MSM 111: MATHEMATICAL METHODS I

PARTIAL FRACTIONSN

LECTURE NOTES 10

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS, MULUNGUSHI

UNIVERSITY

2022/2023
Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)
MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 1 / 38
Lecture Notes 10 Outline

1 Rational Fractions

2 Partial Fractions
Partial Fractions with Linear Factors
Partial Fractions with Repeated Factors
Partial Fractions with Quadratic Factors

3 Applications of Partial Fractions

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 2 / 38
1. Rational Fractions
Definition 1 (Rational Fractions)
P(x )
A rational fraction in x is the quotient Q(x ) of two polynomials in x . The
expressions below are examples of rational fractions.

3 x +3 x 2 − 4x − 21
, 2
and
x +1 x − 5x x2 − 9

Definition 2 (Improper Rational Fractions)

A proper fraction is one in which the degree of the numerator is less than
the degree of the denominator. Examples of proper fraction include

3 x +3 2x − 3 4x 2 + 1 2x 4 + x 2 − 4x − 21
, , , and
x +1 x 2 − 5x 2
x + 5x + 4 x 4 − 3x x2 − 9
Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)
MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 3 / 38
Definition 3 (Proper and Improper Rational Fractions)
An improper fraction is one in which the degree of the numerator is
greater than the degree of the denominator. Examples include

2x 3 + 6x 2 − 9
x 2 − 3x + 2

By division, an improper fraction may always be written as the sum of a

polynomial and a proper fractions. Thus

2x 3 + 6x 2 − 9 32x − 33
= 2x + 12 + 2 .
x 2 − 3x + 2 x − 3x + 2

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 4 / 38
2. Partial Fractions

Definition 4
A given rational fraction

P(x )
F (x ) =
Q(x )
may often be written as the sum of other fractions called Partial
Fractions whose denominators are of lower degree than the denominator
of a given fraction.

There are basically three types of partial fraction namely, partial fractions
with denominator containing linear factors, repeated linear factors and
quadratic factors.

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 5 / 38
Resolving Rational Factions into Partial Fractions.
In order to resolve a rational algebraic expression into partial fractions:

(i) the denominator must be factorisable, and

(ii) the numerator must be at least one degree less than the denominator.
When the degree of the numerator is equal to or higher than the
degree of the denominator, the numerator must be divided by the
denominator until the remainder is of less degree than the
denominator.

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 6 / 38
2.1 Partial Fractions with Linear Factors

Definition 5
Let f (x ) be any polynomial. The partial fraction form of the rational
expression

f (x )
(x + a)(x + b)(x + c)

with denominator containing (or that can be expressed into) linear factors
is,

A B C
+ +
x +a x +b x +c

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 7 / 38
Example 6
11−3x
Resolve x 2 +2x −3
into partial fractions.

Solution.
The denominator is factorisable and factorizes as (x − 1)(x + 3) and the
numerator is of less degree than the denominator. Thus x 211−3x
+2x −3
may be
resolved into partial fractions. Let

11 − 3x 11 − 3x A B
= = + . (2.1)
x2 + 2x − 3 (x − 1)(x + 3) x −1 x +3

where A and B are constants to be determined. We have two ways to

solve for A and B:

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 8 / 38
Solution.
Method 1: From (2.1) we obtain by algebraic addition that,

11 − 3x A(x + 3) + B(x − 1)
= .
(x − 1)(x + 3) (x − 1)(x + 3)

Since the denominators are the same on each side of the identity then
the numerators are equal to each other. Thus

11 − 3x = A(x + 3) + B(x − 1)

To determine constants A and B, values of x are chosen to make the

term in A or B equal to zero.

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 9 / 38
Solution Contin’d.
When x = 1, then

11 − 3(1) = A(1 + 3) + B(0) =⇒ 8 = 4A

=⇒ A = 2

When x = −3, then

11 − 3(−3) ≡ A(0) + B(−3 − 1)

20 = −4B
B = −5

Thus
11 − 3x 2 5
= −
x2 + 2x − 3 x −1 x +3

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 10 / 38
Solution Contin’d.
Method 2: From (2.1), we obtain by multiplying both sides or each
term by (x − 1)(x + 3), that is,

11 − 3x A B
(x −1)(x +3) = (x −1)(x +3) +(x −1)(x +3)
(x − 1)(x + 3) (x − 1) x +3

that,

11 − 3x = A(x + 3) + B(x − 1)
and so, expanding gives

11 − 3x = 3A − B + (A + B)x (2.2)

Equating like terms or coefficient of similar terms and constants terms

of (2.2), we have two equations in A and B:

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 11 / 38
Solution Contin’d.

3A − B = 11 (2.3)
A + B = −3 (2.4)

Solving equations (2.3) and (2.4) simultaneously for A and B, we obtain,

A = 2 and B = −5. Hence,

11 − 3x 2 5
= −
x2 + 2x − 3 x −1 x +3

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 12 / 38
Example 7
2x 2 −9x −35
Convert (x +1)(x −2)(x +3) into the sum of three partial fractions.

Solution.
2
2x −9x −35 A B C
Let (x +1)(x −2)(x +3) ≡ (x +1) + (x −2) + (x +1) . By algebraic addition, we
obtain

2x 2 − 9x − 35 A(x − 2)(x + 3) + B(x + 1)(x + 3) + C (x + 1)(x −

≡
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)

Equating the numerators gives:

2x 2 − 9x − 35 = A(x − 2)(x + 3) + B(x + 1)(x + 3) + C (x + 1)(x − 2)

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 13 / 38
Solution Contin’d.
Let x = −1. Then

2(−1)2 − 9(−1) − 35 = A(−3)(2) + B(0)(2) + C (0)(−3)

=⇒ −24 = −6A
−24
=⇒ A = =4
−6

Let x = 2. Then

2(2)2 − 9(2) − 35 = A(0)(5) + B(3)(5) + C (3)(0)

−45
=⇒ −45 = 15B =⇒ B = = −3
15

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 14 / 38
Solution Contin’d.
Let x = −3. Then

2(−3)2 − 9(−3) − 35 ≡ A(−5)(0) + B(−2)(0) + +C (−2)(−5)

=⇒ 10 = 10C
10
=⇒ C = = 1.
10

Therefore,

2x 2 − 9x − 35 4 3 1
= − + .
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 1)

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 15 / 38
Example 8
x 2 +1
Resolve x 2 −3x +2
into partial fractions.

Solution.
The denominator is of the same degree as the numerator. Thus dividing
out and simplyfing gives

x2 + 1 3x − 1 3x − 1
2
=1+ 2 =1+
x − 3x + 2 x − 3x + 2 (x − 1)(x − 2)
Let

3x − 1 A B A(x − 2) + B(x − 1)
≡ + ≡
(x − 1)(x − 2) x −1 x −2 (x − 1)(x − 2)

Equating numerators gives:

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 16 / 38
Solution Contin’d.
3x − 1 = A(x − 2) + B(x − 1)
Let x = 1. Then

3(1) − 1 = A(−1) + B(0)

so that A = −2.

Let x = 2. Then

3(2) − 1 = A(0) + B(1)

and so, B = 5. Hence,
3x − 1 2 5
=− + .
x2 − 3x + 2 x −1 x −2

x 2 +1 2 5
Thus, x 2 −3x +2
=1− x −1 + x −2 .

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 17 / 38
Example 9
x 3 −2x 2 −4x −4
Express x 2 +x −2
in partial fractions

Solution.
The numerator is of higher degree than the denominator. Thus dividing
out gives:

x 3 − 2x 2 − 4x − 4 x − 10 x − 10
2
=x −3+ 2 =x −3+
x +x −2 x +x −2 (x + 2)(x − 1)

Let

x − 10 A B A(x − 1) + B(x + 2)
≡ + ≡ .
(x + 2)(x − 1) x +2 x −1 (x + 2)(x − 1)

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 18 / 38
Solution Contin’d.
Equating the numerators gives:

x − 10 = A(x − 1) + B(x + 2)

Let x = −2.Then −12 = −3A and so,

A=4

Let x = 1.Then −9 = 3B implying B = −3. Hence,

x − 10 4 3
= −
(x + 2)(x − 1) x +2 x −1

x 3 −2x 2 −4x −4 4 3
Therefore, x 2 +x −2
=x −3+ x +2 − x −1 .

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 19 / 38
2.2 Partial Fractions with Repeated Factors
Definition 10
Let f (x ) be any polynomial. Then the partial fraction form of a rational
expression

f (x )
(x + a)n
with denominator containing n repeated factors is,

A1 A2 A3 An
+ 2
+ 3
+ ....
x + a (x + a) (x + a) (x + a)n

Thus, for if n = 3, then

f (x ) A B C
3
= + 2
+ .
(x + a) x + a (x + a) (x + a)3

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 20 / 38
Example 11
2x +3
Resolve (x −2)2
into partial fractions.

Solution.
The denominator contains a repeated linear factor (x − 2)2 . Let

2x + 3 A B A(x − 2) + B
≡ + ≡ .
(x − 2)2 x − 2 (x − 2)2 (x − 2)2

Equating the numerators gives:

2x + 3 ≡ A(x − 2) + B.
Let x = 2. Then

7 = A(0) + B.
giving, B = 7.
Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)
MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 21 / 38
Solution Contin’d.

