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CORE COMPETENCY
Unit of Competency No. 1: COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY IN ENGLISH
FOR CUSTOMER SERVICE
LO2. Demonstrate an Ability to Listen and Comprehend Effectively

Grammar Module 4

LESSON 1

Noun Clause

Forms of Noun Clauses

A noun clause can replace a noun phrase or a pronoun in a sentence, as in the following
examples (the nouns and noun clauses are underlined.)

a. Your paper was excellent.

noun phrase

b. What you wrote was excellent.

noun clause

c. I read it.
pronoun

d. I read what you wrote.

noun clause

In (a) your paper is a noun phrase and the subject of the sentence; this is replaced by the
noun clause what you wrote (b). In (c) the pronoun it is the object of the sentence and it is
replaced by the noun clause what you wrote in (d).

A noun clause consists of a connecting word (CW), a subject (S), and a verb (V) as follows:

I read what you wrote.

(CW) (S) (V)
What you wrote was excellent.
(CW) (S) (V)

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Connecting Words
There are two types of connecting words.
Connecti ng Words Exampl es
1. that-connectors 1. Critics believe (that) there isn’t one objective truth.
If that introduces the object of the verb, as in
sentence (1), then it can be deleted.
2. wh-connectors
You cannot delete wh-connecting words.
what… 2. Then we may believe what the s ci enti s ts tel l us .
how /how much … 3. Her students were interested in how peopl e
i nteract.
when … 4. I don’t know when the uni v ers e began.
whether/i f … 5. I’m not sure whether I’ll be a black bel t i n karate.
where … 6. I don’t know where I s houl d begi n.
why … 7. I can’t understand why he di dn’t l eav e.

Forms of Noun Clauses

A. Noun Clauses beginning with a Question Word
Question words such as when, where, why, how, who/whom, what, which, and whose can
introduce a noun clause.
Q ues ti on Noun Cl aus e
1. What did he discover? I don’t know what he discovered.
2. When did he discover it? I’m not sure when he discovered it.
3. Where did he discover it? It is not known where he discovered it .
4. How did he discover it? I’m not certain how he discovered it.
5. Who is Faraday? I don’t know who he is.
6. Whose discovery is that? It is not certain whose discovery that is .
7. What did he discover? What he discovered is not certain.
8. Why did he discover it? (What he discovered is the subject of the sentence.)
9. Which discovery did he make? I’m not sure why he discovered it.
I don’t know which discovery he made.

STRATEGY
Remember not to use question word in a noun clause. The subject comes
before the verb in a noun clause.

B. Noun Clauses beginning with Whether or If

When a yes/no question is changed to a noun clause, whether or if is used to introduce

the clause.

Q ues ti on Noun Cl aus e

He wonders whether it will work.
1. Will it work? He wonders i f it will work.
I don’t know whether they believed him.
2. Did they believe him? I don’t know i f they believed him.

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C. Noun Clauses beginning with That

We use the word that to introduce a noun clause that states a fact or idea.

Statement Noun Cl aus e

1. The world is round. We know that the world is round. (That the world is round is the
object of the verb know.)
2. The world is round. We know the worl d is round. (The word that is often left out in
spoken English.)
3. The world is round. That the world is round is a fact. (That the worl d i s round is the
subject of the sentence. The word that can’t be left out when it
introduces a noun clause that is the subject of a sentence.)
STRATEGY
Don’t forget that a noun clause must have a subject and a verb.

Functions of Noun Clauses

A noun clause can have five grammatical functions in a sentence.
Function of the Clause Examples

1. As subject of the sentence 1. What a trusted authority tells us is

A noun clause can replace the subject of a the truth.
sentence, as in sentence (1)-(4). (The noun 2. That he became a black belt
clause is in bold.) surprised his parents.
3. Whether or not he’ll pass his classes
is another question.
4. Whoever misses the test will fail.
2. As the complement of a sentence
A complement comes after the verb be and 5. It is exactly how I pictured it.
other linking verbs (seem, look, appear, etc.). 6. It seems that he likes his school.

3. As the object of the verb 7. Scholars have suggested that there

As the object of the verb, the noun clause are several ways of knowing.
(in bold) comes after the main verb in the 8. You can imagine how difficult
sentence as in (7) and (8). statistics is.

4. As the object of a preposition 9. Think about what you know.

Note how the noun clause comes after the
preposition about in sentence (9).

5. As an appositive 10. The fact that I pre-registered made

A noun clause completes the noun, the fact, all the difference.
and is introduced by the connecting word, 11. The idea that I would graduate
that. Such appositives occur after nouns like soon frightened me.
fact, belief, idea, doubt, etc. 12. The belief that the universe began
with a “big bang” is quite popular.

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Uses of Noun Clauses

Exampl e Us e of Noun Cl aus e
I believe that all people are good.
He’s sorry that he left his country. After some verbs and adjectives
It’s important that you understand me.

I don’t know what time it is. To include a question in a statement.

I don’t remember if I left the stove on.
She forgot where she left her house keys.

He said, “I will return.” To repeat someone’s exact words

He asked, “Where are you?”

He said that he would return. To report what someone has said or asked
He asked me what I wanted.

Reduction of Noun Clauses

Compare the following sentences, which have the same meaning but different forms.

a. It is important that she take science classes. (more formal, written- for example, a
written evaluation by the daughter’s teacher intended for the parents. )

b. It is important for her to take science classes. (informal, conversational- for

example, parents talking to each other about their daughter.)

