Vector Mechanics For Engineers: Statics

Twelfth Edition

Chapter 3
Rigid Bodies: Equivalent
Systems of Forces

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Contents
Introduction Moment of a Force About a Given Axis
External and Internal Forces Sample Problem 3.5
Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Moment of a Couple
Forces
Addition of Couples
Vector Products
Couple Vectors
Moment of a Force About a Point
Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O
Varignon’s Theorem and a Couple
Rectangular Components of the Moment Sample Problem 3.6
of a Force
Reducing a System of Forces to a Force-
Sample Problem 3.1 Couple System
Scalar Products Further Reduction of a System of Forces
Applications of the Scalar Product Sample Problem 3.8
Mixed Triple Products Sample Problem 3.10

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Introduction
Treatment of a body as a single particle is not always possible. In general, the
size of the body and the specific points of application of the forces must be
considered.
Current chapter describes the effect of forces exerted on a rigid body and how
to replace a given system of forces with a simpler equivalent system.

First, we need to learn some new statics concepts, including:

• moment of a force about a point.
• moment of a force about an axis.
• moment due to a couple.

Any system of forces acting on a rigid body can be replaced by an equivalent

system consisting of one force acting at a given point and one couple.

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External and Internal Forces
Forces acting on rigid bodies are
divided into two groups:
• External forces.
• Internal forces.
• External forces are shown in a
free body diagram.
• Internal forces, such as the force
between each wheel and the axle
it is mounted on, would not be
shown on a free body diagram of
the entire truck.

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Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Forces

• Principle of Transmissibility -
Conditions of equilibrium or motion
are not affected by transmitting a
force along its line of action.
NOTE: F and F’ are equivalent forces.

• Moving the point of application of

the force F to the rear bumper does
not affect the motion or the other
forces acting on the truck.

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Vector Products
Concept of the moment of a force about a
begin underline

point requires the understanding of the

end underline

vector product or cross product.

Vector product of two vectors P and Q is
defined as the vector V which satisfies the
following conditions:
1. Line of action of V is perpendicular to plane
containing P and Q.
2. Magnitude of V is V = PQ sin 
3. Direction of V is obtained from the right-hand rule.

Vector products:
• are not commutative; however, Q × P = −(P × Q)
• are distributive, P × (Q1 + Q2) = P × Q1 + P × Q2
• are not associative, (P × Q) × S ≠ P × (Q × S)

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Vector Products: Rectangular Components
• Vector products of Cartesian unit vectors,

i i = 0 j  i = −k k i = j
i  j =k j j =0 k  j = −i
i k = − j j k = i k k = 0

• Vector products in terms of rectangular

coordinates
( ) (
V = Px i + Py j + Pz k  Qx i + Qy j + Qz k )
= ( Py Qz − Pz Qy ) i + ( Pz Qx − PxQz ) j

+ ( Px Qy − Py Qx ) k

i j k
= Px Py Pz
Qx Qy Qz

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Moment of a Force About a Point 1

• A force vector is defined by its magnitude

and direction. Its effect on the rigid body
also depends on its point of application.
• The moment of F about O is defined as
MO = r × F.
• The moment vector MO is perpendicular
to the plane containing O and the force F.
• Magnitude of MO, MO = rF sin  = Fd
measures the tendency of the force to cause
rotation of the body about an axis along MO.
The sense of the moment may be determined
by the right-hand rule.
• Any force Fʹ that has the same magnitude and
direction as F is equivalent if it also has the same line
of action and therefore, produces the same moment.
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Moment of a Force About a Point 2

• Two-dimensional structures have length and

breadth but negligible depth and are
subjected to forces contained only in the
plane of the structure.
• The plane of the structure contains the point
O and the force F. MO, the moment of the
force about O, is perpendicular to the plane.
• If the force tends to rotate the structure
counterclockwise, the sense of the moment
vector is out of the plane of the structure and
the magnitude of the moment is positive.

• If the force tends to rotate the structure

clockwise, the sense of the moment vector is
into the plane of the structure and the
magnitude of the moment is negative.

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Varignon’s Theorem
• The moment about a given point O of the
resultant of several concurrent forces is
equal to the sum of the moments of the
various forces about the same point O.

(
r  F1 + F2 + )= r F +r F +
1 2

• Varignon’s Theorem makes it

possible to replace the direct
determination of the moment of a
force F by the moments of two or
more component forces of F.

