4"

Protection from Direct Llghtning Strokes 425 '

d i s c h q e , produce greatest field intensity along the path Ixtween the

liead of the leader canal and the tip of the lightning conductor,
whereto the discharge is directed. 'The height above the surface of
ground at which the leader discharge finally orients itself on one of
the ohjccts on earth, is called "the height ( h ) of orientation of
lightning, which, in tne first instance, d e p e n d s x t h e hcight h of the
lightning conductor. I t is customary to consider that for l a t n i n g
conductors up to a height of 30 m, H=Eh where the proportionality
Protection from Direct Lightning constant k has a value of-!.&-20.
Strokes w i t h the Aid of Lightning The leader canal can descend to earth along different trajcc-
Conductors tories. Suppose that the point of orientation of lightning moves
along a horizonral line, which lies
in the same plane as the lightning;
conductor, as shown in Fig. 31.1.
When this point is situated directly
above the lightning conductor, the
discharge must take place in the I
31.1 General Information lightning conductor. However, in
proportion to the displacement of the
T h e lightning conductors as a means of protection from direct point of orientation from the light-
lightning strokes were used much before the beginning of the present \ ning conductor the probability of
era, but they aquired wide recognition only in the middle of X V I I I lightning discharge to ground increa-
century as a result of the work of Benjamin Franklin and Lomunosov. ses, ~h~~ position ,vill lIe critical Fig. 31.1. Experimontol deternu-
notion of tho protcctlvr: zone of
Each lightning conductor consists of the lightning receiver pro- when the breakdown voltages to the a ligl,,,ing ,,,, t.
jccting above the object to be protected, the earthing grid and the lightning conductor Vnl and to
ground Vd2 are same. With further displacement of the point of
conductor which connects the receiver with the earthing mid and is
L s

meant to carry the lightning current away safely to ground. There

.. orientation, lightning discharge m a ~ n l ystrikes the ground. If the
are two different types of lightning c o ~ d u c t o r: the ligh'ning masts object to be protected is located near the lightning conductor, for n
and the ground wires. definite height of the lightning conductor the voltage between ihc
"-. lightning canal and 111,. object lvill always be greater than the
Good earthing of lightning conductors is anbessential condition I~reakdown voltage cithcr to the lightning cocductor or to ground
for reliable protection, since in case c ~ n f stroke in a badly earthed and the object will be protccted from the dircct lightning stroke.
lightning conductor, very high voltages, capable ofcausing a break-
down of insulating medium betwcer~the lightning conductor and the 31.2. Protective Zone of Lightning Conductors
object under-protection, arc possMe. I n the beginning, before large-
scale use of thc lightning conductors (XVIII century), when serious I t is customary to call the space around a lightning conductor
attention was not paid to the va!ile of resistance of the lightning in which the probability of lightning stroke is small, "the protective '-

conductor, incidents of fire caused by lightning discharges in the zone.'. I n view of the fact that Ixeakdown voltage?~of. air gaps,
lightning contlrlc~orsItwe not rare which, thus. played a harmful specially for distances of tcns of metres, have considerable statistical
role in such cases. scatter, lightning conductorz cnsurc protection of an object only with
a certain degree of probability.
The provision of a reliable electrical connection Lctween all
parts of the lightning conductor is equally i m p o r t a ~ t sincz
, during ((L) Experimeqtal Determination of Protective Zone of Light-
the passage of a current through the place of bad contacts, an inten- ning Conductors
sive arcing, wliich can also causc fire, taltcs place.
Protective zones of lightning conductors are determined by
T h e protective action of lightning conductors is based on the experiments on models. During this, it is assumed that the actual
Fdct that charges, stored on its tip in the leader stage of lightning protective zones of real lightning conductors of different heights are
gccmetrically similar to the zones obtained in the laboratory on
models.
High Voltage Engineering Protection from Direct Lightning Strokes 427