Note that sentence (b) is a reduction of sentence (9). The clause that she take science classes
becomes a phrase for her to take science classes.

Other noun clauses can also be reduced to phrase and the chart below summarizes this.

Cl aus e Reducti on Expl anati on

1. It is best -that s he change her job. Noun clauses after verbs of request and
-for her to change her job . urgency (e. g., (1) and (2) opposite can be
reduced to infinitive phrases.
2. The psychologist suggested
-that s he qui t.
-to her to qui t.
3. I don’t understand -what I have to do. In (3) and (4), noun clause is the object
-what to do. of the verb in the sentence. In this case,
you can reduce the clause to an infinitive
4. I don’t know -when I should go. phrase but keep the wh-word. You will
-when to go. not keep the modal (e. g., have to, should).

5. He told me -what I should not do. In (5) note the position of not in the
-what not to do. reduced clause.

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Special Problems with Noun Clauses

Pay careful attention to these special problems.
Problem Point Explanation
1. No to after said + subject Don’t confuse these
(Incorrect) She said me that she would go. constructions:
(Correct) She told me that she would go. She said to me that …
She told me that …
2. Using that to report a Yes/No question Use if or whether to report
(Incorrect) He asked me that I had any yes/no questions.
sisters.
(Correct) He asked me if I had any sisters.

Problem Point Explanation

3.Using incorrect word order to report a wh-question Use statement word
order to report a Wh-
(Incorrect) I don’t know what time is it. question.
(Correct) I don’t know what time it is.
4. Using the auxiliary don’t in reporting imperatives Use not in front of the
infinitive.
(Incorrect) She told us to don’t go.
(Correct) She told us not to go.
5. Using incorrect pronouns or adverbs in indirect Change the pronouns
speech and adverbs to
indicate that it is
(Incorrect) She told me that I didn’t want to go here. indirect and not
(Correct) She told me that she didn’t want to go there. direct speech.
6. Using an incorrect form of the verb after verbs of Use the simple form
urgency and request. of the verb (the
infinitive without to)
(Incorrect) He insisted that she sees a in these cases.
(Correct) He insisted that she see a doctor.

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LESSON 2

Direct Speech
When repeating a person’s words exactly, use direct (or quoted) speech. Note the
punctuation, capitalization, and use of quotation marks (“ ”) in the following examples of
direct speech, which reflect some people’s ideas about breaking away.

Type of Quotation Example

STATEMENTS
 The period (.) comes at the end of the 1. “What I like the best is having the
entire sentence, not the quote as in (1). freedom to make my own decisions,”
 If the end of the sentence and the end Sara said.
of the quote are the same, then the 2. Sara said, “What I like the best is
period appears inside the quotation having the freedom to make my own
marks as in (2). decisions”
QUESTIONS/EXCLAMATIONS
 The (?) and (!) come at the end of the 3. “My mother told me I would miss her,
quote, not the sentence as in (3) and and she was absolutely right” Jeremy
(4). Put a period at the end of the exclaimed.
sentence. 4. “Didn’t you think you would miss
 The (?) comes at the end of the your family” her sister asked.
sentence of the quote is also the end of 5. His sister asked, “Didn’t you think you
the sentence as in (5). would miss your family”
ONE SENTENCE, SEPARATED 6. “The most difficult thing about living
 Insert commas before and after Kathy away from my parents,” Kathy said “is
said and do not capitalize the second that I have to do my own cooking and
part of the sentence. cleaning.”

TWO SENTENCES, SEPARATED 7. “I want to do whatever is best for my

kids,” one father said,” If they are
Place the period after one father said ready to leave, then they should have
the freedom to do so.”

Reporting Phrases and Exclamations

Note how the following phrases and exclamations are reported in indirect speech.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

“Hello!” She greeted him.
“What a nice day!” She exclaimed that it was a nice day.
“No.” She refused. /She disagreed.
“Yes.” She accepted. She agreed.
“Sure.” She agreed (enthusiastically, hesitantly, etc.)
“I’d love to go with you!” She accepted the invitation.
“Thank you.” She thanked him.

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Reporting Statements
A. To report speech after a certain time has passed, use indirect speech and follow these
guidelines:
1. Do not use quotation marks.
2. Change the verb to a past tense, if possible.
3. Change the pronouns and adverbs to show that it is reported, not quoted, speech.
4. Use an appropriate introductory clause verb (say, tell, answer, task, etc.)

B. Pronouns and adverbs of time and place must also be changed when you report direct
speech. Here are some of the most common changes.
D i rect Speech Indi rect Speech
Changes in adverbs:
Yet by that time
Today that day
Tomorrow the next day/the following day/day later
Yesterday the day before/the previous day
Last week/month, etc. the previous week/the week before
This week/month, etc. that week
Next week/month, etc. the following week/the next week/a week later

D i rect Speech Indi rect Speech

Changes in pronouns:
“I will write to my mother,” John said. John said that he would write to his mother.

“You can always call me collect,” Sarah Sarah told John that he could always call her
told to John. collect.
“We will miss y ou!” John’s sisters told John’s sisters told him that they would miss
him. hi m.

C. Note how SAY and TELL are used differently.

1. Say is followed by a noun clause.

(To + indirect object can follow say, but it is not common):

• She said (to me) that she was leaving.

noun-clause

2. Tell is always followed by an indirect object (IO) and a noun clause.

• She told me (that) she was leaving.

