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Instructional Materials in
GEED 10053
Mathematics in the Modern World

compiled by

DMS Faculty

College of Science
Polytechnic University of the Philippines

2020
for the sole noncommercial use of the
Faculty of the Department of Mathematics and
Statistics Polytechnic University of the Philippines

2020

Conributors:

Abdul, Alsafat
Atienza, Jacky Boy
Bang-as, Pamela
Bernardino, Rhea
Cabanig, Sarah Jean
Criseno, Regine
Dilla, Perlyn Mae
Duarte, Rafael
Elizon, Katrina
Equiza, Cynthia
Hernandez, Andrew
Isaac, Emelita
Lara, Jose Alejandro Constantino
Longhas, Paul Ryan
Macatangay, Shaina Lyra
Malvar, Rolan
Nuguid, Kenneth James
Saguindan, Ian
Sta. Maria, John Patrick
Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Course Title : MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Course Code : GEED 10053

Course Credit : 3 units

Pre-Requisite : GENERAL MATHEMATICS, STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY (SHS) Course

Description :

The course deals with the nature of mathematics, appreciation of its practical, intellectual and
aesthetic dimensions, and application of mathematical tools in daily life. It also bridges the study of
mathematics to other domains of interest like business, finance, social sciences and arts and design.

COURSE LEARNING PLAN

Week Dates Topics and Subtopics

I. Nature of Mathematics

Mathematics in Nature
3. Mathematics for Our World
Week 1 10/5 – 10/11

Language of Mathematics

1. Propositions and Logical

Connectives 2. Sets, Operations and
Venn Diagrams
Week 2-3 10/12 – 10/18 10/19 –
10/25
Problem Solving

1. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

2. Polya’s Guidelines for Problem
Solving 3. Mathematical Problems
Week 4-5 10/26 – 11/1 11/2 – 11/8 involving Patterns
1. Patterns and Numbers in Nature 2.
Fibonacci Sequence
II. Mathematics as a Tool: Statistics and Data

Management Week 6 11/9 – 11/15 Data Gatheing and Sampling Techniques

and Crosstabulations
2. Graphical Presentations: Graphs, Charts, Time
Series Plots

Descriptive Measures

1. Measures of Central Tendency

Week 7 11/16 – 11/22 Week 8 11/23 – 11/29 2. Measures of Dispersion or Variation

III. Special Topics

Graphical Solution of LP Models

1. Modeling with Linear Programming

2. Solution Set of Systems of Linear Inequalities in
Week 9-11 11/30– 12/20 Week 12-14 1/4– 1/24 Two Variables 3. Graphical Solution for a Linear
Programming Model

Mathematics of Graphs

1. Basic Concepts in Graphs and Networks

1. Steps in Statistical Investigation 2. Euler’s Theorem and Fleury’s Algorithms
2. Sampling Techniques, Sample Size 3. Hamiltonian Circuits and the Traveling
Considerations, Methods of Data Collection Salesman Problem 4. Spanning Trees and
3. Levels of Measurement Kruskal Algorithm
5. Graph Coloring

Data Presentation
FINAL ASSESSMENT
1. Tabular Presentations: Frequency Distributions

*Note: Graphical Solution of LP Models and Mathematics of Graphs and Networks are required special topics
for the programs under the ff. colleges: Architecture and Fine Arts (CAFA), Computer and Information Sciences
(CCIS), Engineering (CE), Science (CS) and Technology (ITECH).

COURSE GRADING SYSTEM

The final grade will be based on the weighted average of the student’s scores on each test assigned at
the end of each lesson. The final SIS grade equivalent will be based on the following table according to
the approved University Student Handbook.

Class Standing (CS) = (Weighted Average of all the Chapter/Unit Tests ÷ 2) + 50% Midterm and/or
Final Exam (MFE) = (Weighted Average of the Midterm and/or FinalTests ÷ 2) + 50%

Final Grade = (70% x CS) + (30% x MFE)

SIS Grade Percentage/Equivalent Description
1.00 97.00 - 100 Excellent
1.25 94.00-96.99 Excellent
1.50 91.00-93.99 Very Good
1.75 88.00-90.99 Very Good
2.00 85.00-87.99 Good
2.25 82.00-84.99 Good
2.50 79.00-81.99 Satisfactory
2.75 77.00-78.99 Satisfactory
3.00 75.00-76.99 Passing
5.00 65.00-74.99 Failure
Inc Incomplete
W Withdrawn
Final grades are rounded off to 2 decimal places.

Reference Materials:

• Smith, Karl J. The Nature of Mathematics. 12ed. Cengage Learning. 2012

• Angel, Abbott, Runde. Survey of Mathematics with Applications. 10ed. Pearson.
2016 • Lippman, David. Mathematics in Society. 2ed. 2017
• Thomas, Christopher. Schaum’s Outline of Mathematics for the Liberal Arts. McGrawHill.

2009 Prepared by: Noted by:

Kenneth James T. Nuguid/ Ian J. Saguindan Edcon B. Baccay Faculty

Members Chairperson
Department of Mathematics and Statistics Department of Mathematics and Statistics Approved by:

Dr. Lincoln A. Bautista

Dean, College of Science

Dr. Emanuel C. de Guzman

Vice President for Academic Affairs

Contents
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1 Mathematics in Our World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.1 Overview: What
is mathematics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.2 Patterns and Numbers in Nature
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3 Fibonacci Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 12 1.4 Mathematics for Our World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 Logic and Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.1 Propositions . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.2 Compound Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.3 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
3 Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.1 Inductive and
Deductive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.2 George Polya’s Guidelines
for Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4 Statistics and Data Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 4.1 Basic
Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 4.2 Steps in Statistical
Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4.3 Sampling and Sampling
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4.4 Sample Size Considerations . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 4.5 Methods of Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 49 4.6 Levels of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4.7
Presentation of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 4.8 Measures of
Central Tendency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 4.9 Measures of Dispersion or
Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5 Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 5.1 Modeling with
Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 5.2 Solution Set of Systems of
Linear Inequalities in Two Variables . . . . . . . . . 68 5.3 Graphical Solution for a Linear
Programming Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Lesson 0 4

6 Mathematics of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 6.1 Graph

Concepts and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 6.2 Euler’s Theorems and
Fleury’s Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 6.3 Hamilton Circuits, Hamilton Paths
and the
Traveling-Salesman Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 6.4 Spanning Trees
and Kruskal’s Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 6.5 Graph Coloring . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

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Lesson 1 5 Lesson 1: Mathematics in Our World

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students are able to:

1. identify patterns in nature in the world;

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2. articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life;

3. argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is how it is expressed, represented

and used; 4. enumerate and discuss the role of mathematics in various disciplines;

5. express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.

1.1 Overview: What is mathematics?

Mathematics can be defined in many ways. For some people, Mathematics is just the study of
numbers. For others, it is a set of problem-solving tools, a language, a process of thinking, and
a study of patterns among others. Whatever point of view is taken, there is no denying the
reality that mathematics is everywhere. Individuals from around the world use math in their
daily lives. Mathematics has various applications in the world. However, Mathematics is not
only concerned with everyday problems, but also with using imagination, intuition and
reasoning to find new ideas and to solve puzzling problems. Math ematics is a branch of
science, which deals with numbers and their operations. It involves calculation, computation,
solving of problems etc. Its dictionary meaning states that, ‘Mathematics is the science of
numbers and space’ or ‘Mathematics is the science of measurement, quantity and magnitude.’
It is exact, precise, systematic and a logical subject.

Mathematics helps us to organize and systemize our ideas about patterns; in so doing, not
only can we admire and enjoy these patterns, we can also use them to infer some of the
underlying principles that govern the world of nature.

In this lesson, attention will be focused on the nature of mathematics, patterns and numbers in
nature and the world and the uses of mathematics.

1.2 Patterns and Numbers in Nature

What are patterns anyway? We usually think of it as anything that repeats again and again. A
pattern is an arrangement which helps observers anticipate what they might see or what
happens next. A pattern also shows what may have come before. A pattern organizes
information so that it becomes more useful.

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Lesson 1 6

The human mind is programmed to make sense of data or to bring order where there is
disorder. It seeks to discover relationships and connections between seemingly unrelated bits
of information. In doing so, it sees patterns.

According to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

(1991) defines the nature of mathematics as follows: Mathe

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matics is a study of patterns and relationship, a way of thinking,
an art, a language, and a tool. It is about patterns and rela
tionships. Numbers are just a way to express those patterns
and relationships. patterns

Patterns are everywhere. They are deeply embedded all around

us. You can observe patterns- things like colors, shapes, ac
tions, line or curves of building, pathways or even in the gro
cery store where boxes of various items are lined up. Number
patterns such as 2,4,6,8 and 5,10,15,20 are among the first
patterns encountered in younger years.

As we advance, we encounter more patterns and discover that number patterns are not
restricted to a few types. They could be ascending, descending, multiples of a certain number.
We learned patterns through the concept of functions and sequences like arithmetic and
geometric sequences. Number patterns, logic patterns, geometric patterns and word patterns
are examples of the various patterns we learned in school. However, patterns are not limited to
these types. One can observe patterns in nature, art, architecture, human behavior, anywhere.
On this section, we will discuss the different patterns in nature, arts and architecture.

Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world. These patterns
recur in different contexts and can sometimes be modeled mathematically. Natural patterns
include symmetries, fractals, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tessellations, cracks, and
stripes. Studying patterns allows one to watch, guess, create, and discover. The present
mathematics is considerably more than arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. The method of
doing it has advanced from simply performing computations or derivations into observing
patterns, testing guesses, and evaluating results.

Let us focus on the different types of symmetric patterns, analyze and observe the similarities
as well as the differences and give examples of these types of patterns as seen in nature, arts,
architecture and mathematics.

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Lesson 1 7

Symmetry

When we think of patterns, we usually think of it as something that repeats again and again.
The math of symmetry can describe what this repetition may look like and as well as why some
objects seem more orderly and organized than others. That is why we can say symmetry is the
fundamental “language” of patterns.

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What is symmetry? Can you give examples of objects that are symmetric? Why do you
consider them symmetric? Is it because of balanced proportions? Or is it because you can
rotate, translate or reflect and they still look the same?

Symmetry can be found everywhere. It can be seen from different viewpoints namely; nature,
the arts and architecture, mathematics; especially geometry and science. Symmetry occurs
when there is congruence in dimensions, due proportions and arrangement. It provides a
sense of harmony and balance. In fact, symmetry is one of the foremost predominant themes
in arts, design and architecture all over the world and throughout human history. Mathematical
symmetry can also be explained as the passage of time, a spatial relationship and an aesthetic
element found within abstract objects, theoretic models, language, music and even knowledge
itself.

Reflection or Bilateral Symmetry

Bilateral or reflection symmetry is the simplest kind of symmetry. It is one of the most common
kinds of symmetry that we see in the natural world. It can also be called mirror symmetry
because an object with this symmetry looks unchanged if a mirror passes through its middle. In
other words, the objects have a left side and a right side that are mirror images of each other. If
a shape can be folded in half so that one half fits exactly on top of the other, then we say that
the shapes are symmetric. The fold is called a line of symmetry because it divides the shape
into two equal parts. Bilateral-symmetric objects have at least one line or axis of symmetry. The
lines of symmetry may be in any direction.

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Lesson 1 8

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Images Exhibiting Bilateral Symmetry

Radial Symmetry

Radial symmetry is rotational symmetry around a fixed point known as the center. Images with
more than one lines of symmetry meeting at a common point exhibits a radial symmetry. An
equilateral triangle and circles are examples. You can cut along three different axes on the
equilateral triangle while a circle can be cut along an infinite number of axes. Consider the
photo below. It has rotational symmetry. How many lines of symmetry are possible?

Radial symmetry can be found both in natural and human made objects. The photos below are
examples of rotational symmetry that can be found in the world around us.

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Lesson 1 9

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Did you know that there are other classifications of symmetric patterns. Patterns in the plane
are usually divided into three groups. These are rosette patterns (those that repeat in no
direction), frieze patterns ( those that repeat in exactly one direction) and wallpaper patterns
(those that repeat in more than one direction). Let us define, discuss and identify examples of
these patterns from nature and the arts. Included in the discussion is what we call tessellations
which completely cover a plane without gaps or overlaps, like wallpaper patterns.

Rosette Patterns

Rosette patterns consist of taking motif or an element and rotating and/or reflecting that
element. There are two types of rosette patterns namely cyclic and dihedral. A rosette pattern
is cyclic if it only admits rotational symmetries. On the other hand, a rosette pattern is dihedral
if it admits both rotational symmetries and bilateral or reflectional symmetries. The figures
below exhibit rosette patterns. Can you identify which of them are cyclic? dihedral?