Now,

2x + 3 ≡ A(x − 2) + B ≡ Ax − 2A + B.
Since an identity is true for all values of the unknown, the coefficients of
similar terms may be equated.Hence, equating the coefficients of x gives:

A=2
When A = 2 and B = 7, we have

2x + 3 2 7
≡ + .
(x − 2)2 x − 2 (x − 2)2

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 22 / 38
Example 12
5x 2 −2x −19
Express (x +3)(x −1)2
as the sum of three partial fraction.

Solution.
The denominator is a combination of a linear factor and a repeated linear
factor. Let,

5x 2 − 2x − 19 A B C
2
≡ + +
(x + 3)(x − 1) x + 3 x − 1 (x − 1)2
A(x − 1)2 + B(x + 3)(x − 1) + C (x + 3)
≡
(x + 3)(x − 1)2

by algebraic addition. Equating the numerators gives:

5x 2 − 2x − 19 ≡ A(x − 1)2 + B(x + 3)(x − 1) + C (x + 3) (2.5)

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 23 / 38
Solution Contin’d.
Let x = −3. Then

5(−3)2 − 2(−3) − 19 ≡ A(−4)2 + B(0)(−4) + C (0)

32 = 16A

giving, A = 2.

Let x = 1. Then,

5(1)2 − 2(1) − 19 ≡ A(0)2 + B(4)(0) + C (4).

=⇒ −16 = 4C

so that C = −4.

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 24 / 38
Solution Contin’d.
Without expanding the RHS of equation (2.5) it can be seen that equating
the coefficients of x 2 gives

5=A+B

Since A = 2, we have that B = 3. Therefore,

5x 2 − 2x − 19 2 3 4
2
≡ + − .
(x + 3)(x − 1) x + 3 x − 1 (x − 1)2

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 25 / 38
Example 13
3x 2 +16x +15
Resolve (x +3)3
into partial fractions

Solution.
The denominator contains a repeated linear factor (x + 3)3 . Let

3x 2 + 16x + 15 A B C
3
≡ + 2
+
(x + 3) x + 3 (x + 3) (x + 3)3
A(x + 3)2 + B(x + 3)2 + C
≡
(x + 3)3

by algebraic addition. Equating the numerators and expanding gives:

3x 2 + 16x + 15 ≡ A(x + 3)2 + B(x + 3) + C (2.6)

2
≡ Ax + 6Ax + 9A + Bx + 3B + C (2.7)

Let x = −3. Then

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)
MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 26 / 38
Solution Contin’d.

3(−3)2 + 16(−3) + 15 ≡ A(0)2 + B(0) + C

=⇒ C = −6

Equating the coefficients of x 2 terms in identity (2.6) gives,

A = 3.
Equating the coefficients of x terms in identity (2.6) gives

16 = 6A + B.

Since A = 3, we obtain that B = −2. Thus,

3x 2 + 16x + 15 3 2 6
3
≡ − 2
− .
(x + 3) x + 3 (x + 3) (x + 3)3

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 27 / 38
2.3 Partial Fractions with Quadratic Factors
Definition 14
Let f (x ) be any polynomial. Then, the partial fraction form of a rational
expression (ax 2 +bxf (x )
+c)(x +d)
with a denominator containing a quadratic
expression which does not factorize without containing surds or imaginary
terms is

Ax + B C
+
ax 2 + bx + c x +d
f (x )
However, if the rational expression is (ax 2 +bx +c)(x +d)n
, then we have

f (x ) A1 x + A2 A3 A4
= 2 + +
(ax 2 + bx + c)(x + d)n ax + bx + c x +d (x + d)2
A5 An
+ 3
+ ... + .
(x + d) (x + d)n

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 28 / 38
Example 15
7x 2 +5x +13
Express (x 2 +2)(x +1)
in partial fractions.

Solution.
The denominator is a combination of a quadratic factor, (x 2 + 2), which
does not factorize without introducing imaginary surd terms, and a linear
factor, (x + 1). Let,

7x 2 + 5x + 13 Ax + B C (Ax + B)(x + 1) + C (x 2 + 2)
≡ + ≡
(x 2 + 2)(x + 1) (x 2 + 2) x + 1 (x 2 + 2)(x + 1)

by algebraic. Equating numerators and expanding gives:

7x 2 + 5x + 13 ≡ (Ax + B)(x + 1) + C (x 2 + 2) (2.8)

Let x = −1. Then

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)
MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 29 / 38
Solution Contin’d.