IO noun-clause

3. Tell is usually used with imperatives and is followed by an indirect object

(IO) + infinitive.

• She told me to go.

IO infinitive

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Direct Speech and Indirect Speech

Change the verb to a past form when reporting direct speech. Past perfect verbs (e.g., sentences 6
and 8 below) do not change. Begin the sentence by naming the speaker.
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
1. “I want to attend a US university,” John said. John said that he wanted to attend a US
university.
2. “I am looking for a program in computer John said that he was looking for a program in
science,” John said. computer science.
3. “I sent away for the program description,” John said that he had sent away for the
John said. program description.
4. “I was thinking about starting this John said that he had been thinking about
September,” starting that September.
5. “I haven’t filled out the application form yet,” John said that he hadn’t filled out the
John said. application form by that time.
6. “I had written the statement of purpose John said that he had written the statement of
before,” John said. purpose before.
7. “I will apply for my visa tomorrow,” John John said that he would apply for his visa the
said. following day.
8. “I had been writing for two hours when the John said that he had been writing for two
electricity went out,” John said. hours when the electricity went out.
*Note how modals change their form when reporting direct speech. *
9. “My academic counselor can help me with John said that the academic counselor could
the paperwork,” John said. help him with the paperwork.
10. “The Consul may be available now,” the The receptionist said that the consul might be
receptionist said. (possibility) available then. (possibility)
11. “You may go in now,” the receptionist said. The receptionist said that he could go in at that
(permission) time. (permission)
12. “You must bring 3 photographs,” the The receptionist said that he had to bring 3
receptionist said. photographs.
*The following modals do not change their form.
13. “I hadn’t been able to come yesterday John said he hadn’t been able to come the day
because of my work schedule,” John said. before because of his work schedule.
14. “I should ask my bank for the financial John said that he should ask his bank for the
statement,” John said. financial statement.
15. “The bank couldn’t have sent the John said that the bank couldn’t have sent the
documents yet,” John said. documents by that time.
16. “I shouldn’t have waited so long,” John said. John said that he shouldn’t have waited so long.

Reporting Questions

Follow these guidelines when reporting questions:

1. Use statement, not question.

2. For yes/no questions, use if or whether as the connecting word.
3. For wh-questions, retain the appropriate wh-word (what, where, etc.)
4. Use an appropriate introductory clause verb (ask, inquire, etc.)

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Note Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Reporting YES/NO
questions:
“Do you have your The receptionist asked John
 Use if or whether as passport with you?” the if he had his passport with
connecting words. receptionist asked John. him. The receptionist asked
 Use statement word
order in indirect “Have you been to this John whether he had
speech. office before?” the been to that office before/
 Use a past form of the receptionist asked John.
verb in indirect speech.
Reporting Wh-questions:
“Where should I pay for my John asked the receptionist
 Keep the wh- visa?” John asked the where he should pay for his
connecting word in the receptionist. visa.
indirect speech.
 Use statement word “Where is the cashier’s John asked the receptionist
order. desk?” John asked the where the cashier’s desk
receptionist. was.

“How can I apply?” john John asked how he could

asked. apply.

“When did you send us the The receptionist asked John

form?” the receptionist when he sent them the form.
asked John.

Reporting Imperatives
You can report imperative statements in two ways.

IMPERATIVE DIRECT INDIRECT INDIRECT

SPEECH SPEECH/INFINITIVE SPEECH/NOUN
CLAUSE + MODAL
1. “Complete this The teacher told the The teacher told the
assignment for students to complete students that they should
homework,” the the assignment for complete the assignment
teacher told the homework. for homework. (Use the
students. modals should, and to,
ought to, had better.)
Negative Imperatives: The teacher told the The teacher told the
2. “Don’t do exercise students not to do students that they
12,” she added. exercise 12. shouldn’t do exercise 12.

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LESSON 3
Adjective Clause
An adjective clause is a group of words (relative word, subject, and verb) that comes
after a noun and modifies and/or restricts that noun, which is called the antecedent
noun. The adjective clause gets embedded in the main clause of the sentence; it
becomes a subordinate clause within the main clause.

Note how the second sentences in (1) and (3) below are turned into an adjective
clause and embedded in the sentence. (A = antecedent noun; RW = relative word, S =
subject, and V = verb)

1. The person was Bob Geldof. He was responsible for the concert.

A RW/S V
2. The person who was responsible for the concert was Bob Geldof.
adjective clause

3. It was a program. Geldof is not likely to forget the program.

A RW S S
4. It was a program that Geldof is not likely to forget.
adjective clause

Types of Adjective Clauses

There are two types of adjective clauses:

Restrictive The single act which Geldof will A restrictive adjective

be remembered for was the Live- clause limits the
Aid Concert. antecedent noun. It
makes it more specific.
Non-restrictive He recorded “Do They Know It’s A non-restrictive
Christmas,” which eventually adjective clause gives
raised $11 million. additional information,
not necessary to identify
the noun being modified.

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Restrictive Clauses
a. Relative Words

A relative word connects the adjective clause to its antecedent noun. Relative words can
have many functions in the adjective clause .

Functi on of Exampl e Notes

Rel ati v e Word
Subject of the 1. The person who/that was  Use who (or that) for people as
Adjective clause (subject) (verb) in (1).
responsible for the concert was Geldof.

2. More than a billion people witnessed a  Use that (or which) for things,
concert that/which hosted over 60 as in (2).
(subject) (verb)
rock acts.
O bject of the 3. It was a program that Geldof is not In (3), that is the object of the
Adjective Clause (object) (subject) clause (Geldof is not likely to forget
likely to forget. that). Geldof is the subject of the
clause.
4. Some of the performers saw musicians
who(m) they hadn’t seen in years. Use who or whom for people in
object position. Whom is more
5. Some of the performers saw musicians formal.
(whom) they hadn’t seen in years.
When the relative word is an
object, it can be deleted as in (5).
This does not change the meaning
of the sentence.
O bject of a 6. Geldof gave tirelessly to a project for An adjective clause can follow most
Preposition which he did not receive a penny. prepositions. In (6) for is the
preposition and which is the object
7. Geldof gave tireless to a project that he of the clause.
did not receive a penny for.
The preposition can be placed at
8. Geldof gave tirelessly to a project that the end of the clause as in (7). This
he did not receive a penny for. is informal.

The relative word can be deleted if

the preposition is at the end of the
adjective clause, as it is in (8).
Pos sessive 9. Donations poured in from people whose Whose shows possession and
consciences were rattled by Geldof’s usually refers to persons as in (9).
commitment and dedication. (It was the
people’s consciences that were rattled.)
Whose can also follow a
10. Geldof wanted to do something for the preposition when it modifies the
hungry in Ethiopia, about whose situation object of that preposition as in
he was very disturbed. (10)

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1. Whose
An adjective clause can also show possession. In this case, the relative word (whose) replaces
the possessive pronoun, as it does in the two sentences below.

I have a friend. His father works for Amnesty International.

I have a friend whose father works for Amnesty International.

2. Object of Prepositions
Note how these two sentences can be combined in four different ways using an adjective
clause. In both cases, the sentences are arranged from informal to formal use.

a. Amnesty International is the organization.

I told you about it.

Amnesty International is the organization I told you about.

Amnesty International is the organization that I told you about.
Amnesty International is the organization which I told you about.
Amnesty International is the organization about which I told you.

b. The prisoner was released.

Amnesty International wrote to the prisoner.
The prisoner Amnesty International wrote to was released.
The prisoner who(m) Amnesty International write to was released.
The prisoner that Amnesty International wrote to was released.
The prisoner to whom Amnesty International wrote was released.

3. Relative Words of Place and Time

Adjective clauses can modify places and time in the following ways. Note that although the
various constructions have the same meaning, they are not equal in degree of formality. The
sentences are arranged from informal to formal.
A. Place
The prisons are filthy.
Many prisoners of conscience were sent to the prisons.
a. The prison many prisoners of conscience were sent to are filthy.
b. The prisons where many prisoners of conscience were sent are filthy.
c. The prisons that many prisoners of conscience were sent to are filthy.
d. The prisons which may prisoners of conscience were sent to are filthy.

B. Time
1980 is the year.
Amnesty International won the Nobel Peace Prize then.
a. 1980 is the year Amnesty International won the Nobel Peace Prize.
b. 1980 is the year that Amnesty International won the Nobel Peace Prize.
c. 1980 is the year when Amnesty International won the Nobel Peace Prize.
d. 1980 is the year in which Amnesty International won the Nobel Peace Prize.
e. 1980 is the year during which Amnesty International won the Nobel Peace
Prize.

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Non-restrictive Clauses
Non-restrictive adjective clauses provide additional information that is not necessary to
identify the noun be modified. These clauses, unlike restrictive clauses, are set off by
commas in writing and pauses in speech.
Meaning Example Notes

Non-restrictive Adjective 1. My maternal grandmother, Use who(m) for people and

Clauses who lived until she was 95, which for things in non-
was active in the civil rights restrictive clauses.
The adjective clauses in movement.
(1) and (2) provide added Always set off the non-
information about the 2. Birmingham, which is a city restrictive clauses by
antecedent noun, but it is in the state of Alabama, was commas.
not essential information. the site of many civil rights
demonstrations. The relative word can never
be deleted in a non-
3. My grandmother met Martin restrictive clause, even if it is
Luther King, whom she would the object of the clause or of
never forget. the preposition as it is in (3).

Restrictive Adjective 4. I have two sisters. My sister The relative word that can
Clauses who/that lives in Virginia is always replace who or which
married. in a restrictive clause.
The adjective clauses in
(4) and (5) provide 5. The sister whom I am going Do not use commas with
essential information. to visit is single. restrictive clauses.
The clause cannot be
omitted from the The relative word can be
sentence without deleted if it is the object of
changing the meaning of the clause or a preposition.
the sentence.

When to Use Non-restrictive Adjective Clause

Use non-restrictive clauses in the following cases:

Cas e Exampl es
When the antecedent noun has been 1. Oppie met some brilliant scientists in
prev i ous l y i denti fi ed. Germany and England. Thes e s ci enti s ts , who
In (1) the scientists have been identified in woul d l ater fi gure promi nentl y i n hi s l i fe ,
the previous sentence. included Edward Teller and Leo Szilard.
When the antecedent noun is a proper noun 2. J. Robert Oppenheimer, who was perhaps the
In (2) the antecedent, J. Robert most brilliant nuclear physicist of our century , is
O ppenhei mer, is a proper noun. often referred to as the father of the atomic
bomb.
When the antecedent is one-of-a-kind noun. 3. The goal of the project was to develop the
In (3) the antecedent, the atomic bomb, is atomic bomb, which has not y et been done by
unique. There is only one atomic bomb. any country .
When the antecedent noun is all of a ki nd. 4. The scientists, who adored Oppi e, stayed until
the end of the project. (All of the adored Oppie.)

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Adjective Clause Reduction

A. Adjective Clause Reduction of Restrictive Clause

Full Restrictive Clause Reduced Patterns/Notes

Restrictive Clause
1a. The relief workers 1b. The tired relief Be + Adjective
who were tired went workers went home.  Delete the subject relative word
home. and the Be verb; move the
adjective in front of the noun as
in (1b).
2a. The person who was 2b. The person  If a phrase follows Be, as it does
responsible for the responsible for the in (2a), delete the relative word
concert was Bob Geldof. concert was Bob Geldof. and be, but keep the phrase
after the noun as in (2b).
3a. Amnesty 3b. Amnesty Passive Verb
International is an International is an  Delete the relative word + Be
organization which was organization founded in verb and keep the past
founded in London. London. participle (e.g., founded in 3b).
4a. Oppenheimer had the 4b. Oppenheimer had the Progressive Verb
best scientists who were best scientist working  Delete the relative word + the
working with him. with him. auxiliary Be and deep the verb-
ing.
5a. More than a billion 5b. More than a billion Verbs Other Be
people witnessed a people witnessed a  When the main verb is not Be,
concert which hosted concert hosting over 60 or the verb is not in a passive or
over 60 acts. acts. progressive form, change the
verb to an –ing form as in (5b)-
hosting.

B. Adjective Clause Reduction of Nonrestrictive Clauses

FULL CLAUSE REDUCE CLAUSE PATTERN/NOTES

1. J. Robert Oppenheimer, 2. J. Robert Oppenheimer, Be sure to keep the
who was perhaps the most perhaps the most brilliant commas in the resulting
brilliant physicist of our physicist of our time, is reduced clause.
time, is often called the often called the father of
father of the atomic bomb. the atomic bomb.

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Special Problems with Adjective Clause Use

Problem Explanation
1. Repetition of the Pronoun in the Clause. The relative word replaces the
noun in the adjective clause
[INCORRECT: I really enjoyed the Vietnamese
food that I had it yesterday.]
CORRECT: I really enjoyed the Vietnamese
food that I had yesterday.
2. Agreement Make sure the antecedent noun
agrees with the verb in the clause.
[INCORRECT: I met some people who was
from my country.]
CORRECT: I met some people who were from
my country.
3. Location of the Clause Place the clause as close as possible
to the antecedent noun.
[INCORRECT: We went to a Hawaiian island
for our fiftieth wedding anniversary that was
deserted and romantic.]
CORRECT: For our fiftieth wedding
anniversary we went to a Hawaiian island
that was deserted and romantic.
4. No Preposition or Particle Be sure to place the preposition or
particle at the end of the clause.
[INCORRECT: The restaurant that she went
was crowded and noisy.]
CORRECT: The restaurant that she went to
was noisy and crowded.
5. Using That for Non-restrictive Clauses If the clause is non-restrictive, you
must use which and not that for
[INCORRECT: I like martial arts, that teach things.
balance and strength.]
CORRECT: I like martial arts, which teach
balance and strength.

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LESSON 4

Adverb Clause
Position and Punctuation

Adverb clauses are dependent clauses. They require a main clause to complete
them in a sentence. The words that introduce the adverb (dependent) clauses are called
subordinating conjunctions.

In the example above, the adverb (dependent) clause (while my heart tells me to
stay home) appears at the beginning of the sentence, introduced by the subordinating
conjunction, while. The main clause (my head says otherwise) comes after the adverb
clause in this sentence. This is not always the case, however, adverb clauses can come
after the main clause.

Note the position and punctuation of the adverb clauses below (underlined).

Example Note
1. Although we’ve only seen each Position of adverb clause
other twice in the past five years,
you are still my very best friend. The adverb clause can occur in
(initial position in sentence) initial Position as in (1) or after the
main clause as in (2).

2. You are still my very best friend Punctuation of adverb clause

although we’ve only seen each
other twice in the past five years. Place a comma after an adverb
(position after the main clause) clause in initial position as in (1).
No comma is necessary in (2)
because the main clause comes first
in the sentence.

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Adverb Clause Use

Adverb clauses modify the verb or main clause in a sentence. These clauses
express a relationship of time, place, reason, contrast, opposition, condition, purpose, and
manner. They answer questions such as when, where, how, or why. Below is a list of these
clauses and the subordinating conjunctions for each type.
Type of Clause Subordinating Example
Conjunctions
1. Time o since, until/till  I’m undecided about what to do
o before after the baby arrives.
o whenever
o when  As soon as the baby is born, I will
o as have to make a decision.
o while
o once  I will work as long as I am able to.
o as soon as
o as long as
2. Place o where  Everywhere I look, I see mothers
o anywhere with their newborn babies!
o wherever
o everywhere
3. Reason/Result o because/since/as  Maybe you can help me, since
o now that you were always better at making
o in as much as decisions.
o as long as
o so that/such that
4. Direct o while  While my heart tells me to stay
Contrast o whereas home, my head tells me to go
back to work.
5. Opposition o although  Although we’ve seen each other
o though only twice in the past five years,
o even though you are still my very best friend.
o despite the fact that
o in spite of the fact that
6. Condition o if  Unless Jeff gets laid off, we could
o only if probably manage it. (See Chapter
o unless 13 for a more complete
o in case explanation of adverb clauses of
o provided that condition.)
o whether or not
o even if
7. Purpose o so that  I wish we lived closer so that we
o in order that could have lunch together once in
a while.
8. Manner o as  You look as though you are ready
o as if to have the baby soon!
o as though