The impulse spark discl~argeis used as a model of lightning. lightning mast. For each location of the electrode, a definiie num-
Its development in long gaps takes place in two stages the leader and ber of discharges is produced. The experiment shows thai for
the main stages. I t is in this way, qualitatively identical lvith t h e
lightning.
The experiments are co~lductedaccording to the experimental
set up of Fig. 31.2 ; the electlaode from which the discharge deve-
lops imitates the end of the leader
canal a t the height of orientation of
lightning. I n experiments conducted
in the Soviet Union by A.A. Akopyan,
for lightning rods of a height upto
30 m, If/h was taken to be equal 10
20, and for ground wires Hlh=lO.
For lightning conductors of height
above 30 m, the height of orientation
=- -- was taken to be constant (H=600 111
~ i 31.2~. D. ~ for the~ ox- ~for lightning
~ ~ masts, and~ H=300~ for Fig. 31.3. Dotorminetion of t h o prot,octivc zono
perimontal dctermi~ationof t h o ground wires). The values taken can- of o, lightning mast on its model.
protective zone ; lVG-Impulm not be rigorously justified, however,
Generator ; l-electrode
imitating the end of t h o leader there is a basis to assume that their R-3.5 h all discharges strike the lightning mast. For Rl sornk-
at the height of use gives somewhat lower protective G t e r than R. a Dart of the discharges strikes the a;.ound.
of lightning ; 2-model of the zones, thus ensuring a definite margin lIuricg this, the discharies deflect very rnucuh away from the verti-
lightning conductor (mast) ; 3- of safetv. cal and strike the ground at a distance r > l.6h. The quantity r
grounded metallic plane.
is the radius of the protective zone at the ground level. The dis-
I n spite of the fact that inost of lightning discharges to earth tance R is called the radius of zone of 100% strokes to the light-
have negative polarity, discharges of positive polarity are used dur- ning mast.
ing an experimental determination of protective zones. This is due The protective zone at a height h, is determined with the help
to the fact that a meeting streamer, as though making the lightning of a mast of height h, which models the object to be protected. T h e
mast longer, develops from its tip during a lightning stroke into electrode and the model of the object which are initially situated i n ,
raised objects. However, the length of this meeting streamer for the same plane, are shifted with respect to each other and in relation
lightning rods of a height upta, 100 metres does not exceed a few to the model of the lightning mast. For each mutual location of the
tens of metres. In those spark gaps with which one has to deal in electrodes a definite number of the discharges is conducted. As a
laboratory, the discharge start:; developing from lightning mast if the result, the maximilm distance r, between the model of the object
polarity of the upper electrode is negative and greatly increased pro- and the lightning mast a t which the model of object is not struck by
tective zones are obtained. With positive polal-ity of the upper the discharge, is found. This distance r, is the radius of protective
electrode the meeting streamer from the lightning rod comprises zone of the model of lightning mast at a height h,.
a small fraction of the spark gap (upto 113) which is much closer to
the conditions occurring during lightning discharges. However, the
necessity of using that polarity which does not occur in natural con-
ditions testifies to very approximate modelling of the real processes
in a laboratory. Therefore .it should be remembered that the pro-
tective zones obtained in a labloratory are of a conditional nature
and we can use them, only because many years of observations of the
performance of real lightning masts conhrmed the reliability of the
gecommendations worked out on the basis of laboratory experiments. If the lightning conductor is not a, lightning mast but a groi~nd
wire, thr electrode and thc ohject are shifted along the horizontal in
The technique of experirncntal determination of the protective a plane perpendicular to thc ground wire (Fig. 31.4). Experience
zones is as follows (Fig. 31-3). Tllc electrode. located at a height shows that in this case the dimension of protective zone is b= l.2h,
H, is shifted in the horizontal direction rclativc to the model of and the dimension of the zone of' 100% stroke to the model ofground
Protection from Direct Lightning Strokes 429
428 High Voltage Engineering wliere IL-height of lightning conductor ;
wire equals B-2h. If the electrode is shifted further, thus increasing rz-radius of the protective zone a t a height h,
the distance upto the vertical plane in which the ground wire is h,-level under examination above the surface of ground
(or height of the object to be protected) ;
h-- ha= h,-projection of height of the lightning conductor above
the level undcr examination (or above height of the
object to be protected) ; called the active height of the
lightning conductor.
In order to be protected from direct lightning strokes, the
object must be fully located within the cone like space whicll
represents the pro:ective zone of the lightning mast.
Since during experimental determination of protective zones,
a number of departures from real conditions are permitted. there is