7(−1)2 + 5(−1) + 13 ≡ A(−1)2 + A(−1) + B(−1) + B + C (−1)2 + 2C

=⇒ 15 = 3C
=⇒ C = 5

Equating the coefficients of x 2 terms in the identity (2.8) gives,

7 = A + C,
and since C = 5 then A = 2. Equating the coefficients of x terms in the
identity (2.8) gives,

5 = A + B,
and since A = 2 we have that B = 3. Therefore,

7x 2 + 5x + 13 2x + 3 5
≡ 2 +
(x 2 + 2)(x + 1) (x + 2) x + 1

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 30 / 38
Example 16
3+6x +4x 2 −2x 3
Resolve x 2 (x 2 +3)
into partial fractions.

Solution.
Terms such as x 2 may be treated as (x + 0)2 , that is, they are repeated
linear factors. Thus, the denominator is a combination of a quadratic
factor, (x 2 + 3), which is none factorisable and a repeated linear factor x 2 .
Let

3 + 6x + 4x 2 − 2x 3 A B Cx + D
≡ + 2+ 2
x 2 (x 2 + 3) x x x +3
A(x + 3)x + B(x 2 + 3) + (Cx + D)x 2
2
≡ .
x 2 (x 2 + 3)

Equating the numerators and expanding gives:

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 31 / 38
Solution Contin’d.

3 + 6x + 4x 2 − 2x 3 ≡ A(x 2 + 3)x + B(x 2 + 3) + (Cx + D)x 2 .

Let x = 0. Then

3 = 3B
so that

B = 1.
Equating the coefficients of x 3 terms gives:

−2=A+C (2.9)

Equating the coefficients of x 2 terms gives

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 32 / 38
Solution Contin’d.
4 = B + D.
Since B = 1, then D = 3.

Equating the coefficients of x terms gives,

6 = 3A
so that A = 2.

From equation (2.9), since A = 2, we have that C = −4. Therefore,

3 + 6x + 4x 2 − 2x 3 2 1 3 − 4x
≡ + 2+ 2 .
x 2 (x 2 + 3) x x x +3

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 33 / 38
Example 17
Resolve the following fraction into partial fractions

x 3 + 4x 2 + 20x − 7
(x − 1)2 (x 2 + 8)

Solution.
The fraction, has a denominator which is a combination of a quadratic
factor (x 2 + 8), which is none factorisable and a repeated linear factor
(x − 1)2 . Let

x 3 + 4x 2 + 20x − 7 A B Cx + D
2 2
= + 2
+ 2
(x − 1) (x + 8) (x − 1) (x − 1) x +8
A(x − 1)(x + 8) + B(x 2 + 8) + (Cx + D)(x − 1)2
2
=
(x − 1)2 (x 2 + 8)

Equating the numerators and expanding gives:

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 34 / 38
Solution Contin’d.

x 3 + 4x 2 + 20x − 7 = A(x − 1)(x 2 + 8) + B(x 2 + 8) + (Cx + D)(x − 1)2

= (A + C )x 3 − (A − B + 2C − D)x 2
+ (8A + C − 2D)x − 8A + 8B + D

Hence, we have the following linear systems of equations in A, B, C and D

namely, A + C = 1, −A + B − 2C + D = 4, 8A + C − 2D = 20 and
−8A + 8B + D = −7.

Solving for A, B, C and D simultaneously by backwards substitution we

obtain, A = 3, B = 2, C = −2 and D = 1. Therefore,

x 3 + 4x 2 + 20x − 7 3 2 1 − 2x
2 2
= + 2
+ 2 .
(x − 1) (x + 8) (x − 1) (x − 1) x +8

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 35 / 38
3. Applications of Partial Fractions

Resolving an algebraic expression into partial fractions is used as a

preliminary to integrating certain functions and in determining inverse
Laplace transforms in calculus and advanced calculus

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 36 / 38
References

[1] Aufmann R. N, , V. C. Barker and R. D. Nation. (2011, 2008), College Algebra

and Trigonometry. 7th Edition, Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
[Bird] ird J (2006), Higher engineering Mathematics. 5th edition, Elsevier Ltd
[Bird] ird J (2010), Higher engineering Mathematics. 6th edition, Elsevier Ltd
[4] Buckhouse, J. K and Houldsworth, S.P.T. (1985), Pure Mathematics 1. Longman.
[5] Spiegal M. R. and Wrede M. (2002, 1963). Advance Calculus, Theories and
Problems. Schaum’s Outline Series, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies. Inc,
USA.
[6] Spiegel M. R. and R. E. Mayer, 2009. College Algebra, 2nd edition, Schaum’s
outline Series, New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
[7] Zill D. E. (1985), Calculus with Analytic Geometry. Prindle Welber and Shmidt,
Boston

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 37 / 38
.

END OF LECTURE 10

Mr. L. K . Matindih & Dr. G. Mukupa (MU/SNAS/DMS)

MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 38 / 38