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Time Clauses
Subordinating Example Notes
Conjunction
After 1. After I finish college, I will work in In (1) the speaker is talking about the
my father’s company. future, but note that a future tense is not
used in the adverb clause. Always used
the simple present tense in adverb
clauses of time that talk about the future.
Before 2. Before I started this job, I (had) The use of the past perfect in sentences
worked for a travel agent. with before and after clauses is optional,
as in (2).
When 3. Joe was in college when he met Jill. In (3) when means during or at that time.

4. They had known each other two In (4), when means before; the past
years when they got married. perfect is necessary in the main clause.
While/as 5. The children are in day care while A progressive tense is usually used in
Lou Anne is working. while and as clauses, as it is in (5) and (6).

6. As Lou Anne was taking her While and as have the same meaning
children to day care, she saw a bus hit (at the same time)
a tractor-trailer.
By the time 7. By the time the baby is born, Jack See the Special Note for a detailed
and Linda will have been married for explanation of by the time.
four years.
Since 8. Sue has been working since Johnny Use an appropriate perfect tense in the
was born. independent clause of a sentence with a
since clause. In (8), the present perfect
progressive is used.
Whenever 9. Whenever George thinks about Whenever = each time that
getting married, he gets butterflies in
his stomach. Use a simple present or past tense in a
whenever clause; (9) uses a simple
present to express his habitual activity.
Once 10. Once Carole graduates from high Once = after
school, she will move to New York.
Note that (10) is a sentence about the
future; use the future tense in the main
clause, but the simple present tense in the
adverb clause.
As soon as 11. As soon as she moves there, she As soon as = immediately after
will rent an apartment.
As in (10) don’t use a future tense in the
adverb clause
Until/till 12. Alex won’t get married until he Until = up to that moment
can afford a house.
As long as/ 13. Joan will never leave her as/so long as = during the entire time
so long as hometown as long as her mother is that
alive.

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Language Assistant
Intensifiers with Subordinators
Intensifiers can be used with the following subordinating conjunctions of time.
These intensifiers show emphasis.

just as/ just when The place took off just as (when) we
(at precisely that time) arrived at the airport.
shortly before/after He changed his will shortly.
immediately before/after (Immediately) before he died.
long before/after She had divorced him long before he died.
ever since She has been afraid to fly ever since she
was a child.

By The Time
Note the verb tenses used in the main and adverb clauses with by the time.

By the time she leaves, I will have finished dinner.

(present) (future perfect)

By the time she left, I had already finished the test.

(past) (past perfect)

Place Clauses
Subordinating Example Notes
Conjunction
Where I want to live where my where = a specific
children will be safe. place

anywhere/wherever I will not raise my children anywhere/wherever =

anywhere (wherever) there any place
is crime.

Everywhere Everywhere he travels, he everywhere = all

sees poverty in the big cities. places

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Reason Clauses
Subordinating Example Notes
Conjunction
Because/as/since Because her parents All of these
divorced when she was subordinating
small, Marie is reluctant to conjunctions state a
marry. cause
and have the same
meaning as because

As long as/so long as As long as you are in the As/so long as is used
kitchen, could you get me a more in conversation
glass of water?
Now that Now that Maria’s father has Now that is used to
moved far away, she only express time and
sees him once a year. cause; it means
because now
In as much as Her parents were granted a These subordinating
In view of the fact that divorce in as much as they conjunctions all mean
On account of the fact had irreconcilable because
that differences
As a result of the fact They are more formal
that Due to the fact that you and are mainly used in
On the grounds that failed to file your income formal writing and
Due to the fact that taxes on time, you must pay speaking
a penalty.

Result Clauses

Example So +Adjective/ Such +Noun Phrase

Adverb+ That + That
The population is small. The population is so This town has such a
small that the mail small population that
The mail carrier knows carrier knows where the mail carrier
where everybody lives. everybody lives. knows where
everybody lives.

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Direct Contrast and Opposition Clauses

Subordinating Example Notes
Conjunction
Direct Contrast: 1. While private schools  Use while and whereas to
are very expensive, public show that two things or
o While schools are free in the situations are in direct
o Whereas United States. opposition or contrast.

2. Private schools provide  While and whereas have the

a lot of individual attention same meaning, but whereas is
whereas public schools more formal.
don’t have the means to
cater to individual students.  Unlike other subordinating
conjunctions, while and
3. Private schools are very whereas may occur before
expensive while public either the main or adverb
schools are free in the clause with no change in
United States. meaning.

 A comma is sometimes placed

after the main clause, but it is
not necessary
Concession: 4. Although private  A concession clause shows
o Although schools provide careful contrast by placing limits on
o Even though supervision, many students the ideas in the main clause.
o Though still use drugs and alcohol. The main clause shows
surprising or unexpected
results, as in (4).
5. Private school students Although, even though, and
often get accepted into good though have basically the same
colleges, though some meaning.
choose to go to work
instead.
In spite of the fact 6. In spite of the fact that A comma is sometimes placed
that public schools have bad after the main clause as it is in
Despite the fact reputations, there are many (5), but it is not obligatory.
that qualified and caring
teachers who work there. These phrases have the same
meaning as although.