situatcd, smaller and srnailer strokes will occur to the ground wire
and finally, at a certain distance, all the discharges will occur only to
thc ground T h e distribution of stroke:; determined experimentally is
shown in Fig. 31.5, fi.on1 which i t follows that on an average all
discharges of lightning. developing a t a distance R<3h from the
ground wire occur to the ground wire.

Fib.. 31.:. Distribution of discharges bet. Fig. 31.0. P~wtectivozone of n

wnon t b ground wire and tho pound. a lightning mast.

lo need to make use of the accurate boundaries of protrcti\le zones,

(b) Protective Zones of The Lightning Masts lirhich become specially complicated in case of protccliol~ b) tI,o
Thc protective zone of a single lightning mast upto a hei& of liglltning rnasts. I t is possible to make usc of the simplif cd const: ~ c -
30 m. (Fig. 31.6) is a space bounded by the surface o i rotation of a ! tion shown in Fig. 31.7. The generator surhce eliclosing the pro-
.curve which can be'found f r o m the f o r m u l ; ~ tective zone can he represented by a broken line. O j ~ c o f tllc
sec-i~l~~ of this I~rokcn line ah is n 1 m . t of the stsaigI1t line joillilig
I tl,c.. tip of the lightning conduc~or and a point on thc of
43 0 High Voltage Engineering
Protecrlon from Direct Lightning Strokes 43 I
I-onstructed on three points : two of them are the tips of the lightning
qround situated at a distance of 0.75 h from the axis of the lightning
masts and'the third Is situated mid-way between the lightning masts
Last ; and the other section (be) is a part of the straight line joining a
point of the lightning conductor at a height of 0.8 h and a point
on the surface of ground situated at a distance of 1.5 h kom the
axis of the lightning mast. The protective zone constructed
according to (31.1) is also shown in the same figure for comparison.
From Fig. 31.7 it is clear that the point b is si'uated at a height
equal to $ h. It is easy to s h o ~that the radius of protection at a
level h,< 3 h is equal to :

The radius of protection a t a level h,)$ h i$

Flg. 31.8. Protrctivc, zone of two lightning masts:

The effectiveness of lightning masts of heights greater than a1 a height equnl to IL,. Cros-section of the protcctive zone in a
30 m becomes less, since during this the height of orientation of
lightning remains constant. plane perpendicular to the plane of Fig. 31 8 (shown on the left) is
constructed i~: the same way a.; for a sinqle lightning mast of height
For determining the radius of protective zone of a lightning equal to h, (cross-section along 0-0 in Fig. 31.8). The external
mast of height h>30 m, the values obtained from (31.2) and (31.3) part of 1he protective zone of the lightning masts is determilled in
C.C
J J the sanle way as for single lightning masts.
-
must be multiplied by the coefficient p=-
p-otective zone is done in the same way
4h:-
Construction
as in Fig. 31.7, but straight
of
as
For two lightning masts of height 7~>30m, point 7 , is clc~crminccl
lines nn' and CC' are drawri through the points on the surface of
grolnd situated at distances of 0.75 hp and 1.5 hp respectively from
the axis of the liglitning mast.
I,= 5.5
The protective zone between two lightning masts have dl-
considerably greater dimensions than the sum of protective zones The radii of protective zone in the c-oss-sections 0-0 a r c similarly
of two si~lglelightning masts. It was mentioned above that the
radius of 100% strokes to the lightning mast is R = 3 . 5 h. Evidently, Ieduced 1y~p times.
if two lightning masts are situated a t a distance of' n=2h= 7h, the
point of ground surface which lies mid-way between the two
lightning masts will not be struck by lightning. If it is necessary
protect a point situated mid-way between 1p6nin masts
m-a I iw~r ofh. the d i r t a ~ . e e the
n l i e z s - o d & i $ i t !i
-rmnttrc LLG / (IL-h,), % . c . must n o t be greater than seven times the
&e--- h-eight-of-+tns-l~n~gmasts. Or, if height of lightning
~nnstsand the distance between them are known, height of a point:
\ ~ h i c h lies mid-way between the lightning masts and will be pro-
trctccl from ligl~lningdischarge is found as

