Measurement Techniques 1

1. Errors and uncertainties

Uncertainty in a scale reading
1. When a measurement is made with an instrument there is some uncertainty in the result. The
uncertainty is generally referred to as an error.
2. In a single measurement with a scale instrument, the maximum uncertainty is taken to be half
the distance between adjacent scale markings, and the maximum possible uncertainty is equal to
the distance between adjacent scale markings. This is the precision with which the scale can be
read.

10 mm 20 mm

21 – 10 = (11 ± 1) mm

For example, with a rule graduated in mm, there is an uncertainty of ½ mm in judging the position
of each end of the body against the rule, so the maximum possible uncertainty is
2 x ½ mm = ± 1 mm.
The precision is ±1 mm.
3. A micrometer with a precision of 0.01 mm gives readings that each have a precision of
0.01 mm.

Absolute, fractional and percentage errors

1. For a reading of say (208 ± 1) mm:
 the absolute error or uncertainty is 1 mm (this has units)
1
 the fractional error or uncertainty is 208 (this has no units)
1
 the percentage error or uncertainty is 208 𝑥 100 = 0.48 % = 0.5 % (this has no units)
The error is an estimate only and is usually required to one significant figure.

Combining errors
Consider two quantities: a = (5.1± 0.1) cm, and b = (3.2 ± 0.1) cm.
Q = the quantity required.

1. Adding or subtracting
When two quantities are to be added or subtracted, add the absolute error.
Q = a + b = (8.3 ± 0.2) cm
Q = a – b = (1.9 ± 0.2) cm

Uncertainties always increase when adding or subtracting quantities.

If both quantities read high, Q = 5.2 + 3.3 = 8.5 cm,

If both quantities read low, Q = 5.0 + 3.1 = 8.3 cm

If both quantities read high, Q = 5.2 – 3.3 = 1.9 cm

If both quantities read low, Q = 5.0 – 3.1 = 1.9 cm.

2. Multiplying or dividing
When two quantities are to be multiplied or divided, add the % errors.
First the % errors for a and b are found:
Measurement Techniques 2
Multiplying: % error in a = 0.1/5.1 x 100 = 1.96%
% error in b = 0.1/3.2 x 100 = 3.13%

Q = a x b = (5.1 x 3.2) (1.96% + 3.13%)

= (16.32 ± 5.09%) cm2
= (16.32 ± 5%) cm2
5% x 16.32 = 0.816 = 0.8 (1 s.f)
Q = (16.3 ± 0.8) cm2

Dividing:
Q = a / b = (5.1 / 3.2) (1.96% + 3.13%)
= (1.59375 ± 5%)
5% x 1.59375 = 0.0796875 = 0.08 (1 s.f)
Q = (1.59 ± 0.08)

Note:
The answer is quoted with the same number of decimal places as the probable error.

3. Powers
For a quantity raised to a power: - Multiply the % error by the power.

Q = a2 = 5.12 (2 x 1.96%)
= 26.01 (± 3.92%) cm2
= 26.01 (± 4%) cm2

4% x 26.01 = 1.0404 = ± 1 cm2

Q = (26 ± 1) cm2

Q = √b = b½
= √3.2 (½ x 3.13%)
= 1.78885 (± 1.565%)
= 1.78885 (± 2%)

2% x 1.78885 = 0.035777 = 0.04

Q = (1.78 ± 0.04) cm½

Example
If A = 10 ±1, B = 12 ± 2, C = 20 ± 1, calculate

1. (a) B – A,
(b) 2A + 3B
2. (a) A.B
(b) 3A.B
(c) A2 B
AB
3. A2B + 2
C

Answer
1. (a) B – A = 2 ± 3
(b) 2A + 3B = (20 ± 2) + (36 ± 6)
= 56 ± 8.
Note % error in A is the same as in 2A.
Measurement Techniques 3
2. % error in A = 1/10 x 100 = 10%
% error in B = 2/12 x 100 = 16.7% = 17%
% error in C = 1/20 x100 = 5%

(a) A.B = 10 x 12 (10% + 17%)

= 120 ± 27% = 120 ± 30%
= (120 ± 36)
(b) 3A.B = 30 x 12 (± 27%)
= 360 ± 30%
= (360 ± 108)
(c) A2 B = 1200 (± 20% + 17%)
= 1200 (±37%)
= 1200 ± 40%
= (1200 ± 480)
𝐴𝐵
3. A2B + 𝐶 2
= (1200 ± 480) + 0.30 (± 10% + 17% + 2x5%)
= (1200 ± 480) + 0.30 (± 37%)
= (1200 ± 480) + 0.30 (± 0.11)
= (1200 ± 480)

