴＭＯｓｕｒｖｅｙ，kokuhi
studentsworｋ２８ｄａｙｓａｗｅｅｋｏｎａｖｅｒａｇｅ,whereascorrespondingfiguresfbrshihi
andpre-collegestudentsrepｏｒｔｅｄ３７ａｎｄ５､１days,respectively・Pre-collegestudents
arenotablenotonlyinfrequencyofwork，ｂｕｔａｌｓｏｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｄａｉｌｙｗｏｒｋｈｏｕｒｓ・
Kokuhiandshihistudentsreported４．４and48dailyworkhours,whilethoseofpre-
collegestudentscｏｍｅｔｏ５８ｈｏｕｒｓ[ＴＭＯ,1992,ｐ､37]・Thepercentageofstudentswho
areworkingbeyondtheprescribedlimitislargestamongpre-collegeｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓ、
However，ｔｏｍａｋｅｗｏｒｋｒｅｃｏｎｃｉｌｅｗｉｔｈｓｃｈｏｏｌａttendance，theirworkhoursare
considerablyshorterthanfbranyothercategoryoffbreignworkerssuchasNikkeior
clandcstineworkers・

Theestimatedmonthlywageearningscalculatedbytheaveragehourlywageand
monthlyworkhoursgaveY86,884fbrkokuhistudents・Althoughshihicollegeand
pre-collegestudentsgenerallytakelowerwagejobsthankokuhistudents,longer

Table6AverageHourIyWagePaidfOｒＦｏｒｅｉｇｎＳｔｕｄｅｎｔｓ

V2POOandover Managers
V1,５００－１，９９９ Languageteachers,entertainers,interpreters,guides
Ｖ1,200-1,499 Salesmen,host/hostesses,1ongshoremell
Ｖ1,000-1,199 Otherservices,waiters/waitresses,dishwashers,cookassistants,deliverers
Y800-999 CIericalworkers

1essthanW99 mabourers

Source:TheTokyoMetropolitanlnstituteo『Labour（1991),Empl0ymelztα"ｄＷｏ｢んｊｎｇＣｏ"｡"jo"ｓ/br
Fb花ig〃Ｗｍｈｅ汚れＴｂﾉﾋyo流'2ロノ'℃po（(moAqyoro〃johemgQjAoAU/i〃rodoSyQ〃ＣｓﾉｍｍｊｊｔｔＱｊ),ｐ・'53.

4８
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

workinghourscanbringthemlargeramountsofmontmyearnings,(Y90,828fbrshihi
and￥113,512fbrpre-collegestudents).Ｔｈｅｗａｇｅｅａｒｎｍｇｓａｒｅｅｓｔｉｍａｔｅｄｔｏａｃcount
fbr44,8,62.2ａｎｄ６８４ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｔｈｅｔｏｔａｌｉｎｃｏｍｅｆbrkokuhi，shihicollegeandpre‐
collegestudents，respectively、ＴｈｅＪＩＥＡｓｕｒｖｅｙｅｌｕｃｉｄａｔｅｄｔｈａｔ，becauseofthe
protractedeconomicrecession，ｍｏｎｔｈｌｙｗａｇｅｅａｍｉｎｇｓｉｎｓｕｒｖｅｙｅｄｓａmpleshave
diminishedconsiderablyoverthetwoyearssincel991pVZ/jo〃heizajshj"6ｍz'４May
l9941
Friendsfromtheirhomecountryarethelargestinfbrmationsourcefbrfbreign
studentsinfindingpart-timejobsPre-collegestudents,ａｍｏｎｇothers,areexclusively
dependentuponthissource・Incontrast,Japanesefriendsplayonlyalimitedrolein
providingemploymentinfbrmationtofbreignstudents､Pre-collegestudentsareleast
likelytotakeadvantageofthisinfbrmationchannel,whichreflectstheirmoredistant
associationwithJapanese・
ＦｏｒｅｉｇｎｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓａｒｅｍｏｒｅｍｏｂｉｌｅｔｈaｎＮｉｋｋｅｉｂｕｔｌｅｓｓｓｏｔｈａｎｃｌａｎｄestine
workersintermsoffTequencyofjobchanges・DifYbrentjobsgivediversejobchange
rates､ＴｈｅＴＭＩＬｓｕｒｖｅｙｄｏｃｕｍｅｎｔｓｔｈａｔｔｈｅｍostfrequentjobchangesamong
ｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓｏｃｃｕｒａｍｏｎｇｃｌｅａｎｅｒｓａｎｄｈｏｓｔｅｓｓｅｓ，ｗｈｅｒｅａｓｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｏｗｏｒｋａｓ
ｉｎｔｅｒｐｒｅｔers,guides,clericalworkersandlabourerstenｄｔｏｒｅmaininthesamejob
Themostimportantreasonfbrdecidingjobchangeislowwages，fbllowedby
remotenesstowork[TMIL,1991,ppl35-1371
TheTMILsurveyprovidedinterestingresultsconcerningfbreignstudents，job
changingbehaviour､Thesurveyalsolenditselftoestablishingthehierarchicalorder
ofoccupationsintermsofjobprefbrence[TMIL,1991,ｐ､1401．First,fbrconstruction
workers，workersincivilconstructionandlongshoremen，theproportionoffbreign
studentswhoworkedinthesejobsconsiderablyexceedsthatofthoseengagingin
themnow・ThesearenormallyjobspickedupbynewarrivalsHoweverduetothe
physicalintensityofsuchjobs,studentsarequicktomovetootherlessdemandingor
higherpaidjobsassoonastheyobtainrelevantemploymentinfbrmationeitherfiPom
attendingschoolorthroughassociatingwithfiiends・Thesejobscanhardlyre-attract
experiｅｎｃｅｄｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓａｎｄａｒｅｏｎｌｙｆｉｌｌｅｄｂynewarrivals・Storeclerks，cleaners，
miscellaneousserviceworkers,interpretersandguidesconstitutethesecondcategory
ofjobs､Althoughnotasdistinctlyasfbrtheothers,thenumberofstudentswho
undertookthesejobsalsoexceedsthoseengagingintheｍｎｏｗ・Thesurveyresult
illustratesthecurrentin-andoutHowoffbreignstudentsfromthiscategoryofjobs・
Thesurveyalsocrystallizedthethirdgroupofjobscomprisedofoccupationssuchas
technicians,hostessesandentertainers・Whatischaracteristicinthiscategolyisthe
closednatureofthelabourmarketwithalimitednumberofnewjobentrantsandno
notableoutflow・Becauseoftheparticularnatureofactivitythesejobsdonotattract
manyfbreignstudents,ｂｕｔｏｎｃｅｍｖｏｌｖｅｄｔｈｅｙｔｅｎｄｔｏｒｅｍａｉｎwithinthesectoreven
incaseswheretheychangejobs．

(3)ForeignStudents,LivingConditionsinJapan

(a）IncomeandExpenditure
Table7illustratestheincomedistributionoffbreignstudentsbycategory(kokuhi
andshihicollegeandpre-collegestudents)．Theaveragemonthlyincomefbrfbreign
studentswasY155,OOOshowinganotabledispersionamongcategoriesofstudents．
4９
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditioninJapaｎ

KokuhicollegestudentsenjoythehighestaverageincomewithY194,000,whereas
thecorrespondingfiguresfbrshihicollegeandpre-collegestudentsgaveyl46,ＯＯＯ
ａｎｄ￥166,000,respectively・Acomparisonofincomedistributionpatternbetween
shihicollegestudentsandpre-collegestudentselucidatesthatcollegestudentsare
moreinvolvedinschoolingandhavｅｌｅｓｓｔｉｍｅｔｏｄｉｒｅｃｔｔｏｏｔｈｅｒａｃｔｉｖｉties，includmg
work,thanpre-collegestudents[ＴＭＯ,1992,ｐ､431
Table8showsthebreakdownofincomebysourcefbrstudentswithincomelevels
of￥100,000-149,999ａｎｄＹ150,000-199,999,ｔｈｅｇroupslargestmnumber・Categories
offbreignstudentsareｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｉｎｃｏｍｅｓｏｕｒｃｅｓ・Scholarshipsarethe
almostexclusｉｖｅｉｎｃｏｍｅｓｏｕｒｃｅｓｆｂｒｋｏｋｕｈｉｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓ・ＴｈｅＪａｐａｎ，sgovernment
scholarshipawardsamountedtoY180,500fbrpost-graduateandY137,500fbrunder‐

