CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

CONCRETE
INTRODUCTION * Placing * Compaction
 Composite man made material * Curing * Finishing
 Most widely used
 Consists of rationally chosen mixture of binding BATCHING
material such as lime or cement, well graded fine &  For good quality concrete, proper & accurate quantity
coarse aggregates, water. of all ingredients should be used
 Mix of sand water & cement called as matrix in  Two methods of batching:
concrete  Volume batching
 Freshly mixed concrete is called as green concrete  Small jobs
 After setting is called as set of hardened concrete  Gauge box
 Major factors responsible for using cement concrete  Weigh batching
are mouldability, early hardening, high early  Important works
compressive strength, pumpability & durability  Manual weighing or
weigh batchers
 Versatile in nature
 Automatic weigh batchers
 Homogenous mixture
 The course aggregate acts as a filler MIXING
 The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste  Objective of mixing is to make concrete mass
& coarse aggregate homogenous & uniform in colour & consistency
 The cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder  Either by hand or mixer
 The mobility of mixture is aided by the cement paste,  Hand mixing
fines & now a days by used of admixtures  Small jobs
 The aim of quality control is to ensure the production  On an impervious floor
of concrete of uniform strength from batch to batch  10% of cement is added more to the mix
 Machine mixing
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF:  Important & quality works
 Cementing material  Batch mixers & continuous mixers
 Lime concrete  Batch mixers produce batch by batch with
 Gypsum concrete time intervals & used for small 7 medium
 Cement concrete sized works
 Continuous mixers produce concrete
 Perspective specifications continuously & are used for large works
 Mix proportions like dams
Grade of concrete M10 M15 M20 M25
Mix proportion 1:3:6 1:2:4 1:1.5:3 1:1:2
Perspective characteristic 10 15 20 25
Strength
 Performance oriented specifications
 Design mix concrete
 Grade of cement concrete
 Compressive strength of concrete cubes
(150mm) at 28 days
 Also classified as low strength (<20 N/mm2),
medium strength (20-40 N/mm2), high strength
concrete (>40 N/mm2)
Grade M M7 M M M M M M M M M
Characte 5 .5 10 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
ristic
Strength 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 40 45 50 55
TRANSPORTING
 Bulk density  Should be transported at the earliest without the loss
* Heavy * Dense of homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing
* Lightweight * Extra Lightweight  Segregation should not take place during
 Place of casting transportation & placement
* In situ * Precast  Methods of transportation:
* Mortar pan * Wheel barrow
PRODUCTION * Chutes * Dumper
 The Stages of Concrete Production: * Bucket & ropeway * Belt conveyor
* Batching or measurement of materials * Skip & hoist * Pumping
* Mixing * Transporting
PLACING  To give a uniform space
 Concrete is placed in form works
 The form work should be cleaned PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
 If concrete is to be placed for foundation, the soil bed  Concrete has completely different properties when it
should be compacted well & is made free from loose is in the plastic stage & when hardened
soil  In plastic stage it is also known as green concrete
 Concrete should be dropped on its final position as  Properties of green concrete include:
closely possible  Workability: ease with which concrete can be
 If dropped from a height, the coarse aggregates fall fully compacted without segregation & bleeding.
early & then mortar matrix Depends on quantity of water, grading, shape &
 This results as segregation into weaker concrete percentage of aggregates present

COMPACTION  Segregation: separation of coarse particles in

 In the process of placing concrete, air is entrapped green concrete is called segregation. Happens due
 The entrapped air reduces the strength of concrete by to deficient quantity of fine particles or throwing
30% concrete form greater heights. Cohesiveness losts
 Hence it is necessary to remove the air which is & honey combing results. Ultimately, loss in
achieved by compaction strength
 Either by hand or vibrators
 In hand compaction method, concrete is compacted  Bleeding: appearance of water along with cement
by ramming, tamping, or spading particles on the surface. Happens due to excessive
 Concrete can be compacted by using high frequent quantity of water or due to excessive compaction.
vibrators. Vibration reduces the friction between the Results in pores & weak concrete
particles & set the motion of particles
 As a result entrapped air is removed & concrete is  Harshness: resistance offered by concrete to its
compacted. W/C ratio can be reduced with vibrators surface finish. Difficult to get a smooth surface
 Needle or immersion vibrators finish & concrete becomes porous. Happens due to
 Surface vibrators poorly graded aggregates or less fine aggregate or
 Form or shutter vibrators less cement mortar
 Vibrating tables
 Strength: compressive strength of 150 mm cubes
at 28 days. M20 is minimum grade to be used

 Resistance to wear:

 Dimensional changes: concrete shrinks with age.

Approximately 0.0003 of its original. Permanent
dimension changed to loading over a long period
is termed as creep

CURING  Durability: resistance to weathering, chemical

 Curing may be defined as the process of maintaining attacks, heat, freezing, thawing
satisfactory moisture & temperature conditions for
freshly placed concrete for some specified time for  Impermeability: resistance f concrete to the flow
proper hardening of concrete of water through its pores. Excess water results
 Curing in the early ages is more important into pores
 Curing for 14 days is very important
 If curing is not done properly, strength & durability of WATER CEMENT RATIO (W/C RATIO)
concrete reduces  The water-cement ratio (w/c) is one of the major
 Cracks develop due to shrinkage factors influencing the strength of concrete
 Various methods of curing are:  It is responsible mainly for the porosity of the
 Spraying of water: walls, columns, etc., hardened cement paste
 Gunny bags: vertical surfaces,  Thus theoretically lower the w/c ratio means higher
 Ponding: slab & floors by stagnating water compressive strength as less voids are created
 Stream curing: prefabricated units, steam is Definition:
passed in closed chambers, accelerates curing  Water-cement ratio is the water used to quantum of
process cement in the mixture by weight
 Curing compounds like calcium chloride is  For proper workability the w/c ratio varies from 0.4-
also used 0.6

FINISHING
 However, theoretical maximum strength is derived at  Mould is filled in with fresh concrete in four layers,
w/c = 0.4 at which minimum capillary cavities are each layer of approximately one quarter of the height
expected to form of the mould and tamped with 25 strokes of the
rounded end of the tamping rod
 Strokes are distributed in a uniform manner over the
cross-section
 Alter the top layer has been rodded, the concrete is
struck off level with a trowel or the tamping rod, such
that the mould is exactly filled
 Mould is remove immediately by raising it slowly and
carefully in a vertical direction. Then the concrete is
allowed to subsidized and the slump is measured
 It may be noted that for complete hydration of cement immediately by determining the difference between
under controlled conditions the water requirement is the height of the mould and the highest point of the
about 38% (i.e. w/c = 0.38) specimen being tested
 When it is decreased to less than 0.4 there is improper  Slump measured is recorded in terms of millimeters of
consistency and workability of cement and subsidence of the specimen
honeycombed structure may result
TYPES OF SLUMP
 Also, at w/c ratio more than 0.6, porosity increases
and strength decreases
 However, concrete compacted by vibrator displays
higher strength even up to w/c = 0.3
ABRAHM LAW
 Duