Affiliated to Purbanchal University

KHWOPA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(An Undertaking of Bhaktapur Municipality)

Libali, Bhaktapur

Nepal

Project Work on
Vector

Submitted By:-

Name : Rajeev Suwal

Roll : 790414

Class : B.E. Electronics 1st Sem

Submission Date: 2080 / 03 / 07

Submitted To:-

Department of Science and Humanities

Khwopa Engineering College

Libali, Bhaktapur

Acknowledgment

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to all individuals who have
contributed to the successful completion of this vector project.

First and foremost, I am deeply thankful to my project supervisor, for their guidance,
expertise, and invaluable support throughout the duration of this project. Their insights,
feedback, and encouragement have been instrumental in shaping the direction and quality
of this work.

I would also like to extend my thanks to the faculty and staff of Khwopa Engineering
College for providing the necessary resources, facilities, and academic environment that
enabled me to undertake this project. Their commitment to fostering a conducive learning
and research environment has been crucial to my development as a researcher.

Finally, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my family and friends for their
unwavering support, encouragement, and understanding throughout this journey. Their
belief in me and their constant motivation have been a source of inspiration and strength.

While it is not possible to individually name everyone who has played a part in this
project, please accept my deepest appreciation for your contributions. This project would
not have been possible without your support and collaboration.

Thank you all for your involvement, guidance, and encouragement. Your contributions
have been invaluable, and I am sincerely grateful for your assistance in bringing this
vector project to fruition.

With utmost gratitude,

Rajeev Suwal

CONTENTS
S.N. Topic Page no.
1. Objectives 4
2. Introduction to Vector 5
3. Vector 5-9
4. Application of Vector 11
OBJECTIVES
1. Gain a deep understanding of vector concepts, properties, and operations, including
vector addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication, dot product, cross product, and
vector projections.
2. Explore different ways to represent and manipulate data using vectors, such as
vectorization of images, text documents, or numerical datasets, enabling efficient
processing and analysis.

3. Develop a practical application or system that utilizes vector-based techniques to

solve a real-world problem

The objective of a project involving vectors could vary depending on the field of study. It
might involve applying vector concepts and operations to solve specific problems,
developing algorithms that utilize vectors, or using vector analysis to analyze and model
real-world phenomena. The project's aim could range from designing efficient computer
graphics algorithms to optimizing robotic motion planning or developing machine
learning models.

INTRODUCTION TO VECTOR
Vectors are mathematical objects that represent quantities with both magnitude and
direction. They are fundamental tools used in various fields such as physics,
mathematics, engineering, and computer science. Vectors provide a concise and powerful
way to describe and analyze physical phenomena and mathematical concepts.

In a geometric sense, vectors can be visualized as arrows in space. The length of the
arrow represents the magnitude or size of the vector, while the direction of the arrow
indicates its orientation. Vectors can exist in two-dimensional space (having two
components) or three-dimensional space (having three components), but they can also be
extended to higher dimensions.

Understanding vectors and their properties is essential for tackling problems involving
physical systems, motion, and mathematical modeling. They provide a powerful tool set
for analyzing and solving complex problems with both magnitude and direction, making
them a cornerstone of mathematical and scientific thinking.

VECTOR
The vectors are defined as an object containing both magnitude and direction. Vector
describes the movement of an object from one point to another. Vector math can be
geometrically pictured by the directed line segment (a). They are used in linear algebra to
represent points, displacements, velocities, forces, and other quantities.
The length of the segment of the directed line is called the magnitude of a vector and the
angle at which the vector is inclined shows the direction of the vector. The starting point
of a vector is called “Tail” and the ending point (having an arrow) is called “Head.”
A vector is defined as a mathematical structure. It has many applications in the field of
physics and geometry. We know that the location of the points on the coordinate plane
can be represented using the ordered pair such as (x, y). The usage of the vector is very
useful in the simplification process of three-dimensional geometry.
Along with the term vector, we have heard the term scalar. A scalar actually represents
the “real numbers”. In simpler words, a vector of “n” dimensions is an ordered collection
of n elements called “components“.
Examples of Vectors
The most common examples of the vector are Velocity, Acceleration, Force,
Increase/Decrease in Temperature etc. All these quantities have directions and magnitude
both. Therefore, it is necessary to calculate them in their vector form.
Also, speed is a quantity that has magnitude but no direction. This is the basic difference
between speed and velocity.
Vector Notation