Example
The density of a ball is (300 ± 8) kg m-3.
The ball is placed on a metre rule to find its diameter.
One end of a diameter is opposite the 35 cm mark and the other end is at 78 cm and the error in
each of these measurements is ±1 cm.
Find the mass of the ball.
Answer (12 ± 2) kg

Systematic and Random Errors

Errors can be of two types:
 systematic and
 random.

true value random error

systematic error

(a) Systematic errors

1. A systematic error is a reading consistently shifted in one direction.
Measurement Techniques 4
2. Systematic errors are usually due to:
(a) Apparatus or instrument fault, e.g. a zero error.
The pointer on an ammeter or voltmeter should be adjusted to read zero before use, or the zero
error is recorded, and added or subtracted as appropriate from all readings to correct the
systematic error.

(b) Poor experimental technique, e.g. a parallax error, misreading a scale.

When reading the position of a pointer on a scale, the eye should be placed directly over the
pointer to get a correct reading.
Many ammeters and voltmeters have more than one scale, e.g. a 0-5 scale and a 0-10 scale.
The correct scale should be used when taking a reading.

(c) Inherent errors, e.g. heat losses, air resistance, background count, and background field.
To account for heat losses in heat experiments, the experiment can be repeated with a different
rate of heating or a cooling correction may be applied.
Draught shields may be used to minimize air resistance.
In radioactivity experiments, the background count rate is measured and subtracted from all
measurements to get a count rate due to the source alone.
When measuring the magnetic field inside a solenoid due to a current, the background field is first
measured without the current.

3. Systematic errors cannot be eliminated by taking repeated measurements or by averaging.

They can be eliminated or corrected by:
(i) Changing the equipment or instruments used, or by using a different experimental procedure.
(ii) Using good experimental technique,
(iii) Adjusting the readings to compensate for the systematic error.

(b) Random errors.

1. Random errors result in a scatter of readings about a mean value.
2. Random errors are due to the experimenter taking readings incorrectly or random fluctuations
in the environment affecting the experiment. Some of the causes include:

(a) Inability of the observer to repeat his actions precisely.

In timing the period of a pendulum, the reaction time on the clock might vary slightly, and the same
starting amplitude may not be used each time.

(b) A particular measurement not being reproducible, e.g. when measuring the temperature for
plotting a cooling curve.

(c) Lack of sensitivity of the instrument.

Using a micrometer to measure the diameter of a wire gives a smaller % error than using vernier
slide callipers.

3. Random errors are reduced by repeating the measurements several times and taking the
average value, and by statistical methods.

Example
Suppose the readings of the diameter of a wire, using a micrometer screw gauge were:
0.83 mm, 0.83 mm, 0.85 mm, 0.83 mm, 0.85 mm, 0.86 mm, 0.85 mm
Calculate the diameter and state the uncertainty in the measurement.
Measurement Techniques 5
Answer
The mean value = 5.9/7 mm = 0.843 mm
The average of the differences between each reading and the mean, neglecting the sign, is:
(0.013 + 0.013 + 0.007 + 0.013 + 0.007 + 0.017 + 0.007) / 7
= 0.077/7 = 0.011 mm
The diameter = (0.84 ± 0.01) mm

Accuracy and Precision

(a) Accurate experiment of low precision

true value measured value

repeat readings
small systematic error large random error

(b) Precise experiment but less accurate

repeat readings
large systematic error small random error

1. It is possible to have readings which are accurate but not very precise, or readings which are
taken with great precision which are not accurate.
2. An accurate experiment is one which has a relatively small systematic error.
A precise experiment has a small random error.
3. A precise reading is a measure of the smallest measurement that can be made with an
instrument, e.g.
± 0.01 mm with a micrometer,
± 0.1 mm with a vernier callipers,
± 1 mm with a metre rule,
± 1° for a protractor.
4. All measurements should reflect the precision of the instrument used,
e.g. 3.30 mm with a micrometer, not 3.3 mm.
25.5 cm (or 0.255 m) with a metre rule.
Measurement Techniques 6
2. Measuring instruments
Metre rule
1. Metre rules are used as vertical or horizontal scales in experiments.
2. To set a metre rule in a vertical position: use a plumb line and align the ruler parallel to it, or
use a set square perpendicular to the ruler and bench if the bench is known to be horizontal.
3. Look perpendicularly towards the scale and object you are measuring to avoid making a
parallax error. This is an error in reading an instrument due to the relative movement between
the object and scale marking when the object is viewed from different positions against the scale
markings.
4. Avoid using the end of a ruler when taking a measurement because it may be worn, giving rise
to a zero error.