Frieze Patterns

A frieze or border pattern is a pattern in which a basic motif repeats itself over and over in one
direction. It extends to the left and right in a way that the pattern can be mapped onto itself by a

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Lesson 1 10

horizontal translation. We can usually find these patterns in unique places like on the walls of
buildings, fabrics, borders of rugs and tiled floor.

Mathematicians have already classified all the different types of frieze patterns. It turns out that
there are only seven types.

1. Hop. The frieze pattern only admits a translational symmetry.

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2. Step. The frieze pattern only admits a translational and glide

symmetries. 3. Sidle. The frieze pattern only admits translations and

vertical reflections.

4. Spinning Hop. The frieze pattern only admits translations and 180◦rotations (half-turns).

5. Spinning Siddle. The frieze pattern only admits translations, vertical reflections, rotations,
and glide reflections.
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Lesson 1 11 6. Jump. The frieze pattern only admits translations, a horizontal reflection, and

glide reflection.

7. Spinning Jump. The frieze pattern admits translations, vertical reflections, horizontal
reflections, rotations, and glide reflections.

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Mathematician John B. Conway invented the names of these frieze patterns.

Wallpaper Patterns

A wallpaper pattern is a pattern with translation symmetry in two directions. It is, therefore,
essentially an arrangement of friezes stacked upon one another to fill the entire plane. Any
particular wallpaper pattern is made up of a combination of the following symmetries; reflection,
rotation and glide reflection. According to Nocon (2016), in order for a plane figure to be
considered a wallpaper pattern, it must have at least the basic unit, one copy by translation,
and a copy of these two by translation in the second direction. There must be at least two rows,
each one of at least two units long.

Beautiful patterns can be created by repeating geometric and artistic motifs according to the
symmetry of the wallpaper groups, as exemplified in works by M. C. Escher and in the patterns
created by I. Bakshee

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Lesson 1 12 in the Wolfram Language using Artlandia, illustrated above. There are 17 different

wallpaper patterns.

Using intricate techniques, mathematicians were able to classify every wallpaper patterns
possible. It is shown that there are only 17 distinct types of wallpaper patterns.

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Some Wallpaper Patterns
Tesselations

A tessellation or tiling is a repeating pattern of figures that covers a plane with no gaps or
overlaps. It is just like a wallpaper group in which patterns are created by repeating a shape to
fill the plane.

Tessellations can be created with translations, rotations, and reflections. Tessellations can be
seen in nature, arts and everyday life. Pavements, snake skin, turtle shell and a honeycomb
are just few of many examples of tessellation we see around us. A honeycomb is a perfect
example of a natural tessellation. It uses regular hexagons to form this natural mosaic around
the surface area of the hive. Since these are regular hexagons, each interior angle of each
hexagon are 120 degrees, and all the angles in one of the hexagons equal 720 degrees.

Examples of Tesselations

1.3 Fibonacci Sequence

We start with 1 and another 1. Add them, we get 2. Add 1 and 2, we get 3. Add 2 and 3, we get
5. Add 3 and 5, we get 8. If we continue repeating the process, we obtain the sequence

1; 1; 2; 3; 5; 8; 13; : : :

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Lesson 1 13

which is known as the Fibonacci sequence. The Fibonacci sequence was invented by the
Italian Leonardo Pisano Bigollo (1180-1250), who is known in mathematical history by several
names: Leonardo of Pisa (Pisano means “from Pisa”) and Fibonacci (which means “son of
Bonacci”). To formally, define the Fibonacci sequence, we start by defining F1 = 1 and F2 = 1.
For n > 2, we define
Fn := Fn−1 + Fn−2:
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The sequence F1; F2; F3; : : : is then the Fibonacci sequence. Such a definition is called a
recursive definition because it starts by defining some initial values and defines the next term
as a function of the previous terms.

If we take the ratio of Fn to Fn−1 for n ≥ 1,

1:61904 : : : 10 55
1:61764 : : : 11 89
n Fn Fn=Fn−1 1 1 - 2
1:61818 : : : 12 144
1 1 3 2 2 4 3 1.5 5 5
1:61797 : : : 13 233
1:666 : : : 6 8 1.6 7
1:61805 : : : 14 377
13 1.625
1:618025 : : :
n Fn Fn=Fn−1 8 21
1:61538 : : : 9 34

we see that as n gets larger and larger, the ratio gets closer and closer to a value denoted by ’.
The number ’ is called as the golden ratio and can be formally defined as

’ := lim n−→∞Fn
Fn−1:

The symbol lim n−→∞means ‘the limit as n approaches infinity’ which is usually studied in a
calculus course. It can be calculated that the exact value of ’ is
√
’ =1 + 5
2≈ 1:6180339887 : : : :
√
If we denote by ’ :=1 − 5

2, we can write the nth Fibonacci number explicitly using the formula

Fn =’n − ’n
√
5:
This is known as the Binet Formula.

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Lesson 1 14

2
3

11

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5

Do you see the Fibonacci Numbers? The red curve is known as the Fibonacci

Spiral. A rectangle whose side ratio (length:width) equals ’ is called a golden rectangle.

George Dvorsky (2013) emphasized that the Fibonacci sequence has captivated
mathematicians, scien tists, artists and designers for centuries. It is a sequence with many
interesting properties. Among these is its visibility in nature. Most, if not all, natureâĂŹs most
beautiful patterns contain Fibonacci numbers.

The Fibonacci numbers appear in nature in various places. These numbers are evident at the
flower head of a sunflower or daisy. Spirals are also easier to see and to count on pineapples
and pine cones. Fibonacci numbers are there on broccoli florets and flowers and on the
arrangement of leaves around stems on many plants too.
• Pinecones, Speed Heads, Vegetables and Fruits
Spiral patterns curving from left and right can be seen at the array of seeds in the center
of a sunflower. The sum of these spirals when counted will be a Fibonacci number. You
will get two consecutive Fibonacci numbers if you divide the spirals into those pointed left
and right. The seed pods on a pinecone are also arranged in a spiral pattern. Each cone
consists of a pair of spirals, each one spiraling upwards in opposing directions. Spiral
patterns can also be deciphered in cauliflower and pineapples. Fibonacci sequence
appears on these fruits and vegetables.

• Flowers and Branches

Most flowers express the Fibonacci sequence if you count the number of petals on these
flowers. For example, lilies and irises have three petals, roses and buttercups have five,
delphiniums have eight petals and so on. Some plants also exhibit the Fibonacci
sequence in their growth points, on the places where tree branches form or split. A trunk
grows until it produces a branch, resulting

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Lesson 1 15

in two growth points. The main trunk then produces another branch, resulting in three
growth points and then the trunk and the first branch produce two more growth points,
bringing the total to five as illustrated on the image below.

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• Honeybees
The family tree of a honey bee perfectly resembles the Fibonacci sequence. A honeybee
colony consists of a queen, a few drones and lots of workers. The following image below
shows how the family tree relates.
• The Human Body
The human body has many elements that show the Fibonacci numbers and the golden
ratio. Most of your body parts follow the Fibonacci sequence and the proportions and
measurements of the human body can also be divided up in terms of the golden ratio.

• Geography, Weather and Galaxies Fibonacci numbers and the relationships between
these numbers are evident in spiral galaxies, sea wave curves and in the patterns of
stream and drainages. Weather patterns, such as hurricanes and whirlpools sometimes
closely resemble the Golden Spiral. The milky way galaxy and some other galaxies have
spiral patterns. Planets of our solar system and their orbital periods are closely related to
the golden ratio.

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Lesson 1 16

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The Golden Ratio and/or the Golden Spiral can also be observed in music, art, and designs.
Appearing in many architectural structures, the presence of the golden ratio provided a sense
of balance and equilibrium. Let’s take a look at a couple of examples.

• Architecture. The Great Pyramid of Giza: The Great Pyramid of Giza built around 2560 BC
is one of the earliest examples of the use of the golden ratio. The length of each side of
the base is 756 feet, and the height is 481 feet. So, we can find that the ratio of the vase
to height is 756=481 = 1:5717:

The Greek sculptor Phidias sculpted many things including the bands of sculpture that
run above the columns of the Parthenon. Other architectural structures that exhibits the
Golden ratio include the ff: Porch of Maidens, Acropolis, Athens; Chartres Cathedral; and
Le Corbussier. Can you name other structures that has the Golden Ratio?

• Arts. Mona-Lisa by Leonardo Da Vinci: It is believed that Leonardo, as a mathematician

tried to incorporate of mathematics into art. This painting seems to be made purposefully
line up with

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Lesson 1 17

golden rectangle.

An Old man by Leonardo Da Vinci: Leonardo Da Vinci explored

the human body involving in the ratios of the lengths of various
body parts. He called this ratio the "divine proportion" and
featured it in many of his paintings. We also have the The
Vetruvian Man (“The Man in Action”) by Leonardo Da Vinci;
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Holy Family by Micahelangelo; Crucifixion by Raphael; The
sacrament of the Last Supper by Salvador Dali (1904-1989),
and many more.

1.4 Mathematics for Our World

Mathematics is everywhere; whether it is on land, sea or air, online or on the front line,
mathematics underpins every nook and cranny of modern life. Far from a quaint subject to be
forgotten upon leaving school, it is the glue that holds our world.

Roger Bacon (1214-1294), an English Franciscan friar, philosopher, scientist and scholar of the
13th century, once stated: “Neglect of mathematics works injury to all knowledge, since he who
is ignorant of it cannot know the other sciences or the things of the world.”

Math helps us understand or make sense of the world - and we use the world to understand
math. It is therefore important that we learn math contents needed to solve complex problems
in a complex world; learn the mathematical knowledge and skills we need to understand the
world and make contributions to the global community.

Applications of Mathematics in Our World

Mathematics has so many uses of applications.

• Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world;

• Mathematics helps predict the behavior of nature and many phenomena;

• Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our own

good; • Mathematics has applications in many human endeavors.

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Lesson 1 18

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Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the World

According to Ian Stewart (1995), we live in a universe of patterns. Human mind and culture
have de veloped a formal system of thought for recognizing, classifying and understanding
patterns. This formal system of thought is what we know now as mathematics. We use
mathematics to organize and system atize our thoughts and ideas about patterns and other
regularities in this world. The development of these new mathematical theories helped paved
the way to the thorough understanding of the different patterns in nature. Stewart (1995) also
mentioned that our newfound understanding of natural order and nature’s secret regularities is
being used to steer artificial satellites to new destinations with far less fuel than anybody had
thought possible, to help avoid wear on the wheels of locomotives and other rolling stock, to
improve the effectiveness of heart pacemakers, to manage forests and fisheries, even to make
more efficient dishwashers. But most important of all, it is giving us a deeper vision of the
universe in which we live, and of our own place in it. Yes, mathematics has indeed helped
organize patterns and consistencies in the world.

Mathematics helps predict the behavior of nature and many phenomena.

Mathematics is used to explain why the Sun set, where it went and why it returned because it
was easier to count these events in numbers than to put them into words. Based on historical
patterns, we can make forecasts or predictions to help us prepare for our daily
activities.Formulas and other mathematical meth ods became a way of using numbers to show
how things in nature happen, where and when it will happen.

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Lesson 1 19

Earth scientists have relied in the past on statistical methods to forecast natural hazard events.
However, Benoit Mandelbrot, a professor of mathematical sciences at Yale University
described how he has been using fractals to find order within complex systems in nature, such
as the natural shape of a coastline. As a result of his research, earth scientists are taking
Mandelbrot’s fractal approach one step further and are measuring past events and making
probability forecasts about the size, location, and timing of future natural disasters.
Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our own good.
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Mathematical modelling and control theory can be used. By mathematical modeling we see the
inputs to events and their most likely outcomes. Knowing these inputs and seeing their
consequences and establishing their relationship defined quantitatively, we can prepare for
calamities or natural disasters, or better yet, we can probably stop them from happening.

Control theory is defined as a field of applied mathematics that is relevant to the control of
certain phys ical processes and systems. As long as human culture has existed, control has
meant some kind of power over the environment and control theory may be viewed as the
science of modifying that environment, in the physical, biological, or even social sense. Control
theory played a major role in many technological advances in the second half of the 20th
century.

Mathematics has applications in many human endeavors making it indispensable.

Mathematics existed since the beginning of time, written or unwritten. Its unwritten history is
carved in all things found in cosmos , found in the patterns created in nature, appreciated in the
juxtaposition of the heavens and the earth, contrast between darkness and light , made sense
in the harmony created not just by a well-known orchestra but even by the rain drops falling on
offshore wind-turbines. Its language, though considered by many as abstract is in fact easy to
grasp when the logic and formula that govern it are understood by the inquisitive minds of
students, bakers, chemists , carpenters and appreciated by the receptive hearts of the
musicians - drummers, guitarists, pianists and composers; dance choreographers, gymnasts
and marathon runners.

Mathematics permeates every area of man’s life , leaving every man convinced of its value. As
a tool, mathematics is indispensable. It is needed by all people in honing their logical thinking
and reasoning, in making wise financial decisions - in budgeting or making both ends meet
when financial resources are scarce. It is needed in choosing the best interior and outdoor
designs of houses , offices and business sites. It is useful in determining traveling time and
calculating the amount of fuel needed to get to the destination. It is not just needed in the
classrooms but also at home when doing the mundane baking or preparing foods for breakfast
, dinner or lunch; calculating steps when performing simple to complex acrobatic stance;
determining speed in a short distance or marathon run, preparing chemical solutions in

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Lesson 1 20

a biological or chemical laboratory and the like. Indeed, its application and use are
uncountable and the list of uses it offers is unending.

As it is valuable and integral in the life of man, mathematics as a discipline that

Introduces students with the wide array of possibilities from honing problem-solving
skills to enriching aesthetic judgment.

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Lesson 2 21 Assessment

I. Patterns and Numbers in Nature

(1) Give five examples each of nature having reflection symmetry and radial symmetry.

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(2) Compare and contrast (a) rotation and reflection; (b) translation and rotation.

(3) Which upper case letters of the English alphabet look the same after being rotated
90◦? 180◦?

(4) Classify the following frieze patterns based on Conway’s classification.

(c)
(a)

(d)

(b)
(e)

II. Fibonacci Sequence

(1) Enumerate the first twenty Fibonacci numbers.

(2) Use F40 = 63; 245; 986 and F38 = 39; 088; 169 to find the value of F39. Show your

reasoning. (3) Using the Binet’s formula, calculate F4.

III. Beyond the Walls (Performance Task)

Look for patterns Inside or outside of your house then take pictures of the patterns
explored using smart phones or digital camera. Explore, take photos, make list and
identify what patterns can be seen in nature inside your house, at the garden or park
nearby or any part of the neighborhood. Showcase your drawing skills by creating original
paintings or pictures, poster, photo collage or vlogs of the different patterns in nature,
Fibonacci, golden ratio or the like that you have encountered on your walk.

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Lesson 2 22 Lesson 2: Logic and Sets

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students are able to

1. identify which are propositions and which are not;

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2. construct compound propositions using logical connectives;

3. construct truth tables for propositions;

4. test validity of arguments

2.1 Propositions
Mathematics is a language. As in any other types of language, we use sentences to
communicate thoughts and ideas. Mathematics is not an exception. We use propositions to
communicate mathematical ideas precisely.

Definition 1
A proposition is a declarative sentence that can be objectively identified as either true or
false, but not both. If a proposition is true, then its truth value is true and is denoted by T
or 1; otherwise, its truth value is false and is denoted by F or 0.

Example 1. Consider the following sentences.

(5) Is that your laptop?
(1) Douglas MacArthur arrived in the Philippines
in 1521. (6) Basketball players are handsome. (7)

(2) Are you insane? There is life in other planets. (8)

√
(3) 2 is an irrational number. Welcome to the Philippines!

(4) Find all x such that xe−x = 2.

Immediately, we find that sentences (2), (4), (5), and (8) are not declarative sentences, so they
are not propositions.

Sentence (1) is a proposition because Douglas MacArthur either arrived in the Philippines in
1521 or not. In fact, this proposition is false because historical records shows that Douglas
MacArthur arrived in the Philippines some time in 1900s.

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Lesson 2 23

Sentence (3) is clearly a true proposition. Although statement (6) is a declarative sentence, it
cannot be considered a proposition because the meaning of the word “handsome” is subjective
in nature. Unless we could agree on an objective definition of “handsome”, then statement (6)
cannot be considered a proposition.

Finally, statement (7) is a proposition. Whether there is life or not in other planets, it doesn’t
really matter. The fact that this sentence is either true or false, and cannot be both true and
false, makes it a

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proposition. For this example, we still don’t have enough evidence to claim that proposition (7)
is true yet, and we don’t have a proof that it is false either. Hence, only time will tell when can
we assign a truth value for (7), but certainly, it has a truth value.

Symbolically, we denote propositions in this lesson using lower case letters, such as p; q; r; s;
etc.

Definition 2
The negation of a proposition p is the proposition which is false when p is true; and true
when p is false. The negation of p is denoted by ¬ p.

In the English language, we can simply state the negation of a proposition p by saying “It is not
the case that p.” However, there are many ways to express negations of statements
grammatically by replacing “is/are” by “is not/are not”, etc.

Example 2. Given the statements

p : Everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.
q : Today is Wednesday.

The corresponding negations are

¬ p : Not everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.

¬ q : Today is not Wednesday.

2.2 Compound Propositions

A simple proposition is a proposition with only one subject and only one predicate. For
example, the proposition “Every cat that barks has a PhD.” is a simple proposition. The subject
of this proposition is “every cat that barks” and the predicate is “has a PhD.” In logic, we can
combine simple propositions to form compound propositions using logical connectives. Some
of the most common connectives are “or”, “and”, “but”, “unless”, etc.

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Lesson 2 24

Definition 3
Let p and q be given propositions. The conjunction of p and q is the proposition “p and q”,
denoted by p ∧ q, which is true only when both p and q are true.

In other words, if one of p or q is false, then p ∧ q is false. We summarize this idea using the
following table.

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pqp∧q
111
100
010
000

Such a table is called a truth table for p∧q. The truth table above illustrates the different
combinations of truth values for p and q and the corresponding truth value for the conjunction.

Example 3. Given the propositions

p : 3 is odd.
q : Elephants are mammals.
r : Philippines is a first world country.

We know that p and q are true and r is false. Therefore,

p ∧ q : 3 is odd and elephants are mammals.

is true, while
p ∧ r : 3 is odd and Philippines is a first world country.

is false. For a more complicated example, the proposition

(¬ p) ∧ (¬ q) : Neither 3 is odd nor Philippines is a first world country.

is still false, since ¬ p is false.

Definition 4
Let p and q be given propositions. The disjunction of p and q is the proposition “p or q”,
denoted by p ∨ q, which is false only when both p and q are false.

In other words, if one of p or q is true (or both), then p ∨ q is true. The truth table for p ∨ q is
given below.

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Lesson 2 25

pqp∨q
111
101
011
000

Example 4. Consider the statements p, q and r in the preceding example. The statement
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p ∨ q : Either 3 is odd or elephants are mammals.

is true. Also,
p ∨ r : Either 3 is odd or Philippines is a first world country:

Example 5. The proposition “Either 3 is odd or there is life in other planets.” is technically true
since the component “3 is odd.” is a true proposition. Whether the proposition “There is life in
other planets.” is true or false, the disjunction is always true.

Example 6. Construct a truth table for the compound statement p ∨ (q ∧ (¬ r)).

Solution. Since each of p, q, and r may assume two distinct truth values, then there are a total
of 2 · 2 · 2 = 8 combinations, hence the truth table must contain eight rows as shown below.

p q r ¬ r q ∧ (¬ r) p ∨ (q ∧ (¬r))
111001
110111
101001
100101
011000
010111
001000
000100

Definition 5
Let p and q be propositions. The conditional statement p −→ q is the proposition “If p,
then q.” is the proposition which is false only when p is true and q is false. The converse,
inverse, and contrapositive of p −→ q are the conditional statements q −→ p, (¬ p) −→ (¬
q), and (¬ q) −→ (¬ p), respectively.

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Lesson 2 26 The following is the truth table for p −→ q.

p q p −→ q
111
100
011
001

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In the proposition p −→ q, the proposition p is also called as the premise and q is called as the
conclusion. From the truth table, we can see that a conditional statement is trivially true when
the premise is false.

Example 7. Suppose that your mother exclaims “If you don’t wash the dishes, then you don’t
get money for a buffet.” In this conditional statement, the premise is “You don’t wash the
dishes.” and the conclusion is “you don’t get money for a buffet.” This statement can only false
only when you don’t wash the dishes but you still get money for the buffet.

Note that there are many ways to say p −→ q aside from “If p, then q.” Alternatively, we can
say “q if p” or “p implies q”, “p is sufficient for q” or “q is necessary for p.”

Example 8. Given the statements p : “ı is irrational.” and q : “3 is less than 2.”,

then p −→ q : If ı is irrational, then 3 is less than 2.

the converse of this conditional is

q −→ p : If 3 is less than 2, then ı is irrational.

the inverse is
(¬ p) −→ (¬ q) : If ı is not irrational, then 3 is not less than 2.

and the contrapositive is

(¬ q) −→ (¬ p) : If 3 is not less than 2, then ı is not irrational.

If we assume that p is true and q is false (just like how they really are in mathematics), one
verifies that both p −→ q and (¬ q) −→ (¬ p) are false, while both q −→ p and (¬ p) −→ (¬ q)
are true.

We like to emphasize that we write the negation of “ı is irrational” as “ı is not irrational” to

emphasize the fact that we actually don’t assume that the opposite of being irrational is being
rational, unless otherwise stated.

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Lesson 2 27

Definition 6
Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional statement p ↔ q to be read as “p if and
only if q” is the proposition which is true only if both p and q are true or both p and q are
false.

pqp↔q
111
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100
010
001

Definition 7
A compound proposition is a tautology if its truth value remains true regardless of the
truth values of its component propositions. On the other hand, a compound proposition is
a contradiction if its truth value remains false regardless of the truth values of its
component propositions.

Example 9. The compound statement p ∨ (¬ p) is a tautology and the compound statement p

∧ (¬ p) is a contradiction. This can be observed by looking at the truth table below.

p ¬ p p ∨ (¬ p) p ∧ (¬ p)
1010
0110

Definition 8
Let p and q be propositions (possibly compound). We say that p logically implies q,
expressed as p =⇒ q, if the conditional statement p −→ q is a tautology. If p =⇒ q and q
=⇒ p, we say that p and q are logically equivalent and we write p ⇐⇒ q. A compound
proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a contingency.

Example 10. By constructing truth tables, show that p =⇒ p ∨ q and p ∧ q =⇒ p.

Solution.
p q p ∨ q p ∧ q p −→ (p ∨ q) (p ∧ q) −→ p
111111
101011
011011
000011

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Lesson 2 28

In logic, the implication p =⇒ (p∨q) is called as the law of addition and the implication (p∧q)
=⇒ p is the law of simplification.

The following are some of the most common equivalences in logic.

Theorem 1
Let p; q; and r be propositions.

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1. p ⇐⇒ q if and only if p ←→ q is a tautology.

2. p ⇐⇒ p.

3. p ∨ q ⇐⇒ q ∨ p and p ∧ q ⇐⇒ q ∧ p. (commutative properties)

4. p ∨ (q ∨ r) ⇐⇒ (p ∨ q) ∨ r and p ∧ (q ∧ r) ⇐⇒ (p ∧ q) ∧ r. (associative properties)

5. p ∨ (q ∧ r) ⇐⇒ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) and p ∧ (q ∨ r) ⇐⇒ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r).
(distributive properties)

6. De Morgan’s Laws

(a) ¬(p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ (¬ p) ∧ (¬ q).

(b) ¬(p ∧ q) ⇐⇒ (¬ p) ∨ (¬ q)

7. p −→ q ⇐⇒ (¬ p) ∨ q.

8. ¬(p −→ q) ⇐⇒ p ∧ (¬ q).
9. p −→ q ⇐⇒ (¬ q) −→ (¬ p).

10. p ←→ q ⇐⇒ (p −→ q) ∧ (q −→ p):

2.3 Sets
One of the basic concepts every student of mathematics must know is that
of sets. Definition 9
A set is a well-defined collection of objects called elements.

A collection is well-defined if for any given object we can objectively decide whether it is or is
not in the collection. Any object which belongs to a given set is said to be an element of or a
member of the given set.

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Lesson 2 29

Example 11.

1. The collection of all letters in the English Alphabet is a set.

2. The collection of all handsome guys is not a set, because one cannot objectively identify if
a given guy is handsome or not, because the word “handsome” is subjective in nature.

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Upper case letters are usually used to name sets. A set A can be commonly described in three
ways, by (a) listing (roster) method, (b) by set-builder notation or(c) by descriptive method. The
listing method describes the set by listing all the elements between braces and separated by
commas (note: in enumerating the elements of a certain set, each element is listed only once
and the arrangement of elements in the list is immaterial). The set-builder notation uses a
variable (a symbol, usually a letter, that can represent different elements of a set), braces, and
a vertical bar | that is read as "such that". This is usually used when the elements are too many
to list down. The descriptive method uses a short verbal statement to describe the set.

Example 12. Using the roster method, the set of months in a year that ends with letter ‘y’ can
be represented by {January, February, May, July}.

Example 13. The set {2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9} in set-builder notation is

{x | x is an integer greater than 1 but less than 10}:

If a is an element of a set A, we write a ∈ A. Otherwise, we write a =∈ A. There are sets with

no elements. Such a set is said to be empty and we use the symbol ? to denote the empty set.
A set with only one element is called a unit set or a singleton.