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LESSON 5
Conjunction
Three types of conjunctions are used to connect parts of sentences: Coordinating
Conjunctions, Subordinating Conjunctions, and Correlative Conjunctions.

1. Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions connect words or phrases that have the same
function in a sentence. They join elements that are alike: Subject + Subject,
Verb + Verb, Noun Phrase + Noun Phrase, etc.

And
And joins two or more words, phrases, or clauses of similar function.
It is used to show addition.
Examples:
1. Like peas and broad beans, soybeans grow in pods.
2. The plant is ready for harvesting when the leaves drop off and the
pods, and stems dry out.
Common Error
When and joins two subjects, the verb is plural.
Example: A soybean plant and a pea plant both have pods.

But
But joins two or more words, phrases, or clauses. It is used to show
contrast.

Examples:
1. In the United States, soybeans are not harvested by hand but by
machine.
2. Soya is not a new discovery, but one of the oldest crops grown in
Asia.

Or
Or joins two or more words, phrases, or clauses. It is used to give a
choice.

Example:
1. The beans maybe yellow, green, brown, or spotted.
2. After being chilled, the magazine is packed into tubes or cut into
blocks.

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2. Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions are adverbs that are placed in front of a clause. They
are used in front of a clause. That gives information about time, cause and effect,
opposition or condition.

Time

When we became vegetarians, we discovered many new ways to eat soybeans.

Cause and Effect

Since water drains quickly, it is not as effective as foam for putting out fires.

Opposition

Even if you don’t like say milk, you should drink it once in a while.

3. Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions joins pains of words, phrases, and clauses. They appear
in two parts.

Either. . . .or
Neither. . . nor
Both. . . .and
Not only. . . .but also
Whether . . . or

The elements they join must be alike:

Either (noun) or (noun)

Not only (adjectives) but also(adjective)

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1. Either . . . . or
Either . . . or is used to indicate alternatives.
Example: Either meat or fish products can contain soya.
The subject closest to the verb determines if the verb is singular or plural.

2. Neither . . . nor
Neither . . . nor is used to indicate negatives choices.
Example: Neither food nor industry would be the same without soya.
The subject closest to the verb determines if the verb is singular or plural.

3. Both . . . and
Both. . . .and indicates addition.
Example: Both fish feed and chicken feed use soya.
The subjects connected with both . . . and take a plural verb.

4. Not only . . . but also

Not only. . . .but also emphasizes addition.
Example: Soya is not only the most efficient but also the least expensive
source of protein.
The subject closest to the verb determines if the verb is singular or plural.

Common Error
The not only . . . but also clause must come before the
phrase to which it refers.
5. Whether . . . or
Whether . . . or indicates a condition.
Example: Whether it is in the print of a newspaper or the food we eat,
our lives are touched by soybeans.

Word Order
The usual word order in English is: Subject (S) + Verb (V) + Object (O)

However, sometimes the order is changed and the verb is placed before the subject. This is
called inversion.

1. In a question, the subject follows the auxiliary word or verb.

Usual word order : You are using a computer.

S V O
Question Word Order : Are you using a computer?
V S V O

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2. When a prepositional phrase shows place at the beginning of a sentence, the word order
is reversed and inversion occurs.

Usual word order: The workings of the computer are inside the system unit.
Inversion: Inside the system unit are the workings of the computer.

3. When the conditional if has been omitted, inverted word is used.

Usual word order: If I had used a computer, I would be finished by now.

Inversion: Had I used a computer, I would be finished by now.

Never only
Nor only after
Neither only once
Hardly ever only by
No sooner than only then
Not only. . . as well rarely
Not only. . . but also scarcely
Not until seldom
Nowhere under no circumstances
On no account so

Usual word
*Common order: I will never again write on a typewriter.
Error
Inversion: Never
Be careful not again will
to invert wordsI write
that on a typewriter.
should stay in the usual S + V + D word order.
Usual
Here areword
someorder:
commonI have rarely seen anything as beautiful as that sunset.
mistakes:
Inversion: Rarely have I seen anything as beautiful as that sunset.
1. Noun/Adjective
Correct: important information
Incorrect: information important

2. Adjective/adverb
Correct: an extremely accurate document
Incorrect: an accurate extremely document

3. Relative pronoun/preposition:
Correct: It has changed the way in which people work.
Incorrect: It has changed the way which in people work.

Correct: an accurate typed document

Incorrect: a typed accurately document

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4. Enough plus adjective:

Correct: simple enough
Incorrect: enough simple

5. Indirect questions:
Correct: He asked how expensive it was.
Incorrect: He asked how expensive was it.

6. Participle/adverb:
Correct: an accurate typed document
Incorrect: a typed accurately document
LESSON 6
Word Choice and Redundancy
Idioms

An idiom is an expression that you can’t figure out from the individual words. There are
thousands of words in English. The idioms in this section are some of the most common
ones. Idioms are phrases like by and large. You may know what each of these word s
means separately, but the words taken in combination have an entirely different
meaning.

In this section we will also look at some other easily confused words in English. Some of
these are expressions using the verbs make or do, and others are word pairs that sound
similar or have similar meanings.