Vernier calliper

http://surendranath.tripod.com/Applets/General/Vernier/Vernier.html

School Physics

1. A vernier scale is 9 mm long and has 10 divisions. One vernier division is 0.9mm.
Readings can be made to within 0.1 mm.
2. You read the zero position of the vernier 14.9 cm (or 149 mm), then the line on the vernier
scale that matches a main scale line as closely as possible, in this case line 3. The length of the
object is then 14.93 cm (or 149.3 mm).
3. Reason:
From 0 to the 3rd line on the vernier = 15.2 cm or 152 mm.
On the vernier 3 divisions = 3 x 0.9 mm = 2.7 mm
152 mm – 2.7 mm = 149.3 mm = 14.93 cm
4. Always check for a zero error before taking a reading, and record the zero error if there is one.
Measurement Techniques 7
Micrometer Screw gauge

1. Micrometers give reading to within 0.01 mm. The pitch of the screw is 0.50 mm, i.e. one
complete turn advances the reading by 0.50 mm.
2. Reading a micrometer:
(a)

http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Micrometer/Flash/MicSimulation.html

(i) The sleeve scale reads 7.0 mm in the diagram,

(ii) The thimble scale reading is 0.38 mm.
Adding the two: The object is 7.0 + 0.38 = 7.38 mm wide.
(b)

(i) The sleeve scale is 5.5 mm.

(ii) The thimble scale reading is 0.30 mm.
The object is 5.5 + 0.30 = 5.80 mm wide.
Measurement Techniques 8
3. Precautions
 make sure that the faces between the anvil and spindle are clean,
 Do not over tighten, use the ratchet.
 Check the zero error and account for it when taking a reading.

Zero error

(a) No zero error (b) Zero error +0.03 mm (c) Zero error -0.03 mm

(a) No zero error

When the barrel is completely closed and there is no object between the jaws, the zero on the
sleeve is in line with the zero on the barrel.
(b) Zero error +0.03 mm
The reading is too high by 0.03 mm. We have to subtract 0.03 mm to the reading we take of the
object with this micrometer.
(c) Zero error -0.03 mm
The reading is low by 0.03 mm when the thimble is completely closed, and there is no object
between the anvil and spindle. We have to add 0.03 mm to the reading we take with this
micrometer when measuring the width or diameter of an object.

Choice of method
This depends on the length to be measured and accuracy required.
length to be Example Instrument accuracy
measured
several metres length of room measuring tape 1 cm

medium length of metre rule 0.1cm or 1 mm

(up to a metre) pendulum
short (up to diameter of a test vernier calipers 0.01cm or 0.1 mm
15 cm) tube
very short (up to 2 diameter of thin micrometer screw 0 001 cm or 0.01mm
cm) wire gauge

Timers
1. When using a digital stopwatch, the precision of a single timing is unlikely to be better than
0.1 s because the reaction time, is about 0.2 s, and is variable for any individual. Hence, the time
for 20 oscillations for a simple pendulum experiment may be recorded to 0.1 s, e.g. 12.2 s.
2. When timing oscillations, the timings should be repeated several times to get an average
value.
3. For accurate timings, use of the countdown method to start the timings, and a fiducial mark.
The stopwatch is started and stopped when the bob is moving fastest through its rest position.
Measurement Techniques 9
Light gates
These are used with a data logger, computer or electronic timer.

When the sphere is released it passes through light gates which switches an electronic timer on
and off. The acceleration of free fall can be found from the distances and time.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

Example
Suppose that the wave shown is obtained when the time base is set on 10 ms cm -1 and Y
sensitivity is 5.0 V cm-1.
What is the frequency and peak voltage?

Answer
The time taken for one cycle T = 2 cm x 10 ms cm-1 = 20 ms = 0.02 s
1 1
𝑓 = 𝑇 = 0.02 = 50 𝐻𝑧
Peak voltage = 3.5/5 cm x 5.0 V cm-1 = 0.7 cm x 5.0 V cm-1 = 3.5 V

Using digital and analogue scales

1. Voltmeters, ammeters and stopwatches may be analogue or digital.
2. Many ammeters and voltmeters have more than one scale, e.g. a 0-5 scale and a 0-10 scale.
The correct scale should be used when taking a reading.
Measurement Techniques 10