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Rectangular Components of the Moment
of a Force 1

The moment of F about O,

MO = r  F, r = xi + yj + zk
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

M O = M xi + M y j + M z k

i j k
= x y z
Fx Fy Fz

= ( yFz − zFy ) i + ( zFx − xFz ) j + ( xFy − yFx ) k

The components of M O , Mx, My, and Mz, represent the moments about the
x, y, and z axis, respectively.

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Rectangular Components of the Moment
of a Force 2

The moment of F about B,

M B = rA / B  F

rA / B = rA − rB

= ( x A − xB ) i + ( y A − y B ) j + ( z A − z B ) k

F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

i j k
MB = ( x A − xB ) ( y A − y B ) ( z A − z B )
Fx Fy Fz

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Rectangular Components of the Moment
of a Force 3

For two-dimensional structures,

M O = ( xFy − yFz ) k

MO = M Z

= xFy − yFz

M B =  ( x A − xB ) Fy − ( y A − yB ) Fz  k

MB = MZ

= ( x A − xB ) Fy − ( y A − yB ) Fz

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Sample Problem 3.1 1

A 100-lb vertical force is applied to the end

of a lever that is attached to a shaft (not
shown) at O.
Determine:
a) the moment about O,
b) the horizontal force at A that creates the
same moment,
c) the smallest force at A that produces the
same moment,
d) the location for a 240-lb vertical force
to produce the same moment,
e) whether any of the forces from b, c, and
d is equivalent to the original force.

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Sample Problem 3.1 2

Strategy: The calculations asked for all involve

variations on the basic defining equation of a
moment, MO = Fd.

Modeling and Analysis:

a) Moment about O is equal to the product of the
force and the perpendicular distance between the
line of action of the force and O. Since the force
tends to rotate the lever clockwise, the moment
vector is into the plane of the paper which, by
our sign convention, would be negative.
M O = Fd

d = ( 24 in. ) cos 60 = 12 in.

M O = ( 100 lb ) ( 12 in. )
M O = −1200 lb  in., or

= 1200 lb  in.

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Sample Problem 3.1 3

b) Horizontal force at A that produces the

same moment,

d = ( 24 in. ) sin 60 = 20.8 in.

M O = Fd

1200 lb  in. = F ( 20.8 in. )

1200 lb  in.
F= F = 57.7 Ib
20.8 in.

Why must the direction of this F be to the right?

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Sample Problem 3.1 4

What is the smallest force at A that produces

the same moment? Think about it and
discuss with a neighbor.

c) The smallest force at A to produce the same

moment occurs when the perpendicular distance
is a maximum or when F is perpendicular to OA.
M O = Fd

1200 lb  in. = F ( 24 in. )

1200 lb  in.
F= F = 50 Ib
24 in.

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Sample Problem 3.1 5

d) To determine the point of application of a 240

lb force to produce the same moment,

M O = Fd
1200 lb  in. = ( 240 lb) d
1200 lb  in.
d= = 5 in.
240 lb
OB cos 60 = 5 in. OB = 10 in.

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Sample Problem 3.1 6

e) Although each of the forces in parts b, c, and d

produces the same moment as the 100 lb force,
none are of the same magnitude and sense, or on
the same line of action. Thus, none of the forces
is equivalent to the 100 lb force.

Reflect and Think: Various combinations of force and lever arm can
produce equivalent moments, but the system of force and moment produces
a different overall effect in each case.

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Sample Problem 3.4 1

Strategy: The solution requires

resolving the tension in the wire and
the position vector from A to C into
rectangular components. You will
need a unit vector approach to
determine the force components.

Modeling and Analysis:

The moment MA of the force F
exerted by the wire is obtained by
evaluating the vector product,
The rectangular plate is supported
by the brackets at A and B and by M A = rC A  F
a wire CD. Knowing that the
tension in the wire is 200 N,
determine the moment about A of
the force exerted by the wire at C.

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Sample Problem 3.4 2

M A = rC A  F

rC A = rC − rA = ( 0.3 m ) i + ( 0.08 m ) k
rC D
F = F  = ( 200 N )
rC D

− ( 0.3 m ) i + ( 0.24 m ) j − ( 0.32 m ) k

= ( 200 N )
0.5 m
= − ( 120 N ) i + ( 96 N ) j − ( 128 N ) k

i j k
M A = 0.3 0 0.08
−120 96 −128

M A = − ( 7.68 N  m ) i + ( 28.8 N  m ) j + ( 28.8 N  m ) k

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Sample Problem 3.4 3

Reflect and Think:

Two-dimensional problems often are solved easily using a scalar approach, but
the versatility of a vector analysis is quite apparent in a three-dimensional
problem such as this.