Example 14. The set of integers between 1 and 2 is empty, while the set of even prime
numbers is a singleton.

For future discussion, we will use the following notations:

• N for the set of natural or counting numbers (positive integers): {1; 2; 3; 4;

:::} • Z for the set of integers: {::: − 4; −3; −2; −1; 0; 1; 2; 3; :::}

• Q for the set of • R for the set of

b| a; b ∈ Z; b 6=
rational numbers: real numbers 0
ff

a

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Lesson 2 30

A set A is said to be finite if it is possible to list down all the elements of A in a list. Otherwise, A
is said to be infinite. If A is finite, the cardinality of A is the number of elements of A, which is
denoted by n(A).

Example 15. The set of all letters in the English Alphabet is finite and its cardinality is 26,
because there are 26 distinct letters in the English alphabet. On the other hand, the set of all
even integers in infinite.
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Definition 10
Let A and B be sets. We say that A is a subset of B and write A ⊆ B if every element of
A is an element of B. We say that A and B are equal and write A = B if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

Remarks.

1. For any set A, A ⊆ A and ? ⊆ A.

2. If A and B are finite sets and A = B, then n(A) = n(B).

Example 16. Let A be the set of all mathematicians 20 feet high and B be the set of all PUP
students. Then A = ?. By Remark (1) above, A ⊆ B: Therefore, we can conclude that every
mathematician 20 feet high is a PUP student.

Two finite sets A and B are said to be equivalent if and only if n(A) = n(B). Note that equal sets
are necessarily equivalent bu equivalent sets need not be equal.

Example 17. Let A = {x | x is a prime number less than 20} and B = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8} are
equiv alent since n(A) = 8 = n(B), however, A 6= B.

Definition 11
Let A and B be sets. The union of A and B is defined as

A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}:

The intersection of A and B is

A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}:

Then relative complement of B in A is the set

A \ B := {x ∈ A | x =∈ B}:
We could represent A ∪ B, A ∩ B, and A \ B in terms of Venn Diagrams as shown below. All

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Lesson 2 31

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Example 18. Let A = {0; 1; 3; 5; 7} and B = {1; 2; 4; 7; 9}. Then A ∪ B = {0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 7; 9}, A
∩ B = {1; 7} and A \ B = {0; 3; 5}.

In most of the interesting instances in mathematics, we normally talk about a particular set of
objects at a given time. The set of all objects of interest is called as the universal set,
generically denoted as U . If A ⊂ U , the complement of A is defined as the set

A0 = U \ A = {x ∈ U ∈ x =∈ A}:

Using the De Morgan’s Law of logic, one can readily verify that

(A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B0and (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B0:

We can use our knowledge of sets to solve some word problems.

Example 19. At a certain high school, each student is a member of the English Club, the
Science Club, or the Mathematics Club. Of the 79 students asked, 33 are members of the
English Club, 37 are members of the Math Club, and 37 are members of the of the Science
club. Furthermore, 7 are members of both the English and the Math Clubs, 12 are members of
both the English and the Science Clubs, and 9 are members of the Science and Math Clubs.
No high school student is a member of all the three clubs. How many joined only the Math
Club?

Solution Let E, S, and M denote the sets of members of English, Science, and Mathematics
Club, respectively. As given in the problem, the universal set U has cardinality n(U ) = 79, n(E)
= 33, n(M) = 37, and n(S) = 37. Furthermore, n(E ∩ M) = 7, n(E ∩ S) = 12, and n(S ∩ M) = 9.
The last condition imply that E ∩ S ∩ M = ?. This situation can be represented by the following
Venn diagram.

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Lesson 2 32

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Since n(E ∩ S ∩ M) = 0, then the number of students who only joined the Mathematics

Club is n(M) − n(E ∩ M) − n(S ∩ M) = 37 − (7 + 9) = 21:

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Lesson 2 33 Assessment

1. Write each statement in words. Let p: The plane is on time. Let q: The sky is clear.

(a) p ∧ (¬ q)
(b) q → (p ∨ ¬p)
(c) p ↔ q
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2. Construct a truth table for each proposition.

(a) [(p ∧ q) ∨ r] ↔ [(p ∧ r) ∨ (q ∧ r)]

(b) [(p ∧ r) → (q ∧ ¬r)] → [(p ∧ q) ∨ r)]

3. Prove the De Morgan’s Laws by constructing truth tables.

4. Let U := Letters in the English Alphabet = {a, b, c, . . . ,x, y, z}

A = {t, r, i, a, n, g, l, e, s}
B = {s, q, u, a, r, e };
C = {h, e, x, a, g, o, n, s }
Determine the following:

(a) A ∪ (B ∩ C)

(b) (A ∪ B)0 ∩ C
(c) (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C)

(d) A ∩ (C ∩ U )0
(e) n[(A ∪ B) ∩ (B ∪ C)]

5. A survey of 90 customers was taken at Barnes & Noble regarding the types of books
purchased. The survey found that 44 purchased mysteries, 33 purchased science fiction,
29 purchased romance novels, 13 purchased mysteries and science fiction, 5 purchased
science fiction and romance novels, 11 purchased mysteries and romance novels, and 2
purchased all three types of books (mysteries, science fiction, romance novels). How
many of the customers surveyed purchased

(a) mysteries only?

(b) mysteries and science fiction, but not romance novels?
(c) mysteries or science fiction?
(d) romance novels or mysteries, but not science fiction?
(e) exactly two types (mysteries, science fiction, romance novels)?

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Lesson 3 34 Lesson 3: Problem Solving

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students are able to

1. differentiate between inductive and deductive reasoning;

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2. utilize inductive reasoning to form conjectures;

3. use deductive reasoning to prove a conjecture;

4. state the Polya’s four steps in problem solving;

5. solve mathematical problems using the Polya’s four steps.

3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Human beings are said to be rational creatures because we use reasoning to come up with
sound decisions that we have to make everyday. Reasoning is our ability to use logical thinking
to come up with a decision. There are two major types of reasoning: inductive and deductive.
We first talk about inductive reasoning.

Definition 12
Inductive Reasoning is the process of reasoning that arrives at a general conclusion
based on the observation of specific examples.

Normally, we use inductive reasoning when we need to come up with a general conclusion,
known as a conjecture, by observing certain events or examples. Generally speaking, our
conjectures could be wrong. Examples which can negate our conjectures are called
counterexamples.

Example 20. In the past 30 days, we observed that the sun has risen in the east. Using
inductive reasoning, we may conjecture that the sun will rise in the east tomorrow.

Example 21. Consider the odd numbers 3; 5; 7; and 9. If we take their squares, we see that 32
= 9, 52 = 25, 72 = 49 and 92 = 81. We can observe that the squares of the given odd numbers
are all odd as well. Using inductive reasoning, we may conjecture that the square of an odd
integer is also odd.

Testing Conjectures
Logically speaking, we cannot prove a general statement from a number of specific examples
unless there are only finitely many examples and we can exhaust them. However, only one
counter example can prove

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Lesson 3 35

that our conjecture is false.

Example 22. Let n be a positive integer. Select n distinct points at random in the
circumference of a circle and connect every pair of points in this collection by a chord.
Make a conjecture about the number of regions in the interior of the circle made by the
chords and test your conjecture.

For n = 1; 2; 3; 4; 5, we draw actual circles and count the number of regions made by

the chords obtained

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by connecting every pair of points.

We summarize the number of regions in the following table.

n12345
no. of regions 1 2 4 8 16

If we observe the pattern on the number of regions, they seem to be powers of 2. In fact,
for n = 1; 2; 3; 4; 5, the number of regions in the circle is 2n−1. It is therefore reasonable
for use to give the following conjecture.

Conjecture. The number of regions in the interior of the circle made by connecting every
pair of points in a set of n points in the circumference is 2n−1.

The best way to test the conjecture is to check the example for the next larger n, which
is n = 6. Constructing the circle for n = 6 and counting the regions,
we see that the number of regions is 31 and not 26−1. This counterexample disproves

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Lesson 3 36

Definition 13
Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning that arrives at a conclusion based on
previously accepted general statements.

Deductive reasoning does not rely on examples. We make our conclusion based on general
statements whose truth value is known or assumed. Formal mathematics is usually based on
this type of reasoning. We first lay down definition of terms, and assume basic true statements

called axioms and derive true

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statements from these axioms called as theorems.

Example 23. The following are examples of deductive reasoning.

1. Starfish are invertebrates. Patrick is a starfish. Therefore, Patrick is invertebrate. 2. Every

√ √
rational number is a real number. The number −1 is not real. Therefore, −1 is not rational.

Inductive reasoning cannot in general prove general statements as this relies on examples
only. In contrast, we can use deductive reasoning to prove a certain conjecture.

Example 24. Choose any number. Multiply by 3. Add 6 to the result. Divide the result by 3.
Finally, subtract the original number from the result of the previous step. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the final result and use deductive reasoning to prove the
conjecture.

Solution. We first consider few examples.

test number 9 15 28
multiply by 3: 27 45 84
add 6: 33 51 90
divide by 3: 11 17 30
subtract the orig. no. 2 2 2

We see that based from the three test numbers, the final results are the same and are all equal
to 2. There is a reason to conjecture that the final result will always be 2 regardless on where
we start. To prove this claim, take an arbitrary number x.

multiply by 3: 3x
add 6: 3x + 6
divide by 3: 3x + 6

3= x + 2
subtract the orig. no: (x + 2) − x = 2.
Therefore, as claimed, it is now proven that we will always end up with 2.

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Lesson 3 37

3.2 George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

In 1945, mathematician George Pólya devised a model for problem solving and published it in
his book How to Solve It. The book contains a collection of mathematical problems and
selected strategies on dealing these. His problem solving model, which he called heuristic (or
serving to discover), is as follows.

POLYA’S FOUR STEPS:

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1. Understand the problem. Ask questions, experiment, or otherwise rephrase the question
in your own words.

2. Devise a plan. Find the connection between the data and the unknown. Look for patterns,
relate to a previously solved problem or a known formula, or simplify the given
information to give you an easier problem.

3. Carry out the plan. Check the steps as you go.

4. Look back. Examine the solution obtained. In other words, check your

answer. Together with these guidelines, the following are some of his

recommended strategies:

1. Draw a diagram.
2. Solve a simpler 6. Find a pattern.

problem. 3. Make a 7. Use a formula or an

table. equation. 8. Using logical

4. Work backwards. reasoning.

5. Guess and check.
Example 25. In a seminar, 30 attendees were present. During their meet-and-greet activity,
they were asked to have a handshake with everyone in the room. If each one did handshake
with everyone, how may handshakes took place?

Solution.

Step 1. Understand the Problem. There were 30 attendees present. A simple handshake
means letting a distinct pair be recognized. Moreover, if A shakes hands with B, then B
shakes hands with A as well.

Step 2. Devise a plan. We start with solving simpler cases, say 3, 4 and 5 persons. We can
draw a diagram where a person is represented by nodes while handshakes by arcs
connecting the nodes. From here, we try to find a pattern.

Step 3. Carry out the plan. The following figures represent the handshakes that took place
among 3, 4 and 5 persons.

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Lesson 3 38

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A group of 3 persons makes 3 handshakes, a group of 4 persons makes 6 handsakes
and a group of 5 persons makes 10 handshakes. Now, for each case with k persons,
each of these persons has to have a handshake with the other k − 1 persons. So, the
product k(k − 1) is the number of all handshakes from individual perspective. Note that
if A shakes hands with B,
then B shakes hands with A as well. Thus, only half of k(k −1) represents the total
number of handshakes. Hence, a pattern is generalized by k(k − 1)

2will lead to the number of handshakes

that took place in a group of k persons. Therefore, there were a total of

k(k − 1)

2=30(30 − 1)

2= 435 handshakes.

Step 4. Look back. Every person will be shaking hands with 29 other. Thus, 870 handshakes
are noted for individual perperspective. Half of which is 435.

Example 26. Andrew has some magic cards to trade. Ian has 2 more than 2 times the number
of magic cards Andrew has. Patrick has 2 less than Ian. Ken has 4 less than 2 times the
number of magic cards Patrick has. Patrick has 8 magic cards. How many magic cards does
Andrew have to trade?

Solution.

Step 1. Understand the Problem. The number of magic cards Ian has depends on the number
of magic cards Andrew has. The number of magic cards Patrick has depends on the
number of magic cards Ian has. The number of magic cards Ken has depends on the
number of magic cards Patrick has. It is clear that 8 cards are in Patrick’s possession.

Step 2. Devise a plan. We can settle this by working backwards starting from the number of
magic cards Patrick has. Making a table may aid organization.

Step 3. Carry out the plan.

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Lesson 3 39

Statements of Hints Arithmetic Sense Remarks

Patrick has 8 magic cards. 8 This is the last event.
Ken has 4 less than 2 times Operation is not
the number of magic cards (2 × 8) − 4 = 12 yet revered.
Patrick has. Ken has 12 cards.
Patrick has 2 less Operation is reversed.
less than Ian. 8 + 2 = 10 Ian has 10 cards.

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Ian has 2 more than Operation is reversed.
2 times the number of (10 − 2)=2 = 4 Andrew has 4 cards.
magic cards Andrew has.

Step 4. Look back. If Andrew has 4 magic cards, then Ian has 2 more than twice of 4 or 10
magic cards. If Ian has 10 magic cards, then Patrick has 10 - 2 = 8 magic cards.
Lastly, if Ken has 4 less than twice of 8 of 12 magic cards.
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Lesson 3 40 Assessment

1. Explain why you can never be sure that a conclusion you arrived at using inductive
reasoning is true.

2. Select any two-digit number. Multiply it by 9. Then add the digits. Keep adding the digits in
the answer until you get a single-digit answer. Using inductive reasoning, what can you
conjecture

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about any whole number multiplied by 9? Use deductive reasoning to prove that your
conjecture is true.

3. Use Polya’s Four Steps to solve the following problems.

(a) Susie’s age this year is a multiple of 5. Next year, her age is a multiple of 7. What is
her present age?

(b) Consider a square whose side is 1 unit. If the measure of its side is doubled, what
will be its new area as compare to the smaller square? How about if the side of the
smaller square was tripled, what will be its new area?

(c) How many perfect squares are there between 1,000,000 and 9,000,000?
(d) Determine the number of different triangles that can be drawn given eight noncollinear points?
(e) There are 25 students asked by their literature instructor regarding with the type of
literary works they prefer to read. He found out that 10 prefer to read novels, 11
prefer to read short stories, 15 prefer to read poems, 5 for both novels and short
stories, 4 both short stories and poems, 7 for both novels and poems, and 3 prefer
all. How many students prefer none of the given types of literary works?

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Lesson 4 41 Lesson 4: Statistics and Data Management

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students are able to

1. demonstrate the ability to apply fundamental concepts in exploratory data analysis;

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2. define the field of Statistics in terms of its definition and application;

3. enumerate the procedures involved in collecting data;

4. distinguish between the nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio methods of data

measurement; 5. recognize the various ways to present data;

6. identify the features that describe a data distribution.

Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation
of data. It deals with all aspects of data, including the planning of its collection in terms of the
design of surveys and experiments. Some consider statistics a mathematical body of science
that pertains to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data,
while others consider it a branch of mathematics concerned with collecting and interpreting
data. Because of its empirical roots and its focus on applications, statistics is usually
considered a distinct mathematical science rather than a branch of mathematics.

4.1 Basic Concepts

Statistics is defined as a branch of mathematics which is concerned with facilitating wise

decision making in the face of uncertainty and that, therefore develops and utilizes techniques
for collection, effective presentation, and proper analysis of data.

Branches of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics is concerned with the description and summarization of data, It

deals with the techniques used in the collection, presentation, organization, and analysis
of the data on hand.

2. Inferential Statistics is concerned with the drawing of conclusions from data. It deals with
the techniques used in generalizing from samples to populations, performing estimations
and hypothesis tests determining relationships among variables, and making predictions.

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Lesson 4 42

Functions of Statistics

1. Condensation. Generally speaking by the verb ‘to condense’, we mean to reduce or to

lessen. Condensation is mainly applied at embracing the understanding of a huge mass
of data by providing only few observations.

2. Comparison. Classification and tabulation are the two methods that are used to condense
the data. They help us to compare data collected from different sources. Grand totals,
measures

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of central tendency measures of dispersion, graphs and diagrams, coefficient of
correlation, etc. provide ample scope for comparison. As statistics is an aggregate of
facts and figures, comparison is always possible and in fact comparison helps us to
understand the data in a better way.

3. Forecasting. By the word forecasting, we mean to predict or to estimate beforehand.

Given the data of the last ten years connected to the number of students enrolled in PUP,
it is possible to predict or forecast the number of students that will enroll for the near
future. In business also forecasting plays a dominant role in connection with production,
sales, profits etc. The analysis of time series and regression analysis plays an important
role in forecasting.

4. Estimation. One of the main objectives of statistics is drawn inference about a population
from the analysis for the sample drawn from that population.

5. Tests of Hypothesis. A statistical hypothesis is some statement about the probability distri
bution, characterizing a population on the basis of the information available from the
sample observations. In the formulation and testing of hypothesis, statistical methods are
extremely use ful. Whether the grades of students increased because they are motivated
or whether the new teaching method is effective in discussing a particular topic are some
examples of statements of hypothesis and these are tested by proper statistical tools.

Scope of Statistics

1. Statistics and Industry. Statistics is widely used in many industries. In industries, control
charts are widely used to maintain a certain quality level. In production engineering, to
find whether the product is conforming to specifications or not, statistical tools, namely
inspection plans, control charts, etc., are of extreme importance. In inspection plans we
have to resort to some kind of sampling - a very important aspect of Statistics.

2. Statistics and Commerce. Statistics are lifeblood of successful commerce. Any

businessman cannot afford to either by under stocking or having overstock of his goods.
In the beginning he estimates the demand for his goods and then takes steps to adjust
with his output or purchases. Thus statistics is indispensable in business and commerce.

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Lesson 4 43

3. Statistics and Economics. Statistical methods are useful in measuring numerical changes
in complex groups and interpreting collective phenomenon. Nowadays the uses of
statistics are abun dantly made in any economic study. Both in economic theory and
practice, statistical methods play an important role.

4. Statistics and Education. Statistics is widely used in education. Research has become a
common feature in all branches of activities. Statistics is necessary for the formulation of
policies

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to start new course, consideration of facilities available for new courses etc. There are
many people engaged in research work to test the past knowledge and evolve new
knowledge. These are possible only through statistics.

5. Statistics and Planning. Statistics is indispensable in planning. In the modern world, which
can be termed as the “world of planning”, almost all the organizations in the government
are seeking the help of planning for efficient working, for the formulation of policy
decisions and execution of the same. In order to achieve the above goals, the statistical
data relating to production, consump tion, demand, supply, prices, investments, income
expenditure etc and various advanced statistical techniques for processing, analyzing and
interpreting such complex data are of importance. In India statistics play an important role
in planning, commissioning both at the central and state government levels.

6. Statistics and Medicine. In Medical sciences, statistical tools are widely used. In order to
test the efficiency of a new drug or medicine, t - test is used or to compare the efficiency
of two drugs or two medicines, t-test for the two samples is used. More and more
applications of statistics are at present used in clinical investigation.

7. Statistics and Modern Applications. Recent developments in the fields of computer

technol ogy and information technology have enabled statistics to integrate their models
and thus make statistics a part of decision making procedures of many organizations.
There are so many software packages available for solving design of experiments,
forecasting simulation problems etc.

Limitations of Statistics

1. Statistics is not suitable to the study of qualitative phenomenon. Since statistics is

basically a science and deals with a set of numerical data, it is applicable to the study of
only these subjects of enquiry, which can be expressed in terms of quantitative
measurements. As a matter of fact, qualitative phenomenon like honesty, poverty, beauty,
intelligence etc, cannot be expressed numerically and any statistical analysis cannot be
directly applied on these qualitative phenomenon.

2. Statistics does not study individuals. Statistics does not give any specific importance to
the individual items; in fact it deals with an aggregate of objects. Individual items, when
they are taken

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Lesson 4 44

individually do not constitute any statistical data and do not serve any purpose for any
statistical enquiry.

3. Statistical laws are not exact. It is well known that mathematical and physical sciences are
exact. But statistical laws are not exact and statistical laws are only approximations.
Statistical conclusions are not universally true. They are true only on an average.

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4. Statistics table may be misused. Statistics must be used only by experts; otherwise,
statistical methods are the most dangerous tools on the hands of the inexpert. The use of
statistical tools by the inexperienced and untraced persons might lead to wrong
conclusions.

5. Statistics is only one of the methods of studying a problem. Statistical method do not
provide complete solution of the problems because problems are to be studied taking the
background of the countries culture, philosophy or religion into consideration. Thus the
statistical study should be supplemented by other evidences.

Population and Sample

In statistics, we are often interested in gathering information from a group of objects. If the
group in consideration consists of large number of objects, we try to obtain information about
the group by examining its subgroup.

Definition 14
The total collection of all the elements that we are interested in is called a population. A
subgroup of the population that will be studied in detail is called a sample.

In order for the data from the sample is informative about the population, it must be
representative of the population. Being representative of the population does not mean that the
characteristic of the sample is exactly that of the total population, but instead the sample was
obtain in such way that every member of the population had an equal chance to be included in
the sample.

Definition 15
A sample of k members of a population is called a random sample, also called a simple
random sample, if the members are chosen in such a way that all possible choices of the
k members are equally likely.

After a random sample is obtain from the population, we can use statistical inference to draw
general izations about the population by examining the members of the sample.

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Lesson 4 45

4.2 Steps in Statistical Investigation

1. Defining the problem

(a) Identify a specific problem.

(b) Define the scope and limitations, assumptions to be made, and expected outcomes.

2. Collection of data

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(a) Make sure to collect the data properly.
(b) Incomplete, fabricated, outdated, and inaccurate data are useless.

3. Summarization and tabulation of data

(a) This refers to organization of data in text, tables, graphs and charts, so that logical
conclusion can be derived from them.
(b) Explore the data to obtain additional insight that could contribute to the

study. 4. Analysis of data

(a) This pertains to the process of deriving from the given data relevant information from
which numerical descriptions can be formulated.
(b) Summarized data must be examined so that insights and meaningful information ca
be pro duced to support decision-making or solutions to the question or problem at
hand.

5. Interpretation of data and results

(a) Refers to the task of drawing conclusions from the analyzed data.
(b) Results must be able to answer the research problem and give

recommendations. 6. Presentation of the result

(a) Present all pertinent results in a clear and concise manner.

(b) Use appropriate form of media to present results.

4.3 Sampling and Sampling Techniques

Sampling refers to the process of obtaining samples from the population. Sampling maybe
categorized as either probability sampling or non-probability sampling. Probability sampling,
also referred to as random sampling, is the method of sampling in which every member of the
population have equal chance of being selected as sample; otherwise, it is considered as
non-probability sampling. We should note that in able to properly use the techniques of
statistical inference, probability sampling must be used to obtain samples.

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Lesson 4 46

Probability Sampling Techniques

1. Simple Random Sampling. A probability sampling technique wherein all possible subsets
con sisting of n elements selected from the N elements of the population have the same
chances of selection.

2. Systematic Sampling. This is a probability sampling technique wherein the selection of the
first element is at random and the selection of other elements in the sample is systematic

by

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subsequently taking every kth element from the random start where k is the sampling interval.

3. Stratified Random Sampling. A probability sampling method where we partition the

population into non-overlapping strata or group and then a proportional sample is chosen
from each strata. The actual sample is the sum of the samples derived from each strata.

4. Cluster Sampling. A probability sampling technique wherein we partition the population

into non-overlapping groups or clusters consisting of one or more elements, and then
select a sample of clusters. Every member of the selected cluster will be considered as
sample.

Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

1. Accidental Sampling. Sample is chosen by the researcher by the obtaining members of

the population in a convenient, often haphazard way.

2. Quota Sampling. There is specified number of persons of certain types is included in the
sample. The researcher is aware of categories within the population and draws samples
from each category. The size of each categorical sample is proportional to the proportion
of the population that belongs in that category.

3. Purposive Sampling. The researcher employs his or her judgments on choosing which he
or she believes are representative of the population.

4. Snowball Sampling. This technique is also called referral sampling. A primary set of
samples are chosen based on the criteria set by the researcher. Information on where to
find succeeding set of sample having the same criteria will be gathered from this primary
set in order to expand the number of samples.
4.4 Sample Size Considerations
The sample size is typically denoted by n and it is always a positive integer. No exact sample
size can be mentioned here and it can vary in different research settings. However, all else
being equal, large sized sample leads to increased precision in estimates of various properties
of the population. To determine the sample size we can apply one of the following methods:

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Lesson 4 47

1. Slovin’s Formula. Slovin’s formula is used to calculate the sample size n given the
population size and a margin of error E. It is a formula use to estimate sampling size of a
random sample from a given population. We can compute

n =N
2
1 + NE ;

where N is the population size.

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Example 27. A researcher plans to conduct a survey about food preference of BS Stat
students. If the population of students is 1000, use the Slovin’s formula to find the sample size
if the margin of error is 5%.

Solution. Using the Slovin’s formula, we get

n =1000
2
1 + 1000(0:05) ≈ 285:71:

Therefore, the researcher needs to survey 286 BS Stat Students.