Table71ncomeDistributionofForeignStudentsbyCategory
（inpercent）

ColIegestudents Pre-college
Average K()kuhiShihi studImtB

lessthanV5qOOO
００６０２１０
１３４８７４０
８３３４８４０

０００４２４０

２６９４４４０
０１１０５３０
１．８
■■●■●■●

●■■■■●、

■●■、●●●
１３２１

V50,000-99,999
１３２１

９．９

V100,000-149,999
１６２

２６．４

V150,000-199,999 ３１．０

Ｖ200,OOO-299i999 ２５．１

overV30qOOO ５．７

Total
０

１０００
１

Source:TheTokyoMetropolitanOffice(1992),ＡＳｚＪ｢DGyo〃ZheLj/t、/Tb花jg7LCbl姥Eand
nle-coﾉﾉとgPStudmts(Ryug(JA…jshUgnh"“j〃osejAafswDjAn"smruJji"Qichosα),ｐ､43.

Ｔａｂｌｅ８１ｎｃｏｍｅｂｙＳｏｕｒｃｅ
(inpercent）

Collegestudents Pre-college
AverageKokuhiShihi students

Scholarships ２１．８ ９４．８ ２３．５ 00

v100,OOOPart-timejobs ４９．６ ４．４ ４６．２ ６９．６

AllowanceliPomｈｏｍｅ ２４．４ ０．０ ２５．２ ２６．１

149,999otherincome ４．２ ０．７ 5.0 3.5

Total １００．０ １０００ 100.0 100.0

Scholarships
６８０６０

２５．９ １．３
９
３
６２０００

１４３
８０６５０
６４０００
●●●□巳

■●●●●

Y150,000Part-timejobs ４０．７ ６３．５

AlIowance分omhome ２９．６ 32.1

l99,999otherincome ３７ 31

TDtal １００．０ 100.0

１
０

１
０

Source：CaIculateddatali･omtheTokyoMetropolitanO筋Cｅ（1992)，ＡＳⅨ｢ｕｅｙｏ〃the
Lj/to/Ｔｂ'１ejg'zCDJJegeQ"dPre-co"…SmdCnts(RyuJgcuhmse妬hU4gnJb…j〃osejAQtswzj
kans"rⅢjjtmichosQ),ｐ､45.

5０
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

graduatestudentseachmonthinｌ９９１ｌＴＭＯ,1992,ｐ､４３１１ncontrast,shihicollege
andpre-collegestudentsarecoveredbyscholarshipsonlyoccasionallyandusuallyby
marginalamounts,thatrenderthemsubstantiallydependentuponincomefiPompart-
timejobsandpartlyfiromallowancecomingfrｏｍｈｏｍｅ・Forshihicollegeandpre‐
collegestudentspart-timejobsprovidethelargestincome,althoughinadifYbrent
dimensionsamongthelattertwo
Acomparisonofthetwoincomeclasses，thelargestinnumbers，suggeststhat，
togetherwithrevenuefrompart-timejobs,allowancesfi･oｍｈｏｍｅａｒｅａnimportant
componentofincomefbrshihicollegeandpre-collegestudents,ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓｍｏｒｅｏｒｌｅｓｓ
ｔｒｕｅｔｏｏｔｈｅｒｉｎcomegroups・However，ｌａｒｇｅａｌｌｏｗａｎｃｅｓｆｒｏｍｈｏｍｅｄｏｎｏｔａｌways
leadpre-collegestudentstoconcentrateontheirstudies、Interestingly，ｔｈｅＴＭＯ
ｓｕｒｖｅｙｓｈｏｗｓｔｈａｔｔｈｅｍｏｒｅｍｏneywassent，themorepre-collegestudentstendto
engageinpart-timejobs[ＴＭＯ,1992,p441
Aparticularincomeclass(\100,000-149,999)wasselectedfbrtable9toshowhow
fbreignstudentsdispenseincome・Schoolfbes，housingandfbodexpensesconstitute
thethreemajoritemsofexpenditurefbrfbreignstudents・Thepattemofexpenditure
amongkokuhicollegestudentsisdistinguisｈｅｄｆｉＱｏｍｔｈｏｓｅｏｆｏｔｈｅｒｓｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆtheir
marginalshareofschoolfbesMoreover,higherpossibilitiesofbeingaccommodated
inpublicfacilitiessuchascollegedormitoriescanalleviatetheiraveragehousing
expenses.Incontrast,shihicollegeandpre-collegestudentsareheavilyburdenedby
thesethreeitems､Especiallyamongpre-collegestudents,schoolfbesaccountfbrmore
than30percentoftheirtotalexpenditure・Itisinterestingthatshihiconegeandpre-
collegestudentsdisplaysomewhatdiffbrentconsumerbehaviour・Whilepre-college
studentscutdowｎｏｎｉｔｅｍｓｓｕｃｈａｓｈｏｕｓｉｎｇａｎｄｆｂｏｄｅｘpensescomparedwithshihi
students,theychannelmoremoneyintorecreationandsavings[ＴＭＯ,1992,ｐ471

Table9ExpenditureDistributiOｎｂｙＣａｔｅｇｏｒｙｏｆＳｔｕｄｅｎｔ
ｆＯｒｌｎｃＯｍｅＧｒｏｕｐＹ１０0,000.149,999
（inpercent）

CollegestudentS Pre-colIege
AverageKokuhiShihi students

Schoolfbes
２
５４６５６５３２０
４９２４６７３５０

３３２２９１０７０
１９８３４０２１０

２
４４６６７５２２０
４９８０３７４４Ｏ

３０．６
●●■■●●□■●

●ＣＯ●●●●の匂

Ｇ●●、■●●●●

Commuting ４８

Housing
２２

２３

２２

２５．８

Foodexpenses ２１８

Otherstudyexpenses ４．０

Recreation
１１

６．５

Savings ４．８
Other １．６

Total
１
０

１
０

１
０

１００．０

Note:＊:Includesexpensesfbrbooks，
Source：Calcu]ａｔｅｄｂａｓｅｄｏｎｄａｔａｆｉＰｏｍｔｈｅＴｏｋｙｏＭｅtropolitanOfYIce
(1992)，ＡＳｍｒｕＧｙｏ〃ｔﾉｊｅＬｊ/ｂＯ/Ｆｂ泥29〃ＣＯﾉﾉ宅Ｃａ"。Ｐ殖-ＣＯ"egPSmde"'８
(RyⅢｇＱﾉﾋmsejshlugchmSej〃osejAa2s皿冗jAa"s皿'Ｗﾉｶﾞ"αicAosα),ｐ､48.