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Scalar Products
The scalar product or dot product between
two vectors P and Q is defined as
P • Q = PQ cos  ( scalar result )

Scalar products:
• are commutative, P • Q = Q • P
• are distributive, P • ( Q1 + Q2 ) = P • Q1 + P • Q2

• are not associative, ( P • Q ) • S = undefined

Scalar products with Cartesian rectangular components,

( )(
P • Q = Px i + Py j + Pz k • Qx i + Qy j + Qz k )
i •i =1 j • j =1 k •k =1 i • j = 0 j •k = 0 k •i = 0

P • Q = PxQx + Py Qy + Pz Qz

P • P = Px2 + Py2 + Pz2 = P 2

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Applications of the Scalar Product
• Angle between two vectors:
r r
P gQ = PQ cos q = PxQx + Py Qy + Pz Qz

Px Qx + Py Qy + Pz Qz
cos q =
PQ

• Projection of a vector on a given axis:

POL = P cos  = projection of P along OL

P • Q = PQ cos 

P •Q
= P cos  = POL
Q

• For an axis defined by a unit vector:

POL = P • 

= Px cos  x + Py cos  y + Pz cos  z

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Mixed Triple Products
• Mixed triple product of three vectors,
( )
S • P  Q = scalar result

• The six mixed triple products formed

from S, P, and Q have equal magnitudes
but not the same sign,
( ) (
S • PQ = P • Q S = Q • S  P ) ( )
( ) (
= − S • Q  P = − P • S  Q = −Q • P  S ) ( )
• Evaluating the mixed triple product,
( )
S • P  Q = S x ( Py Qz − Pz Qy ) + S y ( Pz Qx − PxQz )

+ S z ( Px Qy − Py Qx )

Sx Sy Sz
= Px Py Pz
Qx Qy Qz

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Moment of a Force About a Given Axis 1

• Moment MO of a force F applied at the

point A about a point O,
MO = r  F

• Scalar moment MOL about an axis OL is

the projection of the moment vector MO
onto the axis,
(
M OL =  • M O =  • r  F )
• Moments of F about the coordinate axes,
Mx = yFz − zFy
My = zFx − xFz
Mz = xFy − yFx

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Moment of a Force About a Given Axis 2

• Moment of a force about an arbitrary axis,

M BL =  • M B

(
=  • rA B  F )

rA B = rA − rB

• The result is independent of the point B

along the given axis. For example, the
same result can be obtained using rA C

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Sample Problem 3.5 1

A cube is acted upon by a force P as

shown. Determine the moment of P
a) about A
b) about the edge AB and
c) about the diagonal AG of the cube.
d) Determine the perpendicular
distance between AG and FC.

Strategy: Use the equations presented in this section to compute the moments
asked for. You can find the distance between AG and FC from the expression
for the moment MAG.

Access the text alternative for this image.

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Sample Problem 3.5 2

Modeling and Analysis: a) Moment of P about A,

M A = rF A  P

rF A = ai − a j = a ( i − j )

P= P /( 2 ) j −( P / 2 ) k = ( P / 2 ) ( j −k )
MA = a ( i − j )( P / 2 ) ( j − k )

(
M A = aP / 2 ) (i + j +k )
• List an alternative to the position vector rF A ,
and discuss your answer with a neighbor.

b) Moment of P about AB,

M AB = i • M A = i • aP / ( 2 ) (i + j +k )
M AB = aP / 2

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Sample Problem 3.5 3

c) Moment of P about the diagonal AG,

M AG =  • M A

ai − aj − ak
( )
rG A 1
= = = i − j −k
rG A a 3 3

MA =
aP
2
(
i + j +k )
M AG =
1
3
(
i − j −k •
aP
2
) (
i + j +k )
aP
= (1−1−1) M AG = −
aP
6 6

• What if, for  , you had chosen rA G instead?

How would that change the answer?

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Sample Problem 3.5 4

d) Perpendicular distance between AG and FC.

First check that AG and FC are perpendicular:

P• =
P
2
( j − k ) • 13 ( i − j − k ) = P
6
( 0 −1+1)

(
= 0 since by definition P •  = ( P ) ( 1 ) cos  )
Therefore, P is perpendicular to AG.
aP a
M AG = = Pd d=
6 6
Reflect and Think: In a problem like this, it is
important to visualize the forces and moments in
three dimensions so you can choose the appropriate
equations for finding them and also recognize the
geometric relationships between them.