2. Minimum Sample Size for Estimating a Population Mean. The estimated minimum sample
size n needed to estimate a population mean — to within E units at 100(1 − ¸)% confidence
is

2 2
n =(z¸=2) ff
2
E ;
where ff is the known population standard deviation, E is the margin of error and z¸=2 is a
value which can be obtained in the z-table.

Example 28. Suppose we want to know the average age of STEM students. We would like to
be 99% confident about our results. From previous study, we know that the standard deviation
for the population is 1.3. How many students should be chosen for a survey if the margin of
error is 0.2.

Solution. Find z¸=2 by looking at the z-table.

¸ = (1 − 0:99) = 0:01 =⇒ z¸=2 = z0:005:

The closest z-score for 0:005 in the z-table is 2:58. Thus,

2 2
n =(2:58) (1:3)
2
(0:2) ≈ 281:23:

which we round up to 282, since it is impossible to take a fractional observation. We need a

282 STEM students as a sample for our study.

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Lesson 4 48

3. Minimum Sample Size for Estimating a Population Proportion The estimated minimum
sample size n needed to estimate a population proportion p to within E at 100(1−¸)%
confidence
is

2 2
n =(z¸=2) pˆ(1 − pˆ) E :
This is also called the Cochran Formula.
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The dilemma here is that the formula for estimating how large a sample to take contains
the number pˆ, which we know only after we have taken the sample. There are two ways
out of this dilemma.

• First, typically the researcher will have some idea as to the value of the population
proportion p, hence of what the sample proportion pˆ is likely to be. For example, if
last month 37% of all voters thought that state taxes are too high, then it is likely that
the proportion with that opinion this month will not be dramatically different, and we
would use the value 0.37 for pˆ in the formula.

• The second approach to resolving the dilemma is simply to replace pˆ in the formula
by 0.5. This is because if pˆ is large then 1 − pˆ is small, and vice versa, which limits
their product to a maximum value of 0.25, which occurs when pˆ = 0:5. This is called
the most conservative estimate, since it gives the largest possible estimate of n.

Example 29. Suppose we are doing a study on the inhabitants of a large town, and want to find
out how many households serve breakfast in the mornings. We don’t have much information on
the subject to begin with, so we’re going to assume that half of the families serve breakfast:
this gives us maximum variability. Here, pˆ = 0:5. We want 95% confidence and at least 5%
precision.

Solution. Find z¸=2 in the z-table. We have

¸ = (1 − 0:95) =⇒ z¸=2 = z0:025:

The closest z-score for 0:025 in the z-table is 1:96. A 95% confidence level gives us Z values of
1.96,
we get
2
n =(1:96) (0:5)(1 − 0:5)
2
(0:05) ≈ 384:16:
Hence, a random sample of 385 households in our target population should enough to give us
the confidence levels we need.

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Lesson 4 49

Finite Population Correction for Proportions

If the population is small then the sample size can be reduced slightly. This is because a given
sample size provides proportionately more information for a small population than a large
population. The formula
is
1 +n0 − 1
N
n =n0
;

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where n0 is the Cochran’s sample size recommendation, N is the population size and n is the
new adjusted sample size.

Example 30. In the preceding example, if there were just 1000 households in the target
population, we
would calculate 1000
≈ 278:18:
n =385 1 +385 − 1

All we need are 279 households in our sample, a substantially smaller sample size.

4.5 Methods of Data Collection

1. Survey Method. The survey is a method of collecting data on the variable of interest by
asking people questions. This may be done, by interview or by using questionnaires.

2. Observation. Observation is a method of obtaining data or information by using our

primary senses.

3. Experiment. Experiment is a method of collecting data where there is direct human

intervention on the conditions that may affect the values of the variable of interest.

4.6 Levels of Measurement

1. The nominal level of measurement classifies data into mutually exclusive
(non-overlapping) categories in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.

Example: Gender (male, female), Zip Code, Color, Nationality, Political affiliation,
Religious affiliation.

2. The ordinal level of measurement classifies data into categories that can be ranked;
however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist.

Example: Grade(A,B,C,D,F), Rating Scale/Likert scale, Ranking of tennis players,

Judging (First place, second place, etc.

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Lesson 4 50

3. The interval level of measurement ranks data, and precise differences between units of
measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful zero.

Example: Temperature, IQ, SAT score

4. The ratio level of measurement possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement, and
there exists a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist when the same variable is measured
on two

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different members of the population

Example: Height, Weight, volume, Time, Salary, Age

4.7 Presentation of Data

After data have been collected, the researcher can now present them in the following logical
methods.

1. Textual Form. Data are presented in paragraph of text. The text highlights the important
figures or results that the researcher wishes to focus on.

2. Tabular Form. Data appears in a systematic manner in rows and

columns. The following is an example of a Simple or One-Way Table.

Table 1
Frequency Distribution of the
Students Enrolled for the Last 6 Years

Year Frequency
2012 13,450
2013 13,200
2014 15,389
2015 16,790
2016 18,900
2017 19,500
Total 97,229

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Lesson 4 51 The following is an example of a Two-Way Table.

Table 2
Number of Students Enrolled for the Last 6 Years
When Grouped According to Sex

SexYear

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2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Total
Male 5560 6095 7386 8056 7945 6451 41493
Female 7890 7105 8003 8734 10955 13049 55736
Total 13450 13200 15389 16790 18900 19500 97229

3. Graphical Form. Data or relationship among variables could be presented in visual form,
thru graph or diagrams. In that manner, the reader can easily perceive what is being
meant by the figure or any trend being portrayed by the data.

Types of Statistical Charts

(a) Bar Graph (Vertical Bar/Column Charts) is applicable for showing comparison of
amount of a variable of interest collected over time.

Simple Chart

Grouped Column Charts

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Lesson 4 52 Subdivided Column Charts
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(b) Histogram is similar to the bar graph but the base of the rectangle has a length
exactly equal to the class width of the corresponding interval. Also, there are no
spaces between rectangles.

Histogram

(c) Pictograph is similar to the bar chart but instead of bars, we use pictures or symbols
to represent a value or an amount.

Pictograph
(d) Pie Chart is a circular graph partitioned into several section, depicting relative
percentage with respect to the total distribution.

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Lesson 4 53 Pie Chart

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(e) Line Graph is a graph used to visualize data that changes continuously over

time. Simple Line Graph

Multiple Line Graph

(f) Statistical Map is used to show data in geographical areas.

Statistical Map

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Lesson 4 54

4.8 Measures of Central Tendency

A measure of central tendency or average is a location measure that pinpoints the center or
typical middle value of a data set. A convenient way of describing a set of data with a value
that describes the average characteristic a data set. The three common measures of central
tendency are the mean, median and mode.

Mean

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Definition 16
Suppose that a variable x assumes values x1; x2; : : : ; xn. The arithmetic mean x of these
values
is defined as 1 Xn
n= n i=1 n:
x=
P
xi =x1 + x2 + · · · + xn
x

The (arithmetic) mean of x is obtained by adding all its observed values and dividing the sum
by the total number of observations.

Example 31. The scores of 15 students in Mathematics in the Modern World on an exam
consisting of 25 items are 25,20,18,18,17,15,15,15,14,14,13,12,12,10,10. Determine the mean
score for this exam.

Solution. Let x denote the score of a random student from the sample of 15 students in
P
Mathematics in the Modern World. The sum of these scores is x = 228. Hence, the mean
score of the 15 students is
P
x

n=228
x=

15= 15:2:

There are cases when the observations in a data set assume respective weights. In this case
where the weights are positive integers, we can call these weights as frequencies. The
following gives a formula for the weighted mean of a weighted data set.

Definition 17
Given the x values x1; x2; : : : ; xn assuming respective weights w1; w2; : : : ; wn, the weighted
mean
is defined as P
x=w1x1 + w2x2 + · · · + wnxn w1
x=
P + w2 + · · · + wn:
wx

Example 32. Suppose that we are asked to get the mean of the data set 1; 1; 3; 3; 3; 3; 4; 4; 4;

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Lesson 4 55
Using the original formula for the arithmetic mean we find that

x =(1 + 1) + (3 + 3 + 3 + 3) + (4 + 4 + 4) + (6 + 6) + 8
12

=2 · 1 + 4 · 3 + 3 · 4 + 2 · 6 + 1 · 8
1+4+3+2+1

=2 + 12 + 12 + 12 + 8
46 12
= 12

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= 3:833

We can interpret the mean of the data values as the fulcrum or center of gravity in a balance
scale as shown below.

12345678

mean = 3:8333

Example 33.
Calculate the General Weighted Average corresponding weights wi. By
(GWA) of Julius Garde for the first constructing a fourth column consisting of
semester of school year 2019-2020 as the products wixi and finding the column
shown in the following table. totals, we get the table below.

Course Grade Units BM 112 1.25 3 BM

Solution. To solve for the GWA, we first 101 1.00 3 AC 103 1.25 6 MG 101 1.00 3
consider the entries on the second
EC 111 1.50 3 MK 101 1.50 3 FM 111
column of the table as the points xi and
1.20 3 PE 1 1.00 2
the entries in the third column as the

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Lesson 4 56

Course xi wi wixi
BM 112 1.25 3 3.75
BM 101 1.00 3 3.00
AC 103 1.25 6 7.50
MG 101 1.00 3 3.00
EC 111 1.50 3 4.50
MK 101 1.50 3 4.50

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FM 111 1.20 3 3.60
PE 1 1.00 2 2.00
P P
Total w = 26 wx = 32:00
P P
We see from the column totals that w = 26 and wx = 32. Therefore, the weighted mean or
the general weighted average (GWA) of Julius Garde for the first semester of AY 2019-2020 is
P
wx
P 32
w= 26= 1:23:
Definition 18
x=
Median

The median, usually denoted by x˜, is the middle value of a data set if the observations
are arranged either in increasing or decreasing order.

Outliers in the data set do not affect the median. Thus, the median is preferred over the mean
as a measure of central tendency when the data contains outliers. To find the median, begin by
listing the data in order from smallest to largest, or largest to smallest.

If the number of data values, N, is odd, then the median is the middle data value. This value
can be found by rounding N=2 up to the next whole number. If the number of data values is
even, there is no one middle value, so we find the mean of the two middle values (values N=2
and N=2 + 1)

Example 34. Given the scores of 15 students in Mathematics in the Modern World on an exam
consisting of 25 items:
25; 20; 18; 18; 17; 15; 15; 15; 14; 14; 13; 12; 12; 10; 10

Since the data is already arranged in decreasing order and there are 15 observations, hence,
15
we round up 2= 7:5 to the nearest whole number, which is 8, and take the 8th observation
from the left (or right). Therefore, the median is x˜ = 15: In comparison to example 31, the
computed mean is 15:2.

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Lesson 4 57

2
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1

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 mean

median

Remark. In general, the median need not equal the mean.

Example 35. The data given below is the total number of hours lost due to tardiness and
absences of employees in a company in a given year. Find the median.
we take note of the two middle
Month Hours Lost
January 55 February 23 March 24
observations then compute
April 37
May 37
June 48
July 42
August 27 September 20 October 40 November 30 December
32
Solution. If the data are arranged in

increasing order, we have 20; 23; 24; 27;

x˜ =32 + 37
30; 32; 37; 37; 40; 48; 42; 55: 2= 34:5:

Since there are 12 observations (even),

Therefore, the median number of hours lost due to tardiness and absences of employees in a
company in the given year is 34:5 hours.

Mode

Definition 19
The mode is the most frequent observation in a given data set.

Outliers in the data set do not affect the mode. It is possible that the mode of a data set does
not exist, and it is not always unique. It is an appropriate measure of average for data
measured only in the nominal level. We will denote mode using the symbol xˆ.

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Lesson 4 58

Example 36. Suppose that we wanted to know the “average color” of cars used by the
residents in a given village. In our vehicle color survey, we collected the following data.

Color Frequency
Blue 3
Green 5
Red 4
White 3

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Black 2
Grey 3
Since color of vehicles are measured up to the nominal level, the most appropriate measure for
the “average color” is then the mode. The most frequent color is Green, a total of 5 vehicles.
Therefore, the “average color” in our survey data must be Green.

It is possible for a given data set to have more than one modes. Such a data set is said to be
multimodal. If a given set has only one mode, the data set is unimodal. If it has two modes, the
data set is bimodal, and so on.

4.9 Measures of Dispersion or Variability

Measures of dispersion are descriptive summary measures that helps us characterize the data
set in terms of how varied the observations are from the center. If its value is small, then this
indicates that the observations are not too different from the center. On the other hand, if its
value is large, then this indicates that the observations are very different from the center or that
they are widely spread out from the center.

Range

Definition 20
The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest observations or items in
a set of data.

The range of a data set is easy to compute, but it is a limited measure because it depends on
only two of the numbers (the highest and the lowest) in the data set. Hence, the range can
easily be affected by outliers. Also, it does not provide any information regarding the
concentration of the data from the center.