As we know already, a vector has both magnitude and direction. In

the above figure, the length of the line AB is the magnitude and head of the arrow points
towards the direction.
Therefore, vectors between two points A and B is given as AB, or vector a.
Arrow over the head of the vector shows the direction of vector.

Magnitude of a Vector
The magnitude of a vector is shown by vertical lines on both the sides of the given vector “|a|”. It
represents the length of the vector. Mathematically, the magnitude of a vector is calculated by
the help of “Pythagoras Theorem,” i.e.
|a|= √(x2+y2)

Unit Vector
A unit vector has a length (or magnitude) equal to one, which is basically used to show
the direction of any vector. A unit vector is equal to the ratio of a vector and its
magnitude. Symbolically, it is represented by a cap or hat (^).
If a is vector of arbitrary length and its magnitude is ||a||, then the unit vector is given by:

It is also known as normalizing a vector.

Zero Vector
A vector with zero magnitudes is called a zero vector. The coordinates of zero vector are
given by (0,0,0) and it is usually represented by 0 with an arrow (→) at the top or just 0.
The sum of any vector with zero vector is equal to the vector itself, i.e., if ‘a’ is any
vector, then;
0+a = a
Note: There is no unit vector for zero vector and it cannot be normalised.
Operations on Vectors
In maths, we have learned the different operations we perform on numbers. Let us learn
here the vector operation such as Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication on vectors.
Addition of Vectors
The two vectors a and b can be added giving the sum to be a + b. This requires joining
them head to tail.
We can translate the vector b till its tail meets the head of a. The line segment that is
directed from the tail of vector a to the head of vector b is the vector “a + b”.

Characteristics of Vector Math Addition

• Commutative Law- the order of addition does not matter, i.e, a + b = b + a
• Associative law- the sum of three vectors has nothing to do with which pair of the
vectors are added at the beginning.
i.e. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Subtraction of Vectors
Before going to the operation it is necessary to know about the reverse vector(-a).

A reverse vector (-a) which is opposite of ‘a’ has a similar magnitude as ‘a’ but pointed
in the opposite direction.
First, we find the reverse vector.
Then add them as the usual addition.
Such as if we want to find vector b – a
Then, b – a = b + (-a)

Scalar Multiplication of Vectors

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar quantity is called “Scaling.” In this type of
multiplication, only the magnitude of a vector is changed not the direction.
• S(a+b) = Sa + Sb
• (S+T)a = Sa + Ta
• a.1 = a
• a.0 = 0
• a.(-1) = -a

Scalar Triple Product

The scalar triple product, also called a box product or mixed triple product, of three
vectors, say a, b and c is given by (a×b)⋅c. Since it involves dot product and evaluates
single value, therefore stated as the scalar product. It is also denoted by (a b c).
(a b c) = (a×b)⋅c

The major application of the scalar triple product can be seen while determining
the volume of a parallelepiped, which is equal to the absolute value of |(a×b)⋅c|, where
a, b and c are the vectors denoting the sides of parallelepiped respectively. Hence,
Volume of parallelepiped = ∥a×b∥ ∥c∥ |cosϕ|=|(a×b)⋅c|
Vector Multiplication
Basically, there are two types of vector multiplication:
• Cross product
• Dot product
Cross Product of Vectors
The cross product of two vectors results in a vector quantity. It is represented by a cross
sign between two vectors.
i.e., a × b

The mathematical value of a cross product-

where,
| a | is the magnitude of vector a.
| b | is the magnitude of vector b.
θ is the angle between two vectors a & b.