L !a- -+I
I
Fig. 31.9. Protcctivo zone of two I ~ g h t n i n gmast . of dlffcrc ,it h ~ ~ g l ~ t ~ .
Tllc illtcrnal par1 of the protective ;one of two lightning
nlcrsts (Yig. 31.8) in a plane, passing through both the Construction of protective zones for two ligl~tning r n l 5 . c o r
liglltning masts is hounded by the arc of a circle whic11 can be different h e i ~ h t sis shown in Fig. 31.9.
Protection from Direct Lightning Strokes 433
432 High Voltage Engineering The protective zones at a level h , tor tllrec ant1 foilr lightning
masts are shown in Figs. 31-10 and 31.1 1.
At first the protective zone of higher lightning mast is
constructed. After that through the tip of the lightning mast of
smaller height a horizontal line is drawn till it intersects the
protective zone of the single lightning mast of greater height.
Considering that the tip of a certain fictitious lightning mast
coincides with this point of intersection 3, protective zones of' the
lightning masts 2 and 3 of the same height hz and situated at a
distance u', are constructed.
Such objects as the equ~pment of outdoor distribution su1'-
stations are located on sufficiently large territory. They have

I
I
Fig. 31.11. A r m ~t n height h, protected by four lightning
masts which uro l o c ~ t c dn t thc corners of a rectangle.

For an arbitrary location of the lightning masts the condition

stated abwe m3;t b3 separately verified fbr each group of three
lightning masts near one another.
If thd height of lightninq masts exceeds 30 m, the condition
of protection at a level h, will be :
D<8(h-hx) p. (31.7)

The complex of an outdoor distribution installation of 110 KV

to be protected from direct lightning %strokesis shown in Fig. 31.12.
On the basis of trial calculations the places of location of the
lightning masts on the gantry of 11 m height are chosen. After the
protectivc zones formed by each group of three or fbur lightning
masts are calculated.
Fig, 31.10. Area at n height hx protected by three lightning
lnr&fi of height 1b (1, 2 n,nd 3)
We shall examine the protective zone of lightning masts 1, 3
he Drotectrd by a number of lightning masts. In this case, the and 4. The diameter of the circle passing through the tips* of
external part of the ~xotectivezone is determined in the same way these lightning masts is 0 ~ 5 m.0
as tile protective zone of two ligl~tningmasts. The internal pat c
of the protective zone of a number (of lightning masts is not cons- The condition of full protectien pf the area of triangle formed
trucred. An object of hcight h, situated inside the triangle (or by the lightning rods I ,3 and 4 is
rectangle) formed by the lightning masts will be protected in case D<8 ha.
the diameter D of the circle passing through the tips of the lightning
masts (or the diagonal of the rectangle at the corners of which the Consequently, minimum active height of these lightning masts
lightning masts are sitnated) is not greater than 8 times the active must he :
lleight (h,=h--h,) of the lightning masts i . e . the condition that the
area between the lightning masts at a level h, will be protected is
D<8 (h-h,). (31%)
High \joltage Englneerlng Protection from Direct Lightning Strokes 435
hence the total height of lightning mlstn must be h = 11 + 7 . 5 = 18 5 m.
For installation of lightning masts, qantries of 1 lm. are used.
Gantries A and B of height 8 2 m are situated-outside the triangles
1, 3, 4 and 2, 4, 5, therefore i: is essential to verify whether they enter
in the protective zones formed by the lightning masts 1-3 and 2-5.
The radius of the protective zone of the lightning masts of
height h= 18.5 m at a level of h, -8 2 according to (31.2) is

The maximum height of the protective zone in %et\vcen

lightning masts 1-3 or 2--5 is detxmined f r n m (31.4) as

Dimensions of the protective zone in between the lightning

rods at a height A,= 8.2 m according to (31.2) is

The construction shows that gantries A and B fully 'enter in

tne protective zones of the lightnin; mlsts 1-3 and 2-5 respectively.