Example 37. The following are scores of 20 coming from two different sections, 10 from each
section, in a 50-item exam in MMW.
section 1 40 38 42 40 39 39 43 40 39 40
section 2 46 37 40 33 42 36 40 47 34 45

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Lesson 4 59 For section 1, the highest score is 43, while the lowest score is 38. Thus,

range = 43 − 38 = 5:

On the other hand, for section 2, the highest score is 47, while the lowest score is 33. Thus,

range = 47 − 33 = 14:

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Therefore, the scores of students surveyed from section 2 gets a wider range than those of
students surveyed from section 1.

Variance and Standard Deviation

Suppose that the center of a population data set {x1; x2; : : : ; xN} is best described by the
arithmetic mean — and that our goal is to get the average “distance” of each data point xiform
—. Naturally, we would like to compute for
N
1 X i=1 (xi −
N —):

However, using the properties of summations, and the fact that n— = x1 + x2 + · · · + xN we can
check
that X N— = 0:
N (xi − —) = N XN
X i=1 i=1 xi − i=1
— = N— −

In other words, the sum of the deviations from the mean is 0, and therefore, we cannot have a
meaningful measure of variability this way. The reason behind this fact is that some of the
deviations from the mean are negative (those which are to the left of the mean) and some are
positive (those which are to the right of the mean) and they cancel each other out. However,
we can work our way out of this unfortunate situation if we can ignore the signs of these
deviations. One way to do this is to take the square these deviations from the mean. We then
have the following definition.

Definition 21
The variance of a population data set {x1; x2; : : : ; xN} with population mean — is defined as
1

1 X 2
ff2 = N N (xi − —) :
i=

On the other hand, the variance of a sample data set {x1; x2; : : : ; xn} with sample mean x is
defined as n (xi − —)2:
X i=1
s2 =1 n − 1

As we may have noticed, the formula for the sample variance differs significantly from the

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Lesson 4 60

the population variance mainly because of the divisor n − 1. The reason behind this is rather
technical and mathematical in nature. Simply taken, the divisor n − 1 removes the “bias” in s2
when we want it to estimate ff2for the purposes of making inferences.

Notice that the variance is a nonnegative quantity because it came from averaging squared
quantities.
We also realize that there is one major drawback to using the variance. If we follow the steps in

calcu

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lating the variance, we find that the variance is measured in terms of square units because we
took the squares of the deviation. For example, if our sample data is measured in terms of
meters, then the units for a variance would be given in square units.

In order to standardize the units, we can take the square root of the variance to eliminate the
problem of squared units, and gives us a measure of the spread that will have the same units
as our original sample or population data.

Definition 22
The population (sample) standard deviation is the nonnegative square root of the the pop
ulation (sample) variance. In symbols,
√ 2 √ 2
ff = ff and s = s :
Example 38. Using the sample data sets in example 37, determine which section exhibits a
greater variability in terms of standard deviations.

Solution. Let x denote the scores of students sampled from section 1 and let y denote the
scores of students sampled from section 2. To calculate the standard deviations of each
sample, we first take note that the sample means from each section are

n=400 n=400
x=
P
x 10= 40 and y = 10= 40:
P
y

To calculate the sample standard deviation, we construct the following table.

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Lesson 4 61

x y x − x y − y (x − x)2(y − y)2
40 46 0 6 0 36
38 37 −2 −3 4 9
42 40 2 0 4 0
40 33 0 −7 0 49
39 42 −1 2 1 4
39 36 −1 −4 1 16

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43 40 3 0 9 0
40 47 0 7 0 49
39 34 −1 −6 1 36
40 45 0 5 0 25
P P P P
x = 400 y = 400 (x − x)2 = 20 (y − y)2 = 224 Therefore, the sample

variance for the sample from section 1 is

P
(x − x)2
s2 = 2:2222;
20
n − 1= 9=
while the sample variance for the sample from
P
section 2 is (y

− y)2

s2 = 24:8888:
224
n − 1= 9=
Taking square roots, we find that the sample standard deviations of section 1 and section 2
√ √
respectively are 2:2222 ≈ 1:49 and 24:8888 ≈ 4:99. We can conclude that for these samples,
the one from section 1 exhibits the lesser variability than that from section 2. We comment that
even though the two samples have equal means, the standard deviations showed the actual
difference between the two data sets.

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Lesson 4 62 Assessment

1. A research objective is presented. For each,identify the (a)population and (b) sample in the
study.
(a) A polling organization contacts 2141 male university graduates who have a
white-collar job and asks whether or not they had received a raise at work during the
past 4 months.
(b) A quality-control manager randomly selects 70 bottles of ketchup that were filled on

July 17

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to assess the calibration of the filling machine.
(c) Every year the PSA releases the Current Population Report based on a survey of
50,000 households. The goal of this report is to learn the demographic
characteristics, such as income, of all households within the Philippines.

2. Determine the level of measurement of each variable.

(a) birth order among siblings in a family

(b) favorite movie
(c) volume consumption of water used by a household in a day
(d) eye color
(e) number of siblings

3. Determine the type of sampling used.

(a) A member of Congress wishes to determine her constituents’ opinion regarding
estate taxes. She divides her constituency into three income classes: low-income
households, middle-income households, and upper-income households. She then
takes a simple random sample of house holds from each income class.
(b) A college official divides the student population into five classes: freshman,
sophomore, junior, senior, and graduate student. The official takes a simple random
sample from each class and asks the members opinions regarding student services.
(c) The presider of a guest-lecture series at a university stands outside the auditorium
before a lecture begins and hands every fifth person who arrives, beginning with the
third, a speaker evaluation survey to be completed and returned at the end of the
program.
(d) To determine his DSL Internet connection speed, Shawn divides up the day into four
parts: morning, midday, evening, and late night. He then measures his Internet
connection speed at 5 randomly selected times during each part of the day.
(e) 24 Hour Fitness wants to administer a satisfaction survey to its current members.
Using its membership roster, the club randomly selects 40 club members and asks
them about their level of satisfaction with the club.

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Lesson 4 63

4. Patricia categorized her spending for this month into four categories: Rent, Food, Fun,
and Other. The percents she spent in each category are pictured here. If she spent a total
of PhP 26,000 this month, how much did she spend on rent?

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5. You recorded the time in seconds it took for 8 participants to solve a puzzle. The times
were: 15.2, 18.8, 19.3, 19.7, 20.2, 21.8, 22.1, 29.4.

(a) Calculate the mean and the median time it took for the 8 participants to solve a puzzle.
(b) Calculate the range and standard deviation of the time it took for the 8 participants to
solve the puzzle.

6. Make up three data sets with 5 numbers each that have:

(a) the same mean but different standard deviations.

(b) the same mean but different medians.
(c) the same median but different means.

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Lesson 5 64 Lesson 5: Linear Programming

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to

1. demonstrate understanding of a linear programming model;

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2. identify the different components of a linear programming problem;

3. develop a linear programming model that involves maximization and

minimization; 4. demonstrate understanding of linear inequalities;

5. identify the different steps in solving linear inequalities in two variables;

6. find a solution space to a system of linear inequalities in two variables;

7. identify the different steps in solving linear programming problem in two variables
using graphical method;

8. find an optimal solution of a linear programming problem using the concept of corner points.

5.1 Modeling with Linear Programming

This lesson will familiarize you to a particular technique in operations research that is very
useful in our daily lives, more specifically in decision making that involves optimization of
scarce resources. You will learn how to develop a linear programming model out a problem that
involves optimization. Different component of a linear programming problem will also be
discussed in this lesson. Graphical and algebraic method of solutions to different types of linear
programming models will also be discussed. Solutions to linear programming problems with the
use of Microsoft excel solver will also be introduced at the succeeding lessons.

Many businesses in the Philippines have a common goal that is to maximize their profit while
minimizing their operation cost. With limited resources, obtaining such goal is possible with the
use of proper planning and integrating linear programming technique. Linear Programming is a
mathematical method in maximizing or minimizing linear functions subject to set of linear
constraints. In business production, the objective function is a linear function that either
maximizes profit or minimizes cost that is subject to a set of linear inequalities called linear
constraints. These set of linear constraints can be viewed as set of production requirements
that is usually limited in quantity.

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Lesson 5 65

Example 39 (The RAVLAM Company). RAVLAM Company produces two types of abaniko fan,
small and large, from three raw materials R1, R2 and R3. The following tables shows the
materials used in their production and the profit they earned for product:

amt. of raw materials

per piece of (in gms) max. daily availability (in gms.)
small size large size

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Raw Material (R1) 80 70 5,000
Raw Material (R2) 100 150 9,000
Raw Material (R3) 175 250 13,000
Profit Per Price PhP 5.00 PhP 7.00

Based on their past sales, the total demand for small size abaniko fan should not exceed by 50
units. RAVLAM Company wants to determine the best combination of their product that will
maximize their daily profit.

This is a typical type of problem where linear programming can be used. To be able to help the
RAVLAM Company in their objective, first we need to develop the necessary linear
programming model of this problem. Basically, there are three components of a linear
programming model. These are:

1. decision variables that we want to determine;

2. objective function that we want to maximize or minimize;

3. set of linear constraints that the solution must satisfy.

Using these three basic components of linear programming model, we can transform the
above problem into a linear programming model.

The first step is to define the decision variables. Decision variables are usually what are asked
in the problem to obtain your objective or goal. In the above problem, RAVLAM, Company
wants to maximize their daily profit by knowing how many abaniko fan of each sizes (small and
large) will they produced daily. Thus the decision variables of the LP model are defined as:

x1 = daily production of small abaniko fan

x2 = daily production of large abaniko fan
After defining the decision variable we can now define the objective function. Objective function
is a linear function or equation that defines what we want to optimize (maximize or minimize).
Since the company wants to maximize their profit, we can use the profit contribution of each
type of abaniko fan as seen in the above table to form the objective function. Given that the
profit per piece of small

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Lesson 5 66

abaniko fan and large abaniko fan are Php 5.00 and Php7.00 respectively, then the objective
function of the model is:
Maximize: P = 5x1 + 7x2;
where P = total profit.

The next step is to develop the linear constraints of the model. These are restrictions in the raw
materials of production and daily demand of the product. Constraints are usually set of linear
inequalities that

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define the scarcity or abundance of particular requirements in production. In constructing each
constraint, it is very useful to be familiarizing in the given inequality.
abaniko fan 1
0
1 @daily
@usage of availability of A :
A each raw
raw material ≤
by both 0 material

Always remember that each requirement in the production of abaniko fan will define exactly
one con straint. The daily usage of each type of abaniko fan as shown in the table can be
written as:

Daily usage of raw material R1 by small abaniko fan = 80x1:

Daily usage of raw material R1 by large abaniko fan = 70x2:

These imply that the daily usage of raw material R1 by both abaniko fan sizes is 80x1 + 70x2. In
similar manner we can get the second and third constraints of the LP model using raw material
R2 and R3, that is,
Raw Material R2 : 100x1 + 150x2 ≤ 9; 000
Raw Material R3 : 175x1 + 250x2 ≤ 13; 000
Another constraint of the problem can be found on the total daily demand of the abaniko fan.
Since the daily total demand of small size abaniko fan should not exceed by 50 units,
therefore, we restrict that x1 ≤ 50. Now we can finally write the final linear programming model
for the “RAVLAM Company production”. The complete model is

Maximize P = 5x1 + 7x2

Subject to: 80x1 + 70x2 ≤ 5000
100x1 + 150x2 ≤ 9; 000
175x1 + 250x2 ≤ 13; 000
x1 ≤ 50
x1; x2 ≥ 0:

The last constraints where x1; x2 ≥ 0 is called the nonnegativity restrictions of the decision
variable. Since the company is producing a product this implies that there should be no
negative values of the decision variables. All values of the decision variables that satisfy each
linear constraint is called feasible

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Lesson 5 67

solution. From this feasible solution the objective is to find the best feasible solution that will
satisfy the objective function called the optimal solution.

Example 40 (The Diet Problem). Jackie is a basketball player who regularly monitors his diet so
that regular intake of calories, sugar carbohydrates and protein will satisfy his daily minimum
nutritional requirements. Every day he prepares three foods egg, rice and chicken. Each day
he must consume at least 600 calories, 100 grams of sugar, 283 grams of carbohydrates and

300 grams of protein. The

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nutritional content per unit of each food is shown in the following table.

calories sugar carbohydrates protein unit price

Egg (1 piece) 72 1.1 0.4 7 PhP 7.00
Rice (1 cup) 204 0.08 44.08 4.2 PhP 10.00
Chicken (100 grams) 195 0 0 29.55 PhP 25.00

Develop a linear programming model that satisfies the daily nutritional requirements of Jackie
at the minimum cost.