５１
ForeignWorkers,WorkingandLivingConditioninJapaｎ

(b）Accommodation
ThelargestproblemｉｎｌｉｆｅｗｈｉｃｈｆｂｒｅｉｇｎｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓｆａｃｅｉｎＪａｐａｎｉｓｄｗｅｌｌｉｎｇ・
Publicfblcilitiessuchascollegedormitoriesfallfarshortinnumberstoaccommodate
fbreignstudents,AccordingtotheTMOsurvey,５０percentofkokuhistudents,７０per
centofshihistudentsand73percentofpre-collegestudentsrentprivateapartment
houses[ＴＭＯ,1992,ｐ､511．
Thelargestsourceoffbreignstudents，discontentsisdifficultyinfindingdwellings
tosettle・Sincetheirmflowislessorgamzedthan,fbrexample,ｉｎｔｈｅｃａｓｅｏｆＮｉｋｋｅｉ
ｗｏｒｋｅｒｓａｎｄｔｒａinees,toaccommodateisessentiallyleftfbrthemtodealwithMore
tｈａｎ６０ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｓｈｉｈｉｃｏｌｌｅｇｅａｎｄｐre-collegestudentshaddifficultyinfinding
dwellmgs,ｗｉｔｈ７７ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｓｈｉｈｉｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓａｎd73percentofpre-collegestudents
havingbeenrefUsedonaccountofbeingafbreigner[ＴＭＯ，1992,ｐ､621TheNaigai
StudentCentrereportedthatonlyl4percentoflandlordsrentmgtostudentsmthe
Tokyometropolitanareaarereadytoacceptatenantirrespectiveofwhethertheｙａｒｅ
ａｎａｔｉｏｎａｌｏｒｎｏｔ・
ＡｌthoughmediationonhousingbyrealestateagenciesisquitepopularinJapan，
theproportionoffbreignstudentsａｂｌｅｔｏｆｉｎｄａｄｗｅｌｌｉngthroughthischannelis
quitemarginaLWhile31percentofpre-collegestudentsweredependentupon
friendsfromtheirhomecountryfbrflndingadwelling,only26percentfbundthem
throughrealestateagencies［ＴＭＯ，1992,p621Leasecontractsthroughrealestate
agenciesgenerallyrequireanationalasguarantor，whichmakesrentalofhousing
throughthischannelquiterestrictive・Theyoftenstartresidingasatemporary
lodgeratafiiend，ｓｒｏｏｍ，ｗｈｏｉｓｕｓｕａｌｌｙｆｉ･ｏｍｔｈｅｓａｍｅｃｏｕｎｔｒｙｏｒｒｅｇｉｏｎｏｆｏＩｉgin，
withoutanyfbrmalleasecontract[Okuda,ｅｔａ1.,1994,ｐ､711
Housingfbrfbreignstudentsispoorinquality、Sinceeducationalftlcilitiesare
generallylocatedinurbanareas，studentsarefbrcedtofinddwellingwhereroom
rentsareparticularlyexpensive、ForeigllstudentsintheTokyometropolitanarea
payY48,OOOonaveragefbrrent・They，moreoftenthannot，ｓｈａｒｅｄｗｅｌｌｉｎｇｗith
othersinordertoalleviatetheburden、Becauseofsoaringrentduringthe“bubble，，
economy,rentsincreasedbyaboutone-thirdover3yearsfroml988［ＴＭＯ，1992,
ｐｐ､59,60］andstudentswereobligedtospendalmostone-thirdoftheirtotalincｏｍｅ

TablelODwellingFacilities(exclusivelyused）
（inpercent）

KitchenＴ〔》iletBathroom
０４４０
８２３３

７５．０
６ＦＤ４９

ＫＯkuhistudents
７７７９
３５３９
８４４２

●■■■
①●●Ｃ

Shihistudents ６５．５

PTe-c()]legestudents ５７．４

(Cf）Rentedhouses ９７．４

Source:TheTokyoMetropolitanOIYIce（1992),ＡＳⅢｒＵｅｙｏ〃
ｔｈｅＬｊ/i2o／Forcjg〃ＣＯ睦ｇｅｑ"dPre-col/ggeStlJde"ｔｓ
(Ｒ)'[』ｇａＡＩｌｓｃｊｓ〃ＪｇＱＡＩ４ｓｅｌｉｎｏｓｅ』んｕｔｓⅢ〃ｊＡｃｌ〃ｓⅢ'･u
jjttujcAosα),ｐ55；StatisticsBureau,Managementand
CoordinationAgency,刀uel993HousillgSmruGyO/ｊｑｐｕ"：
ｐＪ９ｏｍｐかepol･Ｉ．

5２
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

fbrhousing
Highhousingcostsdrivestudentstorelativelylessexpensivebutpoorlyfilrnished
dwellings・AstablelOillustrates，conditionsofdwellingfacilitiesaresignificantly
infbriortothenationalaveragefbrrentedhousescalculatedfromthel993Housing
Surveydata,ｗｉｔｈｒｅｎｔｅｄｄｗellmgsfbrpre-collegestudentsbeingtheleastattractive・
Someinner-cityareaswheremodestapartmenthouseswereconcentratedusedto
providenationalstudentswithdwellings・Theseapartmentswereusuallywooden，
ｓｍａｌｌｉｎｓｉｚｅａｎｄｈｕｍｂｌｙｆｎｒｎｉｓｈｅｄｗithnoprivatekitchen，toiletorbathrooｍ、
Ｓｔｕｄｅｎｔsusedtosharethesefacilities・Ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｈｅｓｅａｐａｒｔｍｅｎｔｈｏｕｓｅｓｗｅre
convenientlylocated，nationalstudentsinthewell-ofTsectionofJapanesesociety
werelessandlessattractedbysuchdwellings、Manyapartmenthouseshavebeen
rebuilttomeettheirneeds，ｂｕｔｓｏｍｅｗｅｒｅｌｅｆｔｏｂｓｏｌｅｔｅｂｅｃａｕｓｅｏｆｏｗｎｅｒｓｂｅｉｎｇ
ｕｎａｂｌｅｔｏinvest・Theseapartments，beingrelativelyinexpensivetorentandlocated
convenientlynearpublictransport，ｔｏｇｅｔｈｅｒｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｏｗｎｅｒｓ,desiretofnlthe
vacancies,haveprovidedfbreignclandestineworkerswithaccesstoaccommodation
lnsuchapartmentsfbreignersareratherwelcomebecauseofthesmalllikelihoodof
deftlultonrentpaymentandahigherturnoverthatbringsadditionalmarginstoｔｈｅ
ｏｗｎｅｒ[Okuda,ｅｔａｌ,1994,ｐｐ､73,881
Theirmassivelodgingisresponsiblefbrattractingfbreignresidentsthroughtheir
owninfbrmationnetwork・ＭａｎｙｄifficultiesintheirlivesstemfiPomthediffbrent
livmghabitswhichhavecausedvariousconflictswithneighbouringnational
residents，whotendtoavoidsuchaccommodationorreglons、Consequently，ｓｏｍｅ
ｉｎｎｅｒ－ｃｉｔｙａｒｅａｓｈａｖｅｆｂｒｍｅｄｐarticularregionswherefbreignersdisplayan
outstandinglyhighconcentration．

(c）Association

TheTMOsurveyshowsthatfbreignstudentsintendingtostudyinJapanregard
associationwithJapaneseasoneofthegreatestinterests・Thedesireisespecially
highamongpre-collegestudents［ＴＭＯ，1992,ｐ､801Quitecontrarytotheir
expectationsmostofthemflndthemselvesisolatedfTomnationalsandtheyassociate
usuallywithfiPiendsfromthesamecountryorregion・Discontentwithinsufficient
associationwithnationalsismostprevａｌｅｎｔａｍｏｎｇｐｒｅ－ｃｏｌｌｅｇｅｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓｗho
expenencethelargestgapbetweenexpectationandreality、
TablellshowsprofIciencyinJapanesｅｂｙｃａｔｅｇｏｒｙｏｆｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓｉｎｓｏｍｅｓｅｌected
fieldsmeasuredintermsofpercentageofrespondentswhoansweredashavingno
particulardifficultyindealingwiththelanguage
Pre-collegestudentsarelessprofｉｃｉｅｎｔｉｎＪａｐａｎｅｓｅｃｏｍｐａｒｅｄｗｉｔｈｃｏllege
students・Pre-collegestudentsgenerallystaｙｉｎJapanfbrashorterperiodthan
collegestudents・Moreover,incaseswhereapre-collegestudentenrollsincollegeor
university，ahighlanguageabilityinJapaneseｉｓｒｅｑｕｉｒｅｄ、Ｔｈｅｓｅｓｅｅｍｔｏｂｅｔｈｅ
ｒｅａｓｏｎｆｂｒｔｈｅｍａrkeddiffbrenceinprofIciencybetweencollegeandpre-college
students・However，ｉｎｓｕｆＹＩｃｉｅｎｔｐｒｏＨｃｉｅｎｃｙｉｓｎｏｔｔｈｅｍａｉｎｓｔｕｍｂｌｉｎｇｂｌｏｃｋｆｂｒ
ｆｂｒｅｉｇｎｓtudentsintheirassociationwithJapanese・EvenamongcoUegestudents
opportunitiesfbrmixingwithJapanesearelimited,asmanyJapanesestudentsstill
tendtokeepadistancefi℃mfbreignschoolmates
Thedistanceｋｅｐｔｂｙｎａｔｉonalschoolmatesfromthemcausesfbreignstudentsto
becomemoredependentuponcompatriotfriendsorfbreignlanguagenewspapers
５３
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditioninJapaｎ

TablellProfhciencyinQJapanesebyCategoryOfStudents
-thosewhohavenodifIiculties-
（inpercent）

Collegestudents Pre-colIege
KokuhiShibi students

４７６７０
Dailylifb⑩

８４５４３

８４５４２
７３１６８
6９．１

５６１９５
４２５４９
●●●●●

●■●■●
AssociationI ２１．２

Watchtelevision １７．０

ReadnewspapersOournals １０．９

Interpretmgwork ９．４

Note:ａ:Activitiessuchasshopping,travellingoraskingtheway．
ｂ:Writinglettersorcommunicatingoverthetelephone、
Source：ＣａｌｃｕＩａｔｅｄｂａｓｅｄｏｎｄａｔａｆｉＰｏｍｔｈｅＴokyoMetropolitanOmce
(1992),ASuruGyolztﾉｔｅＬｊ/ｂｏ/Fb花jgnCoﾉ/昭ｅａｎｄＰ'･e-co"GgeSmdG"Ｚｓ
(RyUJgQAUSejsAIJgQhmsej〃osejAqtsU〃jku'usulW/jttajchoSα),ｐｐ､112-113

whentheyneedinfbrmation．ＥvenamongkokuhistudentsJapanesefriendsplay
onlyaninsignificantrole・Forpre-collegestudents，teachersinJapaneselanguage
schoolsareimportantinfbrmationsources［ＴＭＯ，1992,ｐ８５ｌ、Whereafbreign
studentdoespart-timework，Japanesecolleaguesarenotalwaysfiiendly、Many
fbreignstudentsfeelthemselvesisolatedandsecludedfromJapanesesociety．

(d）Healthcare
TheTMOsurveydemonstratesthatalmost35percentoffbreignstudentsare
apprehensiveabouttheirhealth［ＴＭＯ，1992,ｐ､651Comparedwiththeprevious
resultsml988,thepercentagehasdecreasedbyl23percentincollegestudentsand
by5､７percentinpre-collegestudents・Foreignerswhoseexpecteddurationof
residenceexceedsoneyearcanbeinsuredbytheNationalHealthlnsurance（ＮＨＤ
ｗｈｉｃｈｓｕｂｓｉｄｉｚｅｓ７０ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｍedicalcareexpenses・ForcollegestudentstheJapan
lnternationalEducationAssociationsupports80percentofcharges［ＴＭＯ，1992,
p671
Morethan90percentoffbreigncollegestudentsareinsuredbyNHI,although
thecorrespondingfigurefbrpre-collegestudentsstillremainsatthecomparatively
lowlevelof644percent[ＴＭＯ，1991,ｐ､67]・ThecoverageofNHIhasincreasedby
ａｒｏｕｎｄｌＯｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｉｎｔｈｅ３ｙｅａｒｓｓｉｎｃｅｌ９８８，ｗｈｉｃｈｍａｙｈａｖｅｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｄｔｏ
ｄｉｍｍｉshingtheirapprehensionabouthealthNotwithstandmg,ｍｏｒｅｔｈａｎｏｎｅ－ｔｈｉｒｄ
ｏｆｔｈｅｓｔｕｄｅｎtｓａｒｅｓｔｉｌｌａｎｘｉｏｕｓａｂｏｕｔｔｈｅｉｒｈｅａｌｔｈ，ｐｒｏｂａｂｌｙｂｅｃａｕｓｅｏｆｔｈｅ
ａｎｔｉｃｉｐａｔｅdfinancialburden．

５．ＷOrkingConditionsfOrC1andestineWorkers

ＬａｂｏｕｒｍｉｇｒａｔｉｏｎｔｏＪａｐａｎａｌｓｏｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｓａｎｉｌｌｅｇａｌａｎｄｃｏｎｃｅａｌｅｄｆｌｏｗｏf
clandestineworkersSomeenterthroughlegalproceduresandoverstaｙｔｈｅｉｒｖｉｓａｓ
ａｎｄｏｔｈｅｒｓｌａｎｄａｓｕｎｄｏcumentedentrants・Ａｓ“illegal，,fbreignworkersareofa

５４
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

clandestinenature，ｔｈｅｙａｒｅｕｎｌｉｋｅｌｙｔｏｂｅｃｏｖｅｒｅｄｂｙｏｆYicialstatistics、Theyare
therefbretheleastidentifiablesegmentinfbreignworkers・Someadministrative
recordssuChasinspectionresults,exposedcasesofimmigrationLawviolationanda
fbwsurveysprovidelimitedinfbrmationbrinｇｉｎｇｔｏｌｉｇｈｔｔｈｅｉｒａｃｔｕａｌｗｏｒｋｉｎｇ
conditions．