Language Assistant
Ways to learn idioms
 Listening to conversations and discussions in real life, on television, and in the movies will help
you familiarize yourself with idiomatic expressions. It is important for you to develop an
“ear” for the use of idioms and remember situations where you hear them used.
 There are different ways of remembering idioms. Some people memorize them. Other people
remember them by associating a word in an idiom with a visual cue like an animal or an
object.
 After you are able to remember the idiom, it is important to know in which situations and with
you can use it. For example, replying, “Search me” in answer to your teacher’s question is not
appropriate way to answer someone in authority. Some idioms are only used between
friends or peers.
 If you do not know or understand the idiom, look for clues in the context of the conversation.

Examples:
“You look pale today. Are you feeling under the weather?”
The word pale gives you a clue that the idiom under the weather means ill or not well.

Girl: I just broke my mother’s favorite vase.

Boy: Boy, you are in hot water!
The girl’s comment about breaking her mother’s vase helps you understand that the
idiom in hot water means in trouble.

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There are numbers of words in English that often cause problems because they have
similar meanings or sound alike. One of the most common errors involves the use of
the verbs make and do .

A. Expressions with make and do

Many languages have only one verb for do and make. In English, the verb to do
means to perform or act, while the verb, make means to produce or to create. These
two verbs are found in a number of fixed expressions, look them up in your dictionary
or ask a native English speaker to explain them to you.

Expressions with make:

make a mistake make a plan make a war make an investment

make a comparison make an offer make a discovery make a choice
make use of make an attempt make a profit make a decision
make a suggestion make a forecast make enemies make a complaint
make a contribution make a plan make an escape make a confession
make a fortune make money make amends make way
make friends make progress make trouble make sure
make room make an make a make a distinction
improvement difference
make a journey make a prediction

Expressions with do

do one’s duty do harm do homework do research

do justice to do an assignment do business with do one’s best
do work do a service do wrong do damage
do good do a favor do without do a kindness
do nothing do a job

B. Like/ Alike/ Unlike

Like is a preposition that means similar to. An object follows it.

Example: Like many other people, I didn’t know about the dangers of asbestos.

Alike can be used as an adverb or an adjective. Alike as an adverb means equally; as

an adjective, it means similar.
Example: Adverb: The information about caused panic in construction and
industry alike.
Adjective: Women and Children alike were asked to leave the boat.

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Unlike is a preposition that means not similar to. An objective follows it.
Example: Unlike other woven material, asbestos is capable of withstanding high temperature
and deflecting heat.

C. Another/ Other/ The other

Another means one more. It can only be used before a singular noun.
Example: We need to find another kind of insulation.
Other means more of the ones in the group we are talking about. It is used before a plural noun.
Example: Asbestos protects other material from fire.

The other means the last one of the group we are talking about. It is used before a singular noun
or non-count noun. An article or a determiner such as the some, any, no, or one comes before it.
Example: One type of Asbestos is very dangerous; the other type is not dangerous.
No other material is capable of withstanding such temperature.
D. So . . . . . that/ Such . . . . . that/ Too
So. . . . . that has two different meanings, depending on how it is used. It can be used with many,
few, much, or little + noun as a way of emphasizing quantity or amount.
Example: I have so many video games that I haven’t had time to play all of them.
He has so little patience that he can’t stand waiting for someone who is late.
Such. . . . that can also have the same meaning as so. . . .that. These two phrases are used for
emphasis, but they are used in different constructions. They emphasize qualities, rather than
quantities or amount.

So + adverb/adjective + that
Example: Asbestos was so convenient that everybody used it.

Such + Adjective + noun + that

Example: Asbestos had such unique qualities that it was used widely.

Too means more than necessary. It comes before an adjective or adverb and is followed by an
infinitive.
Example: Asbestos is too dangerous to be used widely.

Common Errors
Remember that if you want to compliment someone, say, “You are so nice,
not “too nice.”

E. Much/ Many/ Few/ Little

Much and little are used with non-counts nouns.
Example: Much work has been used with non-count nouns.
Many and few are used with count nouns.
Example: Many old buildings have asbestos insulation.

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Language Assistant

 Just like with Idioms, listening will help you get an “ear” for expressions with make and
do. You may be able to “hear” that one verb sounds better than the other with an
expression.
 You can learn the expressions with make or do by using the same methods as for
idioms, memorizing them or using visual reminders or other methods that work for
you.
 The given exercises will help you familiarize yourself with some common make or do
expressions. Make a list of expressions with these verbs. Every time you hear or see a
new expression with one of these verbs, add it to your list.
 The structures in which some confusing words are used will help you recognize and
use them correctly.
Redundancy

Redundancy is the unnecessary repetition of an idea.

Redundant: He made an incorrect mistake

Correct: He made a mistake.

Mistakes are always incorrect. Therefore, the word incorrect is unnecessary.

The following pairs of words have almost the same meaning; only one word in
each pair is necessary in a sentence or phrase.

connect together incorrect mistake

repeat again important significant
join together carefully cautiously
proceed Forward protect guard
advance forward original first
only unique rarely seldom
new innovation transmit send out
reread again single only
return back around approximately
same identical chief main
sufficient enough such as for example
separated apart from necessary needed

Source:
Kaushik, S., & Nayak, A. (n.d.). Communicating Effectively I n English Book 3. I n S. Kaushik, & A. Nayak,
Communicating Effectively I n English Book 3. Abhishek Publications.

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