Solution. Define the decision variables:

Let
x1 = amount of egg to be consumed.
x2 = amount of rice to be consumed.
x3 = amount of chicken to be consumed.
Then the linear programming model is

Maximize: C = 7x1 + 10x2 + 25x3

Subject to:

72x1 + 204x2 + 195x3 ≥ 600 (calorie constraint)

1:1x1 + 0:08x2 ≥ 100 (sugar constraint)
0:4x1 + 44:08x2 ≥ 283 (carbohydrate content)
7x1 + 4:2x2 + 29:55x3 ≥ 300 (Protein Constraint)
x1; x2; x3 ≥ 0 (nonnegativity)

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Lesson 5 68

5.2 Solution Set of Systems of Linear Inequalities in Two Variables

Finding the solution of a linear programming model that contains two decision variables
requires finding all the feasible solutions of the constraints. Since the constraints of a
linear programming model is a set of linear inequalities, it is necessary to have a deep
knowledge in solution of system of linear inequalities.

Definition 23
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A system of linear inequalities in two variables x1 and x2 is a set of two linear inequalities

of the

8> >
b2x2 ≥ (or ≤) c2;
form < :

a1x1 + b1x2 ≥ (or ≤) c1 a2x1 +

where ai; bi; ci ∈ R, for i = 1; 2. The set S of all ordered pairs (x1; x2) satisfying both the
inequalities is called the solution space or feasible region of the system.

To solve the system, we usually proceed using the graphing method:

Step 1. Replace ≥ and/or ≤ symbols in the system by = and graph the lines that corresponds to
each inequality.

Step 2. Determine the solution space of each linear inequality using feasibility test. Choose a
point that is not on the linear equation and substitute it to the linear inequality. If it
satisfies the linear inequality then the region where the point belongs is the solution
space of that particular linear inequality.

Step 3. Determine the intersection of the solution space of the two linear inequalities. All the
points within this region are the solution space or feasible region of the system of
linear inequalities.
Example 41. Determine the solution space of the following system of linear inequalities using the
8> > x + 2y ≤ 4 3x + 2y ≤ 6
graphing method. < :

Step 1. Graph the lines corresponding to the equations x + 2y = 4 and 3x + 2y =

6. (a) The intercepts of x + 2y = 4 are (4; 0) and (0; 2). (Red Line)

(b) The intercepts of 3x + 2y = 6 are (2; 0) and (0; 3). (Blue Line)

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Lesson 5 69 5

−4 −2 2 4 6

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−5

Step 2. Find the solution space of each linear inequalities by feasibility test. We may choose
the point of origin (0; 0) as test point since it does not lie in either inequalities.

At (0; 0), x + 2y ≤ 4 is equivalent to 0 ≤ 4, which is true. Therefore, all the points in the same
side of the line as the origin are solutions to x + 2y ≤ 4.

At (0; 0), 3x + 2y ≤ 6 is equivalent to 0 ≤ 6, which is true. Therefore, every point in the same
side of the line as the origin are solutions to 3x + 2y ≤ 6.

Step 3. Determine the solution space of the system by getting the intersection of the solution
space of each linear inequality.

−4 −2 2 4 6

−5

5.3 Graphical Solution for a Linear Programming Model

Linear programming model in two variables can be solved using graphical method. Although
three variables linear programming model can also be solved using this method, it is highly
advised to use the algebra method since we are dealing with solution space in three
dimensions. The following steps can be used to solve linear programming model in two
variables.

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Lesson 5 70

Step 1. Determine the feasible solution or solution space of the constraints using solution of
system of linear inequalities in two variables.

Step 2. Determine the corner points of the solution space by getting the point of intersection of
each pair of lines that defines it.

Step 3. Evaluate the objective functions using this corner points. The corner points the yields
the optimum value (maximum or minimum) is the optimal solution of the linear
programming

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model.

Theorem 2
In any linear programming model, the optimal solution (if it exists) can be found in one of
the corner points of the solution space or feasible region of the constraints.

Hence, the optimal solutions tot he linear programming problem can be achieved at one
among the corner points.

Example 42 (Solution of the (RAVLAM Company) Problem).

Maximize P = 5x1 + 7x2

Subject to: 80x1 + 70x2 ≤ 5000
100x1 + 150x2 ≤ 9; 000
175x1 + 250x2 ≤ 13; 000
x1 ≤ 50
x1; x2 ≥ 0:

Step 1. Solution space or feasible region of the constraints. Using a graphing software, the
following graph was obtained:

Step 2. Identify the corner points of the feasible region by getting the intersection points of
each pair of lines that defines it.

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Lesson 5 71

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: Evaluate the objective functions using this corner points. The corner points the yields the
optimum value (maximum or minimum) is the optimal solution of the linear programming model.

Starting at the point of origin as the first corner point, the following are the other corner points
as shown in the graph above.

Vertex 1: At (0; 0), P = 5(0) + 7(0) = PhP 0:00

Vertex 2: At (50; 0), P = 5(50) + 7(0) = PhP 250:00

Vertex 3: At (50; 14:286), P = 5(50) + 7(14:286) = PhP 350:00

Vertex 4: At (43:871; 21:29), P = 5(43:871) + 7(21:29) = PhP 368:39

(Max) Vertex 5: At (0; 52), P = 5(0) + 7(52) = PhP 364:00.

Decision. The RAVLAM Company should produce 43:871 (≈ 44) units of small size abaniko fan
and 21:29(≈ 29) units of large size abaniko fan to be able to maximize their profit at Php
368:385 (≈ Php 367:00).

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Lesson 5 72 Assessment
1. Sketch the solution sets of the following systems of linear inequalities.
programming problems.
(a) x − y ≤ 10 (b) 3x − 4y ≥ 14 x + y ≤ 5
x+y≤5

2. Solve the following linear

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(a) In a manufacturing process, the final product has a requirement that it must weigh
exactly 150 kgs.The two raw materials used are A, with cost of Php 6 per unit and B,
with a cost of Php 12 per unit. At least 15 units of B and no more than 20 units of A
must be used. Each unit A weighs 4 kgs; each unit of b weighs 10 kgs. How much of
each type of raw material should be used for each unit of final product to minimize
cost?

(b) Charot Polar Products makes downhill and crosscountry skis. A pair of downhill skis
requires 2 man-hours for cutting, 1 man-hour for shaping and 3 man-hours for
finishing while a pair of crosscountry skis requires 2 man-hours for cutting, 2
man-hours for shaping and 1 man-hour for finishing. Each day the company has
available 140 man-hours for cutting, 120 man-hours for shaping and 150 man-hours
for finishing. How many pairs of each type of ski should the company manufacture
each day in order to maximize profit if a pair of downhill skis yields a profit of Php 10
and a pair of cross-country skis yields a profit of Php 8?
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Lesson 6 73 Lesson 6: Mathematics of Graphs

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students are able to

1. Define and illustrate graphs, paths, circuits, trees, complete graphs, connected
graphs and weighted graphs;

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2. Apply algorithms in finding Euler circuits and Euler paths in connected graphs; 3.
Exhibit the Travelling Salesman Problem and apply algorithms in solving it; 4. Apply

the Kruskal’s Algorithm in finding a minimum spanning tree for a weighted graph 5.

Exhibit and solve a graph coloring problem

Overview
Graph Theory is the mathematics that shows how a pair of objects coming from a particular
collection is abstractly related, and ultimately how to face-off all of these pairs so that a
concrete problem may be addressed. Moreover, objects that are paired by distance-relation,
time-relation, cost-relation, etc., are falling under solutions for the respective problems for the
shortest way, the fastest time, the cheapest amount of expenses, etc. Graph Theory, with aid of
a friendly geometry and some well-guided algorithms, will deal with all of these concerns.

6.1 Graph Concepts and Models

Definition 24
Let V be a non-empty set, and E be any set of ordered pairs over V . The pair (V; E) is
called a graph. We denote a graph by G = (V; E). V is called the vertex set of G and its
elements as vertices, while E is called the edge set of G and its elements as edges.

Example 43. Let

V = {0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5};
E1 = {(x; y) | x and y are either both odd or both even};
E2 = {(x; y) | x 6= y}; and
E3 = {(x; y) | 0 < |x − y| ≤ 2}:

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Lesson 6 74

Let
G1 = (V; E1) = {(0; 0);(0; 2);(0; 4);(1; 1);(1; 3);(1; 5);(2; 0);(2; 2);(2; 4);
(3; 1);(3; 3);(3; 5);(4; 0);(4; 2);(4; 4);(5; 1);(5; 3);(5; 5)};
G2 = (V; E2) = {(0; 1);(0; 2);(0; 3);(0; 4);(0; 5);(1; 0);(1; 2);(1; 3);(1; 4);(1; 5);
(2; 0);(2; 1);(2; 3);(2; 4);(2; 5);(3; 0);(3; 1);(3; 2);(3; 4);(3;
5);
(4; 0);(4; 1);(4; 2);(4; 3);(4; 5);(5; 0);(5; 1);(5; 2);(5; 3);(5; 4)}; and
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G3 = (V; E3) = {(0; 1);(0; 2);(1; 0);(1; 2);(1; 3);(2; 0);(2; 1);(2; 3);(2; 4);
(3; 1);(3; 2);(3; 4);(3; 5);(4; 2);(4; 3);(4; 5);(5; 3);(5; 4)}
are examples of graphs. A graph can be represented diagrammatically by letting the vertices
illustrated as nodes and edges as arcs connecting the nodes. The following diagrams
represent graphs G1; G2 and G3.

G1 = (V; E1) G2 = (V; E2) G3 = (V; E3) Note that in G1, a vertex is adjacent to

itself. Such edges are called loops.

Definition 25
Vertices are said to be adjacent if there is an edge that joins them. Edges are said to be
adjacent if they share a common vertex. The degree of a vertex is the number of edges
at that vertex.

Example 44. The table below summarizes the degree of each vertex of the previously defined
graphs G1; G2 and G3.

Vertex G1 G2 G3
0352
1353
2354
3354
4353
5352

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Lesson 6 75

Definition 26
Given a graph G = (V; E). A path in G is a sequence of vertices with no repeated edges.
A circuit in G is a path that starts and ends at the same vertex.

Example 45. Consider the graph illustrated below.

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The following are some
• A-B-C-B-E-E-D-A-C-B
paths: • A-B-E-D The following are some cir
Definition 27 cuits:
• A-B-C-A-D-E The following are not
• A-B-C-A
• A-B-C-B-E paths: • A-C-A-D-E

• A-C-B-E-E-D • A-D-E-B-A
• A-B-C-B-A-D

• A-D-E-E-D • A-C-B-E-D-A

A graph G is said to be connected if there is a path joining any two of its vertices.
Otherwise, it is said to be disconnected.

Example 46.
distinct vertices are joined by a path.
This is a disconnected graph. No path
takes A to G.

This is a connected graph. Any two

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Lesson 6 76

Moreover, we can visualize graphs thru the following models.

1. In 1736, the attention of mathematician Leonhard Euler was caught by a simple puzzle:
"Is it possible to walk around and cross all the seven bridges of the old town of
Konigsberg exactly once?"

Source: 2010 Encyclopedia Britannica

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Four small islands are connected by seven bridges as shown above in the left figure. Its
graph representation is shown above in the right figure.

2. Can you continuously trace this figure starting from any vertex such that you can only
pass through every edge and every vertex once without lifting your pen?
3. The table below shows the distances of towns Alpra, Betra, Gamra at Deltra from each
other, in km.

Alpra Betra Gamra Deltra

Alpra * 11 13 14
Betra 11 * 12 13
Gamra 13 12 * 15
Deltra 14 13 15 *

If a courier service personnel aims to drop packages once in each town, what routing
schedule can be made so that he can travel the shortest distance?

4. Suppose you are tasked to color a blank map of Metro Manila in such a way that no two
adjacent cities will have the same color. What is the least number of colors you can use
to complete this task?

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Lesson 6 77

6.2 Euler’s Theorems and Fleury’s Algorithms

Definition 28
Given a connected graph G. An edge in G is said to be a bridge if G becomes
disconnected when it is deleted. An Euler path is a path that travels through every edge
of G. An Euler circuit is a circuit that travels through every edge of G.
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Example 47.
In this graph, paths E-A-B-C-A-D-G-F-D In this graph, paths A-B-C-A-D-F-G-D-E-A
and E-A-C-B-A-D-G-F-D are Euler paths. and D-A-C-B-A-E-D-G-F-D are Euler
circuits.

Theorem 3: Euler’s Theorem 1

1. If a graph has any vertices of odd degree, then it cannot have an Euler circuit.

2. If a graph is connected and every vertex has an even degree, then it has at least
one Euler circuit.

Example 48.

1. Let G1 be the graph shown below.

Vertices D and E have odd degrees. Hence, by Euler’s Theorem 1 (A), G1 has no Euler

circuit. 2. Let G2 be the graph shown below.

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