..---I.-_-- _/I

Fig. 31.1.'. kroLe~t.ur.L, ~1 1 1 ~l\V

1 aubstatlon by lightning masts.

The minimum active height of the lightning masts 1, 2 and 4

essential for the protection of area of the triangle formed by these
lightning masts is
ha=7.5 m.
The minimum active height of lightning masts 2, 4, 5
55
ha= -- ~ 6 . m.9
8
For the protection of area of the rectangle at the corners of
which lightning masts 3. 4, 6 and 7 are situated, a active height

is essential.
The nlinimun~height of lightning masts 4, 5, 7 and 8 is

I n this
way, it is possible to use the same active height
b kas;7.5 m forall tlfe lightning masts. The objects to be protected
Fig. 31.13. Protoctivc zone of ground wire.
. a maximrlm helght of about 11 m.(busbars of the slrbstation), B
436 High Voltage ~ngineering

(c) Protective Zones of Ground Wires

Protection from Direct Lightning Strokes 437 '
: The protective zone of a ground wire is shown in Fig. 31.13.
The cross-section of the protective zone on a plane perpendicular to very rarely-once in every 15 years (see Chapt. 29). Therdorc, if the
the ground wire is constructed in the same way as for a lightning protective zone is determined with a probability of 0.1%, with ten
mast with the only difference that breadth of the zone a t the ground
plane for a ground wire suspended at a height hC30 mn equals 1.2h.
'.Half the breadth of the protective zone at a level hs> 5h is deter-
mined as
h= =0.6h ( 1 --%)- (31.8)

3
At a level I&,<- h, half the breadth of the protective zone is :
3

I t was pointcd out above that in the experiments on models for

a displacement of the electrode a distance R=2h, all the discharges
strike the ground wire. Evidently, if two ground wires are to be Fig. 31.14. Prote~tiveMae ,ftwo ground wires. '
used as lightning conductors. lor a distance f = 4 h between them,
the point situated on ground surface midway between the g r o u d lightning conductors on the territory of a substation, it is possible .to
wires will not be struck by lightning. guarantee that there will not be any stroke on the objects to b='
I f the distance lxt~veen two ground wires S < 4 h the point I
situaled midway between the ground wires at a level of

\<,ili be protected from ligwning strokes.

The external part of the protective zone for two ground wires
i s determined in the same way as for a single ground wire. The
internal par! is bounded by a surface which in the cross.section per-
pendicular to the ground wire gives a n arc of a circle.
Thiq arc of the circle can be constructed through three points :
one of them is h, and other two the ground wires (Fig. 31.14).
In electrical installations ground wires are mainly used for the
protection of conductors of transmission lines. Average height of

+
'
suspension of conductors (ha)is greater than 213 the height of suspen-
sion of the ground wires (h) ; usu(a1ly hslh is about 0.8. For ound
w a i n s t e a d of the term protectze zones, the t p n protective ang es
is used. Protective angle of a g r o c s r e is the angle between a
, vertical line passing through a ground wire and the line joining a
conductor and the ground wire and lying on the plane perpendicular
to the conductor axis (Fig. 31.1 5). protected in the cl#nab of 13@ years. Besides this, the objects to be
In a single lightning mast of a height 1=30 m situated in a protected are. iarzdbod in the protective zone with a certain margin
r e ( i ( ~ ~of average intensity of lightning activity, direct strokes occur ofsafety, which wry p M t y increase the reliability. Hence for
lightning masts, the necessity of correct determination of the probabi-
lity with which the protective zonesshave been found out, does not
arise.
438' High Voltage Engineering Protection from Direct Lightning Strokes

An altogether different situation exists during the protection of

transmission lines by ground wires which are very often struck by
lightning dixharges due to their considerable lengths. For example,
(%) av
-average steepness of the front of lightning current.

