Angle Modulation Fundamentals and Circuits

Frequency Modulation Fundamentals

FREQUENCY MODULATION – system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept constant

- While its frequency and rate of change are varied by the modulating signal.

FREQUENCY DEVIATION – amount by which the carrier FREQUENCY is varied from its unmodulated value

- It is made PROPORTIONAL to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage.

In FM, all components of the modulating signal having the same

amplitude, will deviate the carrier frequency by the same amount, no
matter what their frequencies.

Similarly, all components of the modulating signal of the same frequency,

will deviate the carrier at the same rate, no matter what their individual
amplitudes. The amplitude of the frequency modulated wave remains
constant at all times.

As the modulating signal amplitude INCREASES, the carrier frequency

INCREASES.

• Highest peak of modulating signal – highest frequency

• Lowest peak of modulating signal – lowest frequency
RESTING FREQUENCY – carrier is at its normal center when no
modulation.

• FM nasa sine
• constant amplitude, nag vavary sa frequency

Mathematical Representation of FM

▪ The instantaneous frequency of the frequency modulated wave is given by

▪ The maximum deviation for this signal will occur when the sine term has its maximum value, ±1. Under these conditions,
the instantaneous frequency will be
so that the maximum deviation will be given by

▪ The instantaneous amplitude of the FM signal will be given by a formula of the form

Modulation index of FM is defined as

Phase Modulation Fundamentals

PHASE MODULATION – system which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept constant,

- while its phase and rate of phase change are varied by the modulating signal.

PHASE DEVIATION - amount by which the carrier PHASE is varied from its unmodulated value
- It is made PROPORTIONAL to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage.
- the rate at which this phase variation changes is equal to the modulating frequency.

In PM, the amount of the carrier deviation is PROPORTIONAL to the rate of

change of the modulating signal .
• Yung phase nagbabago depende sa value ng modulating signal

With a sine wave modulating signal, the PM carrier appears to be frequency-

modulated by the COSINE of the modulating signal.

Remember that the cosine occurs 90 degree earlier (leads) than the sine.

• PM indirect ng FM
• Phase Modulation yung process pero frequency parin yung nag
vavary
• Unang nagrereact compare sa FM
• Sa crossing na 0, nagrereact ang phase modulation
Mathematical Representation of FM

▪ The instantaneous phase of the phase modulated wave is given by

▪ The maximum deviation for this signal will occur when the cosine term has its maximum value, ±1. Under these conditions,
the instantaneous frequency will be

so that the maximum deviation will be given by

▪ The instantaneous amplitude of the PM signal will be given by a formula of the form

Modulation index of PM is defined as

Converting PM into FM

• In order to make PM compatible with FM - the deviation produced by frequency variations in the modulating signal
must be compensated for. This compensation can be accomplished by passing the intelligence signal through a low-
pass RC network.

• RC LOW-PASS FILTER – called a frequency-correcting network, predistorter, or 1/f filter

- Causes the higher modulating frequencies to be attenuated.

• INDIRECT FM – FM produced by a phase modulator

- Originally phase modulation that converted to FM
Modulation Index and Sidebands

• Any modulation process produces SIDEBANDS

• SIDE FREQUENCIES - are the sum and difference of the carrier and the modulating frequency.

• In FM and PM, as in AM, sum and difference sideband frequencies are produced. In addition, a large number of pairs of
upper and lower sidebands are generated. As a result, the spectrum of an FM or a PM signal is usually WIDER than that
of an equivalent AM signal.

• Theoretically, the FM PROCESS - produces an infinite number of upper and lower sidebands and, therefore, a
theoretically infinitely LARGE BANDWIDTH.

• However, in practice, only those sidebands with the LARGEST AMPLITUDES are significant in carrying the information.
Typically, any sideband whose amplitude is LESS THAN 1 percent of the unmodulated carrier is considered insignificant.

MODULATION INDEX (mf) - ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency

• In most communication systems using FM, MAXIMUM LIMITS are put on both the frequency deviation and the
modulating frequency.

• When the maximum allowable frequency deviation and the maximum modulating frequency are used in computing the
modulation index, is known as the DEVIATION RATIO.

• In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the maximum permitted
modulating frequency is 15 kHz.

- The modulation index for standard FM broadcasting is therefore 5.

• For broadcast television (NTSC format), the maximum frequency deviation of the aural carrier, is ±25 kHz with a
maximum audio input frequency, of 15 kHz.

- Therefore, for broadcast TV (NTSC format), the deviation ratio (DR) is 1.67

• FM systems that have a deviation ratio greater than or equal to 1 (DR >1) are considered to be wideband systems,
whereas FM systems that have a deviation ratio less than 1 (DR < 1) are considered to be narrowband FM systems.

BESSEL FUNCTIONS - equation that expresses the phase angle in terms of the sine wave modulating signal that solved with a
complex mathematical process.

• BESSEL COEFFICIENTS are widely available and it is not necessary to memorize or calculate them.
• This is a special case of FM in which the modulation process
produces only a single pair of significant sidebands like those
produced by AM.