５．１１ＴａｆｆｉｃｋｉｎｇｏｆＵｎｄｏｃｕｍｅｎｔｅｄＥｎｔｒａｎtｓ

SinceJapandoesnotsharelandborderswithneighbouringcountries，thesizeof
undocumentedentrantsamongfbreignresidentsisexpectedｔｏｂｅｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｌｙｓｍａｌｌ
ａｎｄｍｏｒｅｌｉｋｅlytobeexposedTheyconstitutethemostunidentifIableparteven
amongclandestineworkers
Fromthesecondhalfofthel980s,thenumberofdisclosedcasesofundocumented
entryhoveredataround500personsperα"""ｍ・However,thisfigurejumpedto
around2,300inl989andl990whenmassivesmugglingoperationsfromthePeople，s
RepublicofChinaweredisclosed［ImmigrationBureau，1993a，p931Althougha
slightdecreasｅｏｃｃｕｒｒｅｄｉｎｌ９９２，signsoffilrtherincreasehavetakenplacein
subsequentyears・
ＴｈｅPeople，ｓＲｅｐｕｂｌｉｃｏｆＣｈｉｎａｉｓｋｎｏｗｎａｓｔｈｅlargestsenderofundocumented
entrants・ThemajorityofthemembarkontheirjourneytoJapanfromFUjian
provincewhichiswellknownasthemainsupplyreglonofoverseasChinese[ＦＥＥＲ，
４Augustl9941Priortol989,enrollmentinJapaneselanguageschoolshadbeenthe
mainchannelfbrChinesewithemploymentaims・Thetougherexaminationpractices
appliedtopre-collegestudentsbytheimmigrationauthorityslammｅｄｓhutthedoor
onthistypeofentrants・Urbanareasａｒｅｋｎｏｗｎａｓｔｈｅｍａ]orsendingreglonsof
Chinesepre-collegestudents,includingthosewhohaveactualemploymentintentions
andwhohaveshownanotableexpansionintheyearspriortol989Incontrast，
thosesmuggledinaremainlyruralresidents[Morita,1994,ｐ101.Ｉｔｗａｓａｍａｔｔｅｒｏｆ
ｃｏｕｒｓｅｔｈａｔｔｈｅｆｌｏｗｗｏｕｌｄｓｏｏｎｅｒｏｒｌａｔｅｒｆｉｎｄｏｔｈeralternativeswithgrowing
emigrationpressurefmmthePeople，sRepublicofChinahavingbeenfileｌｅｄｂｙｔｈｅ
ｍｏｖｅｔｏｔｈｅｍａｒｋｅｔｅｃｏｎｏｍｙinruralareasandtheexpandingdisparitiesassociated
withthelooseningupofcentralcontroL
Thestrikiｎｇｉｎｃｒｅａｓｅｉｎｕｎｄｏｃｕｍｅｎｔｅｄｅｎｔｒａｎｔｓｉｓｔｈｅｃｏｍｂｉｎｅｄｏｕtcomeof
existingpersistentemigrationpressureandtheorganizatioｎｏｆｓｙｎｄｉｃａｔｅｓｗｈｉｃｈ
ｃａｒｒｙｏｕｔｔｈｅｔrafficking・Ｉｔｉｓｋｎｏｗｎｔｈａｔｔｈｅｓｏ－ｃａｌｌｅｄ“SnakeHead，，andother
organizedcriminalsyndicatesinTaiwan，ＨｏｎｇＫｏｎｇａｎｄｔｈｅＰｅｏｐｌｅ，sRepublicof
China,ｉｎｃｏoperationwithJapanesegangsterorganizations,`yαﾙ"zα,，,playan
importantroleintraffickiｎｇｐｅｏｐｌｅＴｈｅｒｅａｒｅｔｗｏｒｅａｓｏｎｓｆｂｒＪapaneseyakuzato
havetakenahandinthisbusinessinrecentyears・First，therevisedCommercial
LawandnewlyenfbrcedAnti-GangLawhasmadeitｔｏｕｇｈｅｒｆｂｒｔｈｅｍｔｏｅｎgagein
traditionalactivitieslikedrug-dealingandextortingmoneyｆｒｏｍｃｏｍｐａｎｉｅｓｂｙ
ｔｈｒｅａｔｅｎｉｎｇｔｏｃａusetroublesatthestockholders，generalmeetingsSecond，ｔｈｅ
ｃｏｌｌａｐｓｅｏｆｔｈｅ“bubble,'ｅｃｏｎｏｍｙｄｅｐｒｉｖｅｄｔｈｅｍｏｆｏｐｐｏｒｔｕｎｉtiestogainfrom
property-relatedextortionactivities［ＦＥＥＲ，４Ａｕgustl9941Theyaremostlyin
chargeofentrants,acceptanceinclosecorrelationwithfbreignorganizedsyndicates・
JapanesefishingboatshavingbeenshutoutfiPomnortherndeep-seafishingused
tobeinvolvedinthetraffickingofhumansintheearlierstagesoftherecentmassive

5５
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditi〔)ｎｉｎＪａｐａｎ

landingofundocumentedentrants[Morita，1994,ｐ,15811nrecentyearsTaiwanese
fishingboatsandothercargovesselsaregenerallymadeuseoftoapproachJapanese
coastlines

ltisreportedthattrafflckingmediatorsdemandabout80,000-100,OOOChinese
yuan（about20,000-25,OOOUSdollars）asamediationcharge,partlypaidinadvance
withtherestbeingremittedbyapplicantsaftersuccessfUlentry・Mostofthose
successfUllysmuggledremitthroughofYicialfinancialinstitutions,ｗｉｔｈｐａｒｔｏｆｔｈｅｉｒ
ｅａｒｎｉｎｇｓｂｅｉｎｇｕｓｅｄｔｏｃｌｅａｒｄｅｂｔｓ・TrafYlckinghasbecomeamoreandmore
organized,ingeniousandprofItabletradefbrtheseundergroundorganizations．

5.2ＢａsicProfileofCLnndestineWOrkers

lllegaloverstayersorunregisteredfbreignersasaproxyofclandestineworkers
aresubstantiallydiffbrentfromtheabove-mentionedundocumentedentrants，
ｂｅｃａｕｓｅｔｈｅｉｒｔｏｔａｌｓｉｚｅａｎｄｓｏｍｅｏｆtheircharacteristicscanbeassessedby
statisticalmeasurement・

Ｔｈｅｒｅａｒｅｔｗｏｓｅｔｓｏｆｄａｔａａｐｐｌｉｃａbletocharacterizetheprofilesofclandestine
workersFiguresfbrillegaloverstayersaregwenbyimmigrationstatisticsandcases
ofillegalworkhavebeenbroughttolightbytheMinistryofJusticeThefbrmerare
substantiallybasedonimmigrationdatacompiledfromadministrativepractices
cｏｖｅｒｉｎｇｌａｎｄｉｎｇ，departureandregistration・However，ａｓｆＨｒａｓａｃｔｉｖｉｔｉｅｓｏｆ
ｃｌａｎｄｅｓｔｉｎｅｗｏｒｋｅｒｓａｒｅｃｏｎｃｅｒｎｅｄ，ｔｈｅｙａｒｅｎｏｔｉｎｆｂｒｍａｔｉｖｅｅｎｏｕｇｈ・Ｔｈｅ
ｌｍｍｉｇｒａｔｉｏｎＢｕｒｅａｕｏｆｔｈｅＭｉｎｉｓtryofJusticereleasesexposedcasesofillegal
overstaypresumablywithemploymentpurposesThisdatarepresentｓｏmeaspectsof
clandestineworkers，activitieswhichtheimmigrationdatadonotoffbr・Changes
revealedatthetimecasesweredisclosedreflectstosomeextenttheactualtrendof
development・Takingintoaccountthesizeofillegaloverstayers，exposedcasesare
assumedtocoverapproximatelyone-fifthofthetotalrelevantcases・Ｂｙｃｏｍｐａｒｉｎｇ
ｔｈｅｓｅｔｗｏｓｅｔｓｏｆｄａｔａｏｎｅｃａｎａｓｓｅｓｓｔｈｅｒｅｌｉａｂｉｌｉｔｙａｎｄｐａrticularinclination
inherentinthedataonexposedcaseswhichprovideinfbrmationontheirwork
First，thesexratioinexposedcases，Ｏ３１ａｎｄＯ４２ｆｂｒｌ９９２ａｎｄｌ９９３，seemsto
supportthenotionthatthemaJorpartofclandestinｅｗｏｒｋｅｒｓａｒｅｍｅｎＴｈａｉｌａｎｄａｎｄ
ｔｈｅＰｈｉｌｉｐｐｉｎｅｓａｒｅｔｈｅｏｎｌｙｔｗｏｅｘｃｅｐｔｉｏｎｓａｍｏｎｇｍａｉｎｓｕｐｐｌｉｅｒｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓｆｂr
clandestineworkerswherewomenpredominate・Womenfromthesetwocountries
accoｕｎｔｆｏｒａｂｏｕｔｈａｌｆｏｆｔｈｅｅｘｐｏｓｅｄｔｏｔａｌｏｆｃｌａｎｄｅｓｔｉｎｅｗｏｍｅｎｗｏｒｋｅｒｓ
[ImmigrationBureau，1993b,ｐ41,1994,ｐ､37]、Theestimateofillegaloverstayers
andunregisteredfbreignnationalsgivesasimilarratioofaround0.5．Thissuggests
thattheexposedcaseｓｉｎｌ９９２ａｎｄｌ９９３ｔｅｎｄｓｔｏｏｖｅｒ－ｒｅｐｒesentmenSecond，ｆｂｒ
ｔｈｅｉｒｂｒｅａｋｄｏｗｎｂｙａｇｅｇｒｏｕｐ’25-29year-oldworkersaccounｔｆｂｒ２９､１percentof
exposedcases,fbllowedby30-34(２１．８ｐｅｒcent)ａｎｄ20-24（l86percent).Workersin
their20sand30saccountｆｂｒ８２４ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ､Ｔｈｅｓｈａｒｅｏｆｔｈｏｓｅｉｎｔｈｅｉｒ２０ｓａｎｄ３０ｓｉｓ
ａｂｏｕｔ５ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｈｉｇｈｅｒｅａｃｈｉｎｅｘposedcasesthanamongunregisteredfbreigners、
However，ｗｉｔｈｒｅｇａｒｄｔｏｔｈｅｄｏｍｍａｎｔａｇｅｇｒｏｕｐ２５－３４，ｂｏｔｈsetsofstatisticsput
thematalmosthalfthetotalnumberofclandestineworkers・Thesetwosetsofdata
arefairlycloseintermsoftheirageprofiles・
Ａｓｄａｔａｂｙｒｅｓｉｄｅｎｔｓｔａｔｕｓｓｈｏｗｓ，ｔｈｅｙｍｏｓｔｌｙｌａｎｄｅｄｌｅｇａｎｙａｓａｔｅｍｐｏrary
visitorandoverstayedillegaｌｌｙｂｅｙｏｎｄｔｈｅｐｅｒｉｏｄｏｆｔｉｍｅｇｗｅｎａｔlanding・Pre-college