500 K V lines between volgagrad and Moscow and Kubishev and

Moscow of lengths of the order of 1000 km are struck by lightning not
less than 200 times during a lightning season. Therefore, for trans-
mission lines the probability of protection with the help'af ground
wires attains great importance.
O n account of the approximate nature of modelling of lightnix~g
in a laboratory, i t does not seem pos,sible to.determine these probabi-
lities experimentally and the only method is to generalise the experl-
ence of operation of actual lines having different tower heights and
different protective angles. The experience of operation shows that
an angle of protection of a= 3 lo corresponding to Fig. 3 1.13 ensures
an acceptable reliability of protection ; however, in practice, it is
attempted to use an angle of the orlder of a=20 - 25".

31.3. Permissible Distances Between the Object to be Pro-

tected and the Lightning Conductor
The object to be protected mvst fully lie within the protective
zone of a lightning conductor. Besides this, it must be located at a
definite distance from the lightning conductors. . If this distance is
too small Aashovers from parts of the lightning conductor to the Fig. 31.16. For tho determinntion of tho pcrmiaaihlo
tlistnnce between a lightning mast and tho objcct t o
ohiect to be protected can take place during lightning strokes. bc protected.
The lightning protection equipment which hcludes lightning
conductors, current conductom ant&earthing device have resistances For the calculation of the potential of a lightning conductor,
as well as inductance. A coniderable portion of the active resistance
is formed' by the earthing grid. The conductors for carrying away I.,, is taken as 1.50 kA (probability 0.3%) and (%)==SO kA/p rcc.
Iightning current to earth hehave like inductances in the. electrical \ - I
For mztallic lightninz conductors of lattice construction, and $mi-
sense, the value of which depends, fwst of all, on the length of a lady for separately laid euwent carrying conductors, the specific
current carrying conductor. inductance is approximately L-1.7 pH/M. In this manner, for
Lightning current, while passing through a lightning conductor, conditions of calculations we have :
gives rise to aydtage drop in the resistance of earthing and the V1=150 R+50 1, KV. (31.11)
inductance orthe current carrying conductor.
The amplitudes of voltage in the lightning collductor happens
For an'&lique.angled form of the front of lightning current the to be very high, for instance, for R;= 10 ohnl and a t a distance
tcntial at a point of the lightning conductor, situated at Z=10 M from the earthing grid, we have
the earthing grid (Fig. 31.16) will be equal to :
Vl=2000 KV.
The potential of the earth& grid of the lightning conductor during
this is
where IM-amplitude cd the lightning current,
VI =In,R 1500 KV.
H -resistance of the earthing grid during flow through it
-&lightning current, Evidently, in order that there would not b;: any flash~ver on
2--.inductance of the section of current carrying conductor the object to be protected, the strength of the insulation bttween the
of, length 1 measured from the earthing grid upto the object and the lightning conductor musi be higher than the value
p A t under consideration, of voltage on the lightning conductor.
440 .High Voltage Engineering .
Protection from Direct Lightning Strokes 44 1

If the object happens to be a conductor, suspended on a string We ,will find 'the necessary cross-section of the current carrying
a

of insulators which, with its other end, attached to a cross arm, it II parts of lightning conductors, lightning receivers and current carrier.
is necessary to satisfy the condition While calculating the heat developed in these parts, we shall
neglect the heat radiated to the surrounding medium. The energy,
VI1) 150 R+50 E, (30.12) given out during the passage of current through a resistance per unit
where V,,-is the impulse flashover. voltage of the string of insu- length, c2.n be calculated as
lators.
Tn the case when the object and the lightning conductor are
.separated by an air gap of length 13, the condition
v, must be satisfied.
S$ - *
E,,, Since the front of lightning current wave has a small effect on
the heating of the conductor, we shall take
Taking the value of the permissible average intensity of the 0.7
electric field in air gaps E,,,=SOO KV/M we get :
iJl ~,,,e -'IT =Ie FW
-- t
520.3 Rs+O.ll 1, dl. (31.13)

If it is essential to prevent fla~shoverfrom the earthing grid of

the .lightning cwductor to the object situated on ground, it is essen- In this manner we get
tial that the distance between than in a r t h iY