• With a modulation index of 0.25, the FM signal occupies no

more spectrum space than an AM signal. This type of FM is
called NARROWBAND FM, or NBFM.

• NARROWBAND FM (NBFM) - is any FM system in which the

modulation index is less than π/2 = 1.57, or mf < π /2.

- widely used in communication.

- It conserves spectrum space at the

expense of the signal-to-noise ratio.

HEAT CHECK
FM Signal Bandwidth

• The total bandwidth of an FM signal can be determined by knowing the modulation index and using Bessel function.

• Another way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is to use Carson’s rule.

- This rule recognizes only the power in the most significant sidebands with amplitudes greater than 2
percent of the carrier (0.02 or higher in Bessel function)

Noise Suppression Effects of FM

NOISE - interference generated by lightning, motors, automotive ignition systems, and power line switching that produces
transient signals.

- typically, narrow spikes of voltage with high frequencies. Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and interfere with it.

- completely obliterates signal information.

• FM signals have a constant modulated carrier amplitude.

• FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately restrict the amplitude of the received signal.

• Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are effectively clipped by limiter circuits.

• This amplitude clipping does not affect the information content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely within the
frequency variations of the carrier.

• Because of the clipping action of the limiter circuits, noise is almost completely eliminated. Even if the peaks of the FM
signal itself are clipped or flattened and the resulting signal is distorted, no information is lost.

• In fact, one of the primary benefits of FM over AM is its superior noise immunity. The process of demodulating or
recovering an FM signal actually suppresses noise and improves the signal-to-noise ratio.

NOISE AND PHASE SHIFT

• The noise amplitude added to an FM signal introduces a small frequency variation, or phase shift, which changes or
distorts the signal.

• The maximum phase shift occurs when the noise and signal phasors are at a right angle to each other.

• This angle can be computed with the arcsine or inverse sine according to the formula

• It is possible to determine just how much of a frequency shift a particular phase shift produces by using the formula

• Remember that the noise interference is of very short duration; thus, the phase shift is momentary (panandalian), and
intelligibility is rarely severely impaired. (bihira masira)

• With heavy noise, human speech might be temporarily garbled, but so much that it could not be understood.

• Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly with the high-frequency components of the modulating signal.

• Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and contains a lot of harmonics and other high-frequency components.

• To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique known as pre-emphasis is used.

PRE-EMPHASIS

• Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of only high- frequency components.

• At the transmitter, the modulating signal is passed through a simple network that amplifies the high frequency
components more than the low-frequency components.

• A simple high-pass filter can serve as a transmitter’s pre-emphasis circuit.

DEEMPHASIS

• A simple low-pass filter can operate as a deemphasis circuit in a receiver.

• A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency response to its normal flat level.

• The combined effect of pre-emphasis and deemphasis is to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for the high-frequency
components during transmission so that they will be stronger and not masked by noise.

Comparison of FM and AM
FM vs. AM

FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.

• FM has superior immunity to noise, made possible by clipper limiter circuits in the receiver.
• In FM, interfering signals on the same frequency are effectively rejected. This is known as the CAPTURE EFFECT.

CAPTURE EFFECT - takes place when two or more FM signals occur simultaneously on the same frequency.

- If one signal is more than twice the amplitude of the other, the stronger signal captures the
channel, totally eliminating the weaker signal.

• FM signals have a constant amplitude and there is no need to use linear amplifiers to increase power levels.
This increases transmitter efficiency.

• It is possible to reduce noise still further by increasing the deviation. This is a feature which AM does not have;
since it is not possible to exceed I00 percent modulation without causing severe distortion.

• At the FM broadcast frequencies, the space wave is used for propagation, so that the radius of operation is
limited to slightly more than line of sight. It is thus possible to operate several independent transmitters on the
same frequency with considerably less interference than would be possible with AM.
Disadvantage of FM

• FM uses considerably more frequency spectrum space. Since FM occupies so much bandwidth, it is typically
used only in those portions of the spectrum where adequate bandwidth is available, i.e., at very high
frequencies.

• FM has used more complex circuitry for modulation and demodulation.

FM Circuits

▪ The prime requirement of a frequency modulation system is a variable output frequency, with the variation
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage.

▪ The subsidiary requirements are that the unmodulated frequency should be constant, and the deviation independent
of the modulating frequency. If the system does not produce these characteristics, corrections can be introduced
during the modulation process.

▪ There are many circuits used to produce FM and PM signals. There are two types of frequency modulator circuits: direct
(frequency modulation) circuits and indirect (phase modulation) circuits.

FREQUENCY MODULATORS

• A FREQUENCY MODULATOR is a circuit that varies carrier frequency in accordance with the modulating signal.

• The carrier is generated by LC or CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS.

• In LC oscillators, the carrier frequency can be changed by varying either the inductance or capacitance.

• The idea is to find a circuit or component that converts a modulating voltage to a corresponding change in capacitance
or inductance.
• In crystal oscillators, the frequency is fixed by the crystal. However, keep in mind that the equivalent circuit of a crystal
is an LCR circuit with both series and parallel resonant points.