５６
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

Tablel2111egalOverstayersandExposedlllegalWorkers
byStatusofResidence

Overstayersa Exposedcasesb
Temporaryvisitors 242,465 ８１２兜 ５１，８８９

８
０６１００４
６１０３３５
兜
？●●■●■
Pre-collegestudents 20095 ６．７ ３，８９７
Entertainers ７，４５１ ２．５ ６７４

Collegestudents 6,484 ２．２ １７１

Trainees 1,788 ０．６ １７９

Others 20,363 ６．８ ７，５３１

１
Note:ａＥｓｔｉｍａｔｅｄａｔｌＭａｙｌ９９ａ
ｂ:Exposedcasesreportcdinl99a
Source:ImmigrationBureau，MinistryDrJustice（1994),AnEstimateofthe
lllega]OverstayersinJapan（Hol2po'ljoAelw／ｈＡｏｚａ"'〕'皿&ｉｙｓｓＩ`),ＲｂﾙｕｓＱｊ
ｊｊ"'y邸,No.83,April,ｐ38;ImmigTationBureau,MinistryofJusticematerial，
AuguStl993．

studentstatusworksasthesecondmａｉｎａｖｅｎｕｅｏｆｍＨｏｗ、Astablel2documents，
theexposedcasesofillegalworkofclandestineworkersbystatusofresidencereveals
quitesimilarpatternstothoseofillegaloverstayers．

5.3ClandestineWOrkers，ＷＯｒｋｉｎｇＣｏｎｄｉｔｉｏｎｓ

(1)OccupationalProfIIe

Forclandestineworkers，occupationalprofne，exposedcasesprovidetheonly
availabledatawithnationwidecoverage、Ａｓｔａｂｌｅｌ３ｓｈｏｗｓ，construction，factory
workersandhostessescomprisethethreemaJoroccupations・Asfbrtheremarkably
dominantshareoftheconstructionandfactoryworkers，theTMSWCsurveywhich
partlycoversclandestineworkersandasurveyoflraniansmJapancarriedoutin
l993byTsukubaUniversity（theTsukubasurvey）giveaggregateproportionsof59
and77percent,respectivelylTMSWC,1993,ｐ19,TsukubaUniversity’1994,ｐ､1981．
Timeseriesdataofexposedcasesdocumentinterestingfacts、Construction，
factoryworkersandhostesseshaveconstantlyaccountedfbrmorethantwo-thirdsof
thetotalexposedcasesofillegalwork・However,astrikingchangeoccurredmrecent
years、Whilehostesseshadmadeupmorethaｎ５０ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｔｏｔａｌｅｘｐｏｓｅｄｃａｓｅｓ
ｂefbrel988,ｔｈｅｉｒｓｈａｒｅｄｒｏｐｐｅｄｓｈａｒｐｌｙｔｏｌＯｐｅrcentafterl990・Constructionand
fnctoryworkers，ｉｎｔｕｒｎ，ｔｏｏｋｔｈｅｉｒｐｌａｃｅ・Ｔｈｅｄｒａｓｔicchangeinoccupational
characteristicswhichoccurredinthelateｌ９８０ｓｗｅｎｔｈａｎｄｉｎｈａｎｄｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｃｈａｎge
ingendercompositionamongnewarrivals・Progressingoccupationaldiversification
amongwomenisalsoresponsiblefbrthedecliningshareofhostesses・Whilehostesses
hadaccountedfbrmｏｒｅｔｈａｎ８０ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｏｆｅｘｐｏｓｅｄｃａｓｅｓｏｆｗｏｍｅｎ，sillegalwork
priortol989，theirsharealmosthalvedbyl993・Ｉｎｔｕｒｎ，womenfbundmoreand
morejobsinfactoryworkandotherservices
Clandestineworkersaredistinctintermsofoccupationalprofilecomparedwith
othercategoriesoffbreignworkersFirst,theydemonstrateamarkedcontrastwith
othersbytheirheavyconcentrationinconstruction、NationalseasonalworkersfTom

５７
ForeigY1Workers，WorkingandLivingConditioninJapaｎ

Tablel30ccupatiOnalProfilesofC1andestineWorkers
（inpercent:1993）

Occupations ＴｏｔａｌＭｅｎＷｏｍｅｎ

Constructionworkers ２７．９ 39.7

Factolyworkers ２７．６ 31.6

（】【）〈品西）●勾午（【江口０〈叩二ｍ）
■■■△。｜几一一

勺ロロユ』』迫扣）（】〔）〈皿『）』〈型）
●■●●●
Hosts/hostessesandbartenders １５．９．

■
2.9

Productionprocessworkers ８．５ 10.1

Dish-washers ４．５ 30

Cooks ３２ ３．１

WaiterS/waitresses ２３ ７．９

Drivers ０．８ １１

Otherserv】ceworkers ２．８ ２．５ 3.6

Miscellaneous ６．５ ５．９ 7.9

Note:＊：Includesprostitutesmakingup3・Opercentoftotalexposed
cases,astheyusuallyengageinhostessactivities・
Source:ImmigrationBureau,MinistryofJustice（1994),AnEstimate
ofthelllegalOverstayersinJapan(Ｈｏ"ｐｏ〃joAeﾊﾟｨﾙﾉｉｏｚａｍｙⅢSys
su),lnAmsQjjirlJyIl,No.83,April,ｐ4２

ruralareaswhousedtobethemajorlaboursupply,driedupasasourceduetothe
ageingoftheagriculturalpopulation・Thisrenderedlabourshortagesinconstruction
persistent・Ｗｏｒｋｉｎｔｈｉｓｓｅｃｔｏｒ，ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇｃｉｖｉｌｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎ，ｉｓｕｓｕａｌｌｙｄｉｒｔｙ，
dangerousanddemandmgandismorelikelytobedependentuponweatherthan,fbr
instance,fnctoryjobsTheso-called``３Ｄ”natureandinstabilityofthejobsrender
themunattractivetolegalfbreignworkers、Moreover，dailyemploymentwhichis
prevalentmconstructiondoesnotmeetthepart-timelabourrequirementsoffbreign
students・
Ｓｅｃｏｎｄ，ｃlandestineworkersalsoshowanotableconcentrationaslabourers、
However，ｔｈｅｉｒｎｕｍｂｅｒｉｓｓｍａｌｌｅｒｔｈａｎｔｈｅｎｕｍberofNikkeiworkers，ｗｈｏｄｕｅｔｏ
ｔｈｅｉｒｌｅｇｉｔｉｍａｃｙｏｆｗｏｒｋｓtatusenJoyorganizedrecruitmenｔａｎｄｅｍｐｌｏｙｍｅｎｔｉｎ
ｌａｒｇｅｒ－ｓｉｚｅｆｉｒｍｓｉｎｍａｎｕｆａｃｔｕｒｉｎｇ・Incontrast，ｃｌａｎｄｅｓｔｉｎｅｗｏｒｋｅｒｓａｒｅless
organizedandtendtobeisolatedfromestablishedrecruitmentnetworks・Illegitimacy
ofstatusrenderstheiremploymentmoreinfbrmalinnature､Ｔｈｅｙａｒｅｍｏｒｅｌｉｋｅｌｙｔｏ
ｂｅｈｉｒｅｄｎｏｔｉnmanufacturingbutmconstruction,servicesandtransport・
Ｔｈｉｒｄ，clandestineworkerssharesimilaritieswithfbreignworkmgstudentsin
termsofhighinvolvementinservices・However,theyshowamarkeddifTbrenceinthe
sortofservicestheyarehiredfbr・Whilediningandkitchenjobsprovidestudents
withthelargestemployment,clandestineworkersintheserviceindustryfindjobs
mainlyashostesses・Thisoccupationischaracterizedaｓｏｎｅｔｈａｔｆｂｒｍｓａｋｉｎｄｏｆ
ｃｌｏｓｅｄｌａｂｏurmarketofastronginfbrmalorundergroundnature．

(2)EmploymentbyFirmSize

ClandestineworkersaredistinctfiPomnationalsaswellasotherfbreignworkers

5８
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

ｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｅｍｐｌｏｙｍｅｎｔｂｙｆｉｒｍｓｉｚｅ・Tablel4characterizestheiremploymentby
firmsizecomparedwiththepatternofthetotalwoIkingpopulation・
C1andestineworkersareprimarilyemployedbysmall-sizefirms・ＦｏｕｒｏｕｔｏｆｆＩｖｅ
ａｒｅｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｆｉｒｍswithlessthantenemployees・Theyshowamarkedcontrast
withthetotalpopulationasrecordedintheBusinessEstablishｍｅｎｔＳｕｒｖｅｙ・
Accordingtothecasesofexposure，clandestineworkersareusuallyemployedin
smallnumbers、１６８percentareemployedaloneandanother５９．５ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔａｒｅｗｉｔｈ
ｏｎｅｔｏｆｂｕｒｆｂｒｅｉｇｎｃｏｌlｅａｇｕｅｓＴｈｅＰＦＣＲＩｓｕｒｖｅｙｂｒｏｕｇｈｔｔolightastratifIed
employmentpatternoffbreignworkers・Accordingtothesurvey,thelargerthefirm，
ｔｈｅｍｏｒｅｌｉｋｅｌｙｗａｓｉｔｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔｕｐｏnNikkeiBrazilianworkers，Nikkeiarenot
employedmfIrmswithlessthantenemployees［Inagami,ｅｔａＬ，1992,ｐ､20410ne
canassumethatthebottomlayersofindustries,whichcannotaffbrdtoemploylegal
workers,exclusivelyfillthevacancieswithclandestineworkers．

(3)ＷｏｒｋSharing

Small-scalefirmsemployingfbreiｇｎｗｏｒｋｅｒｓａｒｅｕｓｕａｌｌｙｓｈｕｎｎｅｄｂｙｙｏung
nationalworkers、Ｔｈｅｄｒｉｅｄ－ｕｐｓｕｐｐｌｙｏｆｎｅｗｌａｂｏｕｒｍａrketentrantsleftthem
dependentuponwell-skilledbutagedworkers，middle-agehousewivesandworkmg
students[TＭＩＬ，1991,ｐ76]・Foreignworkersemployedinsmall-sizefirmsusually
shareworkwithnativetargetworkers・
Foreignersareplacedmostlyinunskilledmanualwork,inproductionlinesoften
assuppleｍｅｎｔａｒｙｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｓｕｃｈａｓｐａｒｔｓｇａｔｈｅｒｅｒｓ，ｃｌｅａｎｅｒｓａｎｄｍａｃｈｉｎｅ
ｍａｉｎｔａｉｎｅｒｓ，orinpublicwholesalemarketsandconstructionsitesascommodity
examiners，assorters，carriers，baggers，demolitionmen，carpentersandscafTblding
assistants、YOungnationalworkersusedtotaketheseunskilledjobsmitiallybefbre
advancingtomoreskilledonessuchasfbremen,buyers，auctioneers，carpentersand

Tablel4ClandestineWorkersbyFirmSize
（inpercenn

numberof eｘｐｏｓｅｄ BuSinessEst2b-

employees ｃａｓｅｓａ lishmentSurveyｂ
４９２４

９１３２２
５２１

８３６４７

１１２
６４３９５
８４９９０
’一一一一

■■●●⑤

■■白●●
５０００
１３５

９９

Note:ａ:“Unknown，,isexcluded．
ｂ：Agriculture，fbrestYy，fIsheryandthegovernment
sectorareexcludEd
Source：ImmigrationBureau，MinistryofJustice
(1994)，AnEstimateofthelllegalOverstayersin
Japan（Ｈ､"poPzlo虎e、／izhozclmy皿ｓｙｓｓ皿),Ｒｂ｣hzJsnj
jj几'Ｗ，No.83,April，ｐｐ､43-44；StatisticsBureau，
ＭａｎagementandCoordinationAgency，ＷｔｅＩ９９Ｉ
Ｂ皿sirzessESm6jZsAme"ｔＳ邸rU2y．

５９
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditioninJapaｎ

scaffblders・Highlyeducatedyoungnationalworkersinwell-ofrsocietieshavebecome
moreandmorereluctanttotakesuchentryjobs
Clandestineworkers,illegitimatestatusaffbctstheirlabourplacementatworkin
twoways・First，sincetheirstatusisillegal，ｉｎｃａｓｅｓｗｈｅｒｅｔｈｅｙａｒｅｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉna
firmalongsidelegalworkers,theytendtobeassignedmoredemandingordirtywork
thantheirlegalcounterparts、Ｅｖｅｎｉｆｔｈｅｙｐｅｒｆｂｒｍｔｈｅｓａｍｅｗｏｒｋａｓlegalworkers，
theyareemployedondiHbrentshifts，suchasnightwork，whichmakesthemless
noticeable、Second，illegitimacymakestheiremploymentstatusthemostunstable
amongfbreignworkers・Becauseoftheuncertaintyoftheirfnture，employersare
morelikelytoassignthemtosupplementaryandeasilyreplaceablejobs､Manyof
themaredeprivedofthepossibilityofincreasingtheirskills・Suchemployment
practiceshavebeencrystallizingparticulardead-endjobswithnopossibilityof
climbinguptheoccupationalhierarchyintermsofwageratesandskilladvancement．

(4)WageRates

Clandestineworkersareusuallytreatedbyemployersleastfavourablyamong
fbreigｎｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｉｎｗａｇｅｐａｙｍｅｎｔａｎｄｏｔｈｅｒｂenefitssuchashousingWhiledirectly
employedBrazilianmenreceiveanaveragehourlywagerateofY1,198,Bangladeshis
andlraniansearnY1,Ｏ５５ａｎｄＹ１,010,respectively［Inagami,ｅｔａＬ，1992,ｐ､2091
Tablel5showsclandestineworkers，distributionofdailywageratesrevealedin
exposedcases・
Oneoutoftwoclandestineworkerseａｒｎａｄａｉｌｙｉｎｃｏｍｅｏｆ￥7,001-10,000（65-90
USdollars).TheTsukubasurveygavetheaveragemonthlyincomeatY186,720fbr
lranians,theoverwhelmingpartofwhomareregardedasclandestineworkers・Since
thesurveygavetheaveragemonthlyworkdaysat18.8,theaveragedailywagerate
iscalculatedatY9,932[TsukubaUniversity,1994,ｐp201,202]・MeanwhiletheTMIL
surveymfbrmsthatmanufncturingusuallypaysY7,000-9,000ｐｅｒday，swork,while，
ｄｕｅｔｏｔｈｅｄｅｍａｎｄｉｎｇｎａｔｕｒｅａｎｄｔｉｇｈterlabourmarketconditions，construction
workpaysY10,000-20,OOOUnskilledjobsintheservicesectorarepaidatasimilaror
slightlylowerthanfactoryjobs[TＭＬ1991,ｐ､93]．

Tablel5ClandestineWorkers，DailyWageRates

Total Ｍｅｎ Ｗｏｍｅｎ

２７９６５１６
７０７７６８５
５２６１９３２
２７９１９３５
５２８７８６１

外
０２７２５００
３９３９５２９
舵

１５１
１１０１６６６
兜

IowerthanY3,000 ６７６
１７１２５０２

●●□■●●■
●●■■□●●
●●ロ■●Ｏ■

３５５２

１２２１

Ｖ3,001-5,000 ４，５９３ １，３２１

タ７７？

7,789
１６１

１３，４８７
２５１

Ｖ5,001-7,000
Ｖ7,001-10,000 33,507 ２８１３９０

Ｖ１０，００１－３０，OOO １０，０１１ ７，０１３

higherthanY30POO ４１６ ８０
１

unknown １，６５１ ４００

↑

Source：ImmigrationBureau，MinistryofJustice（1994)，AnEstimateofthe
llIegalOverstayersinJapan(Ｈｏ"polBjoAelwルハ。zα'lMjayss皿),Ｒｂ他sQijjlllyl`，
No.86,July,ｐ42.

６０
HiromiＭｏｒｉ

Ｗａｇｅｒａｔｅｓｄｉｆｆｂｒｂｙｇｅｎｄｅｒｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｉｎｔｈｅａｍｏｕｎｔｐａｉｄｂｕｔａｌｓｏｉｎｔｈｅ
ｄｉstributionpattern・Womenclandestineworkersarepaidlｅｓｓｔｈａｎｍｅｎｂｙａｂｏｕｔ２０－
２５ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔ・Ｔｈｅｃａｌｃｕｌａｔｅｄｍｅｄｉａｎｆｒｏｍｔａｂｌｅｌ５ｆｂｒｍｅｎｉｓＹ８,３８６，whilethe
colTespondingfigurefbrｗｏｍｅｎｃｏｍｅｔｏＹ６,８１７.TheTMILsurveydocumentssimilar
wagegapsbygender，providinghourlywageratesfbrmenatY800-1,200ａｎｄＹ６５０－
７００ｆｂｒｗｏｍｅｎ[TMIL,1991,ｐ､821Womenshowawiderdistributionthaｎｍｅｎｉｎ
ｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｗａｇｅｒａｔｅｓ・
Ｔｈｅｗｉｄｅｒｄｉｓｐｅｒｓｉｏｎｏｆｗａｇｅｒａｔｅｓａｍｏｎｇｗｏｍｅｎｓｅｅｍｓｔｏｒｅｓｕｌｔｆｉ･omthe
fbllowingfactslncaseswherewomenareemployedinfnctorywork,theyareusually
placedinphysicallｙｌｅｓｓｉｎｔｅｎｓｅｗｏｒｋｏｒｓｕｐｐｌｅｍｅｎtaryworksuchasproduct
examiners,cleaners［TMIL,1991,p821Thesejobsaregenerallylowerpaidthan
intenseworkorworkwhichisdirectlyincorporatedintheproductionprocess､Service
jobswherewomenoftenfindemployment,areusuallylowerpaidthanfactorywork
orworkatconstructionsites，Meanwhile，ｈｏｓｔｅｓｓｅｓａｎｄｗｏｍｅｎｗｈｏｅｎｇａｇｅｉｎ
ｐｒostitutionarethehighestpaidintermsofwagerateHowever，asthedataon
exposurecasesdocuments，1,968illegalworkerswerehiredbyemployerswhowere
membersofgangsterorganizationsAmongthemwomenaccountfbr7７．１ｐｅｒcent，
thelargestcomponentofwhomareThais（1,249),fbllowedbyFilipinas（135）and
Koreans（69）［Inagami,ｅｔａＬ，1992,ｐ､43]・Especiallyinsaloons,nightclubsand
cabarets,wheremanyclandestinewomenworkashostesses,theyaremorelikelyto
beinvolvedinsuchundergroundorganizations・Becauseofthetremendousconcocted
debtsburdenedonthem,hugeamountsaredeductedfTomwageｓmakingtheiractual
earningsquitemarginaLJournalistsoftenreportthatafbrmofmodernslaveryexists
treatingwomenasobjectsoftradeandfi･equentlyfbrcingthemintoprostitution
undertheburdenofheavydebt・
Onlylegalworkersareallowedaccesstolabourplacementservicesprovidedfbr
fbreignworkers・Infindingjobsclandestineworkerｓａｒｅｆｂｒｃｅｄｔｏｒｅｌｙｏｎｉｎｆｂｒｍａｌ
ｈｕｍａnnetworks、Ｉｎｃａｓｅｓｗｈｅｒｅｍｉｇｒａｎｔｓｈａｖｅｓｏｍｅｃｏntactswithpredecessors
suchasotherftlmilymembersorfriends,theycanfIndjobsthroughthesepersonal
connections､Newvisitorstotallyisolatedfromｔｈｉｓｔｙｐｅｏｆｎｅｔｗｏｒｋａｒｅｍｏｒｅｌｉｋｅｌｙｔｏ
ｂｅｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔｕｐｏｎｂｒｏｋｅｒｓ、Ａｓｔｈｅｙａｒｅｇｅｎｅｒａｌｌｙｉｎｓｕｆｆｉｃｉｅｎｔlyproflcientin
Japanese,appointmentcolumnsinnewspapersandrecruitmentjournalscannot
efYbctivelyfUnctionasaninfbrmationsourcefbrjobplacement・Ｊｏｂｓｍｅｄｉａｔｅｄｂｙ
ｂｒｏｋｅｒｓｔｅｎｄｔｏｂｅｌessattractivethanothersand，ｍｏｒｅｏｆｔｅｎｔｈａｎｎｏｔ，brokers
pocketapercentagefromwagespaidbyemployers
Amongclandestineworkerslraniansgenerallycomprisetheloweststratum，ｉｎ
ｔｅｒｍｓｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｏｆｗａｇｅｒａｔｅ，ｂｕｔａｌｓｏｏｆｉｎｓｔａｂｉｌｉｔｙｏｆｅｍｐｌｏｙｍｅntandworking
conditions・ThemajorityofIranianshaveappearedinJapan，slabourmarketlater
thanotherclaｎｄｅｓｔｉｎｅｗｏｒｋｅｒｓａｔｔｈｅｔｉｍｅｗｈｅｎJapan，ｓｅｃｏｎｏｍｙｓｔａｒｔｅｄｔｏｓｌｏｗ
ｄｏｗｎ、Thelooseninglabourmarketcoupledwiththerestrictedpossibilityoftaking
advantageoftheestablishedinfbrmalhumannetwork，theywereobligedtodepend
onbrokerｓｏｒｔａkethosejobsthatwerecontinuouslyunfnledduetotheirleast
favourableworkingconditions，fbrinstancelongshoremenandconstructionworkers
Iraniansamongotherclandestineworkersarealmostexclusivelyemployedinsmall‐
sizefIrmswhichcannotafYbrdthehighcostoflegalworkers､Besideshavingtoaccept
unattractiveworkingconditions，ｔｈｅｙａｒｅｍｏｒｅｌｉｋｅｌｙｔｏｂｅｔｈｅｔａｒｇｅｔｏｆｌａｂｏｕｒ
ｒｅｔｒｅｎｃｈｍｅｎｔｉｎａｐｈａｓｅｏｆｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃｄｏｗｎｔｕｒｎＴｈｅＴｓｕｋｕｂａＵｎｉｖersitysurvey
６１
ForeignWorkers，WorkingandLivingConditioninJapaｎ

showsasubstantiallyhigherunemploymentratefbrlranians,whichｃｏｍｅｓｕｐｔｏｔｈｅ
ｌｅｖｅｌｏｆ２０ｐｅｒｃｅｎｔｃｏmparedwith3percentfbrnationals［TsukubaUniversity，
1994,ｐ561.

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６３