The permissible average intensity of electric field in earth is

E,,=303 KV/M. With the lishtning current Iw of 150 kA used The tempcraturc rise of the conductor is determined by the
in calculations, we will get the condition following formula :
8,>0*5 R, M,. (31.15)

where g-denpity of the material of the conductor ;

C-its mean specific heat capacity ;
Structures of objects to be protected must, where it is possible,
Lc used as supports for fastening the current carrying parts of light- .,,%'-cross-section of the conductor ;
ning conductors. For example, in outdoor distributions substations p--specific resistance of the material.
of 110 KV and abpve, lightning conductors can be mounted on the
metallic gantries meant for supporting the busbars and the gantries We shall take the amplitude of lightning current as IM==150 kA ;
themselves can be used as current carriers connecting the lightning and considering additional heating by repeated discharges, we shall
conductors with the earthing grids. take the length of wave tail ~w-1100p. There are very severe
conditions which correspond to the transfer, after'one of a multiple
Sepqately mqunted figbtning conductors can similarly he made stroke of lightning, of a quantity of electricity
- metallic :from;.steel tubes, if height of lightning conductors does not
exceed 20 m, dr in the form of lattice constructions, if height is more
than 20 m. However, lightning conductors -;frade on cement con-
crete or wooden su ports happen to be cheaper (for a height upto
, !
20 11)). . The rein orcement of cement concrete supportsis usedas.
; current carriers ; along wooden supports special current carrying which happens rarely.
i conductors carrying lightning c:urrent to ground are uscd. It is
recommended \to construct lightning conductors in the form of sclf- For commonly used steel conductors g-7-8 gram/cm3, Cs.O.11
sapp9.ting constructions with out (stay wires) guys. 1 Calorie gr. degree. Average specific resistance of steel in the
,
. High Voltage Engineering
temperature range of 0-400°Ccan be taken to be equal to ~ = 3 . 1 0 - ~
ohm cm. For this data we shall get the temperature rise as
13.4.
t o r--
CP
A steel conductor of cross-section 5=25 mm2 will he heated by
lightning current in all to 215°C. Such a heating is fully admissible
even in the case when the current carrier is mounted along timber.
However, for increasing the mechanical strength and the life span,
steel conductors of 50 mm3 cross-section are recommended (round Earthing of High Voltage
steel of 8 mm. dia). Electrical Apparatus
For protection from corrosion lightning conductors must be.
painted or zinc plated. Use of multi-conductor steel wire is not re-
commended from the point of view of corrosion.

I 32.1. General Information

T h e object olearthing is to maintain a low potential on ally
ohject. T h e importance of earthing of lightning conductors during
protection from direct lightning strokes and the earthing of other
objects (transmission line towers, lightning arrestors and others) i n
lightning protection schemes is very great. All these earthings arc
meant for safe conduction of lightning currents to ground and arc
called lightning protective earthings. I n H.V. electrical apparatus,
working earthing (neutral grounding) and earthing for safcty are also
used. Though these two types of earthing do not have a direct rela-
tionship to the theme of the present book, we \vill disruss them t~rielly.
since sometimes one and the same earthing a n a i ~ g e m e n tcan fulfil a
few functions s;multaneo~~sly.

T h e purpose of working earthing (neutral grounding) is to

ensure normal working of an equipment or of its elcments in thc
regime chosen for them. The earthing of neutrals of power trans-
formers (in the systcms with grounded neutral), measuring pqtential
transformers, earthing of reactors for shunt compensation 111 long
distance transmission lines etc., belong to this category.
Safety earthing is carried out with the object of making tlic
operation of electrical apparatus safe by earthing metallic parts of an
apparatus which can be under voltage during short circuits (frame of
-machines, tanks of transformers etc.).
For the accomplishment of any kind of earthing, -earthing
arrangements or devices, consisting of earthing electrodes located in
ground and earthing wires which connect the element to be grounded.
with the earthing electrodes, are required. The potential of an
object to be earthed is determined by the sum of the voltage dl-ops
443