• Again, the objective is to find a circuit or component whose capacitance will change in response to the modulating
signal. The component most frequently used for this purpose is a VARACTOR.

VARACTOR OPERATION

• Varactor, also known as a voltage variable capacitor, variable capacitance diode, or varicap, this device is basically a
semiconductor junction diode operated in a reverse-bias mode.

• A reverse-biased diode acts like a small capacitor.

• The P- and N-type materials act as the two plates of the capacitor.

• The depletion region acts as the dielectric material.

• The width of the depletion layer determines the width of the dielectric and, therefore the amount of capacitance.

FM CIRCUITS

VARACTOR MODULATORS

• In the figure, the capacitance of varactor diode D1 and L1 form the parallel tuned circuit of the oscillator.

• The value of C1 is made very large so its reactance is very low.

• C1 connects the tuned circuit to the oscillator and blocks the dc bias on the base of Q1 from being shorted to ground
through L1.

• The values of L1 and D1 fix the center carrier frequency.

• The modulating signal derived from the microphone is amplified and applied to the modulator.

• The modulating signal varies the effective voltage applied to D1 and its capacitance varies.
VARACTOR MODULATORS

• Most LC oscillators are not stable enough to provide a carrier signal.

• The frequency of LC oscillators will vary with temperature changes, variations in circuit voltage, and other factors.

• As a result, crystal oscillators are normally used to set carrier frequency.

FREQUENCY-MODULATING A CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

• Crystal oscillators provide highly accurate carrier frequencies and their stability is superior to LC oscillators.

• The frequency of a crystal oscillator can be varied by changing the value of capacitance in series or parallel with the
crystal.

• By making the series capacitance a varactor diode, frequency modulation can

be achieved.

• The modulating signal is applied to the varactor diode which changes the
oscillator frequency.

• Varactors are made with a wide range of capacitance values, most units having
a nominal capacitance in the 1- to 200-pF range.

• A frequency multiplier circuit is one whose output frequency is some integer

multiple of the input frequency.

• Frequency multipliers can also be cascaded.

VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED OSCILLATORS

• Oscillators whose frequencies are controlled by an external input voltage are generally referred to as voltage-controlled
oscillators (VCOs).

• Voltage-controlled crystal oscillators are generally referred to as VXOs.

• VCOs are primarily used in FM.

• VCOs are also used in voltage-to-frequency conversion applications.

• The Schmitt trigger circuit is a level detector that controls the current source by switching between charging and
discharging when the capacitor charges or discharges to a specific voltage level.

REACTANCE MODULATOR

• A reactance modulator is a circuit that uses a transistor amplifier that acts like either a variable capacitor or an inductor.

• When the circuit is connected across the tuned circuit of an oscillator, the oscillator frequency can be varied by
applying the modulating signal to the amplifier.

• Reactance modulators can produce frequency deviation over a wide range.

• Reactance modulators are highly linear, so distortion is minimal.

PHASE MODULATORS

• Most modern FM transmitters use some form of phase modulation (PM) to produce indirect FM.

• In PM, the carrier oscillator can be optimized for frequency accuracy and stability.

• Crystal oscillators or crystal-controlled frequency synthesizers can be used to set the carrier frequency accurately and
maintain stability.

• The output of the carrier oscillator is fed to a phase modulator where the phase shift is made to vary in accordance with
the modulating signal.

• Some phase modulators are based upon the phase shift produced by an RC or LC tuned circuit.

• The total allowable phase shift must be restricted to maximize linearity, and multipliers must be used to achieve the
desired deviation.

• Depending on the values of R and C, the output of the phase shifter can be set to any phase angle between 0 and 90°.

• For example, when Xc equals R, the phase shift is 45°. The phase shift is computed
by using the formula

• Here the output is taken from across the capacitor, so it lags the input voltage by
some angle between 0 and 90°. The phase shift is computed by using the formula
VARACTOR PHASE MODULATORS

• A simple phase-shift circuit can be used as a phase modulator if the

resistance or capacitance can be made to vary with the modulating
signal.

• A varactor can be used to vary capacitance and achieve phase shift

modulation.

TRANSISTOR PHASE MODULATOR

• A transistor can be used as a variable resistor to create a phase modulator.

• A standard common emitter class A amplifier biased into the linear region is used in PM.

• The transistor from collector to ground acts like a resistor.

• The transistor’s resistance forms part of the phase shifting circuit.

TUNED-CIRCUIT PHASE MODULATORS

• Most phase modulators are capable of producing a small amount of phase shift. The limited phase shift, therefore,
produces a limited frequency shift.

• Phase and frequency shift can be increased by using a parallel tuned circuit.

• At resonance, a parallel resonant circuit acts like a large resistor. Off resonance, the circuit acts inductively or
capacitively and produces a phase shift.
Phase modulators are easy to implement, but they have two main disadvantages.

1. The amount of phase shift they produce and the resulting frequency deviation are relatively low.

2. All the phase-shift circuits produce amplitude variations as well as phase changes.