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Moment of a Couple 1

• Two forces F and –F having the same

magnitude, parallel lines of action, and
opposite sense are said to form a couple.

• Moment of the couple,

M = rA  F + rB  − F ( )
= ( rA − rB )  F

= r F

M = rF sin  = Fd

• The moment vector of the couple is

independent of the choice of the origin of
the coordinate axes, i.e., it is a free vector
that can be applied at any point with the
same effect.
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Moment of a Couple 2

• Two couples will have equal moments if.

• F1d1 = F2d2 .
• the two couples lie in parallel planes, and.
• the two couples have the same sense or the
tendency to cause rotation in the same
direction.

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Addition of Couples
• Consider two intersecting planes P1
and P2 with each containing a couple.
M 1 = r  F1 in plane P1

M 2 = r  F2 in plane P2

• Resultant of the vectors also forms a couple.

(
M = r  R = r  F1 + F2 )
• By Varignon’s theorem.
M = r  F1 + r  F2

= M1 + M 2
• Sum of two couples is also a couple that is
equal to the vector sum of the two couples.

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Couple Vectors

• A couple can be represented by a vector with magnitude and direction equal

to the moment of the couple.
• Couple vectors obey the law of addition of vectors.
• Couple vectors are free vectors, i.e., there is no fixed point of application –
it simply acts on the body.
• Couple vectors may be resolved into component vectors.

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Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O and a
Couple 1

• Force vector F can not be simply moved to O without modifying its effect
on the body.
• Attaching equal and opposite force vectors at O produces no net change of
effect on the body.
• The three forces may be replaced by an equivalent force vector and couple
vector, i.e, a force-couple system.
Access the text alternative for these images.
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Resolution of a Force Into a Force at O and a
Couple 2

• Moving F from A to a different point Oʹ requires the addition of a different

couple vector MOʹ
M O ' = r  F
• The moments of F about O and Oʹ are related,
M O' = r'  F = ( r + s )  F = r  F + s  F

= MO + s  F
• Moving the force-couple system from O to Oʹ requires the addition of the
moment of the force at O about Oʹ.
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Sample Problem 3.6 1

Strategy:
Look for ways to add equal and opposite
forces to the diagram that, along with
already known perpendicular distances,
will produce new couples with moments
along the coordinate axes. These can be
combined into a single equivalent couple.

Modeling:
• Attach equal and opposite 20 lb forces in
the ± x direction at A, thereby producing
Determine the components of 3 couples for which the moment
the single couple equivalent to components are easily computed.
the two couples shown.

Access the text alternative for this image.

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Sample Problem 3.6 2

Analysis:
You can represent these three couples
by three couple vectors Mx, My, and
Mz directed along the coordinate axes.
The corresponding moments are

M x = − ( 30 lb ) ( 18 in. ) = −540 lb  in.

M y = + ( 20 lb ) ( 12 in. ) = +240 lb  in.

M z = + ( 20 lb ) ( 9 in. ) = +180 lb  in.

M = − ( 540 lb  in. ) i + ( 240 lb  in. ) j

+ ( 180 lb  in. ) k

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Sample Problem 3.6 3

Reflect and Think:

You can also obtain the components of the
equivalent single couple M by computing the
sum of the moments of the four given forces
about an arbitrary point. Selecting point D,
the moment is

M = M D = ( 18 in. ) j  ( −30 lb ) k

+  ( 9 in. ) j − ( 12 in. ) k   ( −20 lb ) i

M = −(540 lb  in.)i + (240lb  in.) j

+ (180 lb  in.) k

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Reducing System of Forces to a Force-Couple
System

• A system of forces may be replaced by a collection of

force-couple systems acting at a given point O
• The force and couple vectors may be combined into
a resultant force vector and a resultant couple vector,
R = F (
M OR =  r  F )
• The force-couple system at O may be moved to Oʹ
with the addition of the moment of R about Oʹ,
M OR ' = M OR + s  R
• Two systems of forces are equivalent if they can
be reduced to the same force-couple system.
Access the text alternative for these images.
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Further Reduction of a System of Forces 1

If the resultant force and couple at O are

mutually perpendicular, they can be replaced by
a single force acting along a new line of action.

The resultant force-couple system for a system of

forces will be mutually perpendicular if:
1) the forces are concurrent,
2) the forces are coplanar, or
3) the forces are parallel.