Dot product of Vectors

The dot product of two vectors always results in scalar quantity, i.e. it has only magnitude
and no direction. It is represented by a dot (.) in between two vectors.
a dot b = a. b
The mathematical value of the dot product is given as
a . b = | a | | b | cos θ

Components of Vectors (Horizontal & Vertical)

There are two components of a vector in the x-y plane.
• Horizontal Component
• Vertical Component
Breaking a vector into its x and y components in the vector space is the most common
way for solving vectors.
A vector “a” is inclined with horizontal having an angle equal to θ.
This given vector “a” can be broken down into two components i.e. ax and ay.
The component ax is called a “Horizontal component” whose value is a cos θ.
The component ay is called a “Vertical component” whose value is a sin θ.

APPLICATION OF VECTOR
Vectors can be added, subtracted, and scaled, allowing for the formulation of
mathematical operations and relationships. The importance of vectors extends beyond
mathematics and into various fields:

1. Physics: Vectors are fundamental in describing physical phenomena such as motion,

forces, and fields. Velocity, acceleration, and momentum are all vector quantities. In
physics, vector calculus is used to study electromagnetism, fluid dynamics, and other
areas.

2. Computer Graphics: Vectors are used extensively in computer graphics to represent

geometric entities such as points, lines, and shapes. They enable transformations,
rotations, and scaling of objects in three-dimensional space.

3. Engineering: Vectors are used in engineering disciplines, such as civil, mechanical,

and electrical engineering. They are employed to represent forces, moments,
velocities, and other physical quantities. Vector analysis is essential in fields like
structural analysis, fluid mechanics, and circuit analysis.
4. Robotics: Vectors are crucial in robotics for modeling and controlling the motion of
robotic systems. They describe the position and orientation of objects, the movement
of robot arms, and the forces exerted by actuators.

5. Computer Science: Vectors are employed in various algorithms and data structures.
They are used in machine learning for representing and manipulating features and
data points. Vector spaces and linear transformations are fundamental concepts in
computational mathematics.

EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION OF VECTOR

IN REAL LIFE

Vectors in Video Games

In video games, we use vectors to represent the velocity of players, but also to control
where they are aiming, or what they can see (where they are facing). All of this with one
vector. We also need a point to keep track of the player’s position at all times.

In this case, the player’s position will be the origin for our velocity and rotation vector.

Let’s say we have an enemy AI that needs to shoot all the boxes he encounters. Imagine
the AI has a velocity and direction vector of (1,0) and he’s standing at the origin of the
map, so (0,0). He finds a box at position (2,3), so we want to rotate him so he can point at
the box and shoot it, but we need to calculate the angle between where he’s aiming, and
where he wants to actually aim to hit the box.

Vector in computer programming

In computer programming, a vector is either a pointer or an array with only one dimension.
A vector is often represented as a 1-dimensional array of numbers, referred to as
components and is displayed either in column form or row form.Vectors are a logical
element in programming languages that are used for storing data. In computer graphics, the
term vector describes a line with a starting and ending point.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the project on vectors has provided a comprehensive exploration and

application of vector concepts and operations. Throughout the project, we have gained a
deep understanding of vectors, their properties, and their significance in various
mathematical disciplines.By applying vector operations, such as addition, subtraction,
scalar multiplication, dot product, and cross product, we have successfully solved
mathematical problems and tackled real-world scenarios across different domains. The
project has showcased the versatility and power of vectors in modeling and solving
complex problems in geometry, calculus, linear algebra, physics, and beyond.
Furthermore, the project has enhanced our critical thinking skills by challenging us to
analyze and interpret mathematical results, evaluate different solution methods, and
assess the limitations and strengths of vector-based approaches.
In summary, the project on vectors has not only deepened our understanding of vector
concepts but has also provided us with a robust toolkit for problem-solving in various
mathematical and real-world contexts.

REFERENCES
1. Byjus.com

2. Google

3. https://medium.com/analytics-vidhya/what-is-a-vector-5c86fc2b57c1