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Further Reduction of a System of Forces 2

• System of coplanar forces

is reduced to a force-
couple system R and M OR
that is mutually perpendicular.
• System can be reduced to
a single force by moving
the line of action of R
until its moment about O
becomes M OR
• In terms of rectangular
coordinates, xRy − yRx = M OR

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Sample Problem 3.8 1

Strategy:
The force part of an equivalent
force-couple system is simply the
sum of the forces involved. The
couple part is the sum of the
moments caused by each force
relative to the point of interest. Once
For the beam, reduce the system of you find the equivalent force-couple
forces shown to (a) an equivalent at one point, you can transfer it to
force-couple system at A, (b) an any other point by a moment
equivalent force couple system at B, calculation.
and (c) a single force or resultant.
Note: Since the support reactions
are not included, the given system
will not maintain the beam in
equilibrium.
Access the text alternative for this image.
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Sample Problem 3.8 2

Modeling and Analysis:

a) Compute the resultant force and the resultant
couple at A.

R= F

= ( 150 N ) j − ( 600 N ) j + ( 100 N ) j − ( 250 N ) j

R = − ( 600 N ) j

(
M AR =  r  F )
= ( 1.6 i )  ( −600 j ) + ( 2.8 i )  ( 100 j )

+ ( 4.8 i )  ( −250 j )

M AR = − ( 1880 N  m ) k

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Sample Problem 3.8 3

b) Find an equivalent force-couple system at

B based on the force-couple system at A.
The force is unchanged by the movement of
the force-couple system from A to B.
R = − ( 600 N ) j

The couple at B is equal to the moment about

B of the force-couple system found at A.

M BR = M AR + rA B  R

= − ( 1880 N  m ) k + ( −4.8 m ) i  ( −600 N ) j

= − ( 1880 N  m ) k + ( 2880 N  m ) k

M BR = + (1000 N  m ) k

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Sample Problem 3.8 4

c) The resultant of the given system of

forces is equal to R, and its point of
application must be such that the
moment of R about A is equal to M RA
This equality of moments leads to

r  R = M RA
xi  ( −600 N ) j = −(1880 N  m)k
Solving for x, you get x = 3.13 m.
Thus, the single force equivalent
− x(600 N )k = −(1880 N  m)k to the given system is defined as
R = 600 N , x = 3.13 m

Reflect and Think:

This reduction of a given system of forces to a single equivalent force uses the
same principles that you will use later for finding centers of gravity and centers
of mass, which are important parameters in engineering mechanics.

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Sample Problem 3.10 1

Strategy:
• Determine the relative position
vectors for the points of application
of the cable forces with respect to A.
• Resolve the forces into rectangular
components.
• Compute the equivalent force,
R= F

• Compute the equivalent couple,

Three cables are attached to the
bracket as shown. Replace the forces (
M AR =  r  F )
with an equivalent force-couple
system at A.

Access the text alternative for this image.

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Sample Problem 3.10 2

• Resolve the forces into rectangular

components.
FB = ( 700 N ) 

rE B 75 i − 150 j + 50k
= =
rE B 175

= 0.429 i − 0.857 j + 0.289k

Modeling and Analysis: FB = 300 i − 600 j + 200k (N)

• Determine the relative position
vectors with respect to A.
(
FC = ( 1000 N ) cos 45 i − cos 45 k )
rB A = 0.075 i + 0.050k (m) = 707 i − 707 k (N)
rC A = 0.075 i − 0.050k (m) FD = ( 1200 N ) ( cos 60 i + cos 30 j )

rD A = 0.100 i − 0.100 j (m) = 600 i + 1039 j (N)

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Sample Problem 3.10 3

• Compute the equivalent force, • Compute the equivalent couple,

R= F M AR =  r  F ( )
= ( 300 + 707 + 600 ) i i j k
+ ( −600 + 1039 ) j rB A  F B = 0.075 0 0.050 = 30i − 45k
300 −600 200
+ ( 200 − 707 ) k
i j k
R = 1607i + 439 j − 507 k (N) rC A  F c = 0.075 0 −0.050 = 17.68 j
707 0 −707

i j k
rD A  F D = 0.100 −0.100 0 = 163.9k
600 1039 0

M AR = 30 i + 17.68 j + 118.9k N∙m

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Sample Problem 3.10 4

Reflect and Think:

The determinant approach to calculating moments shows its advantages in a
general three-dimensional problem such as this.

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End of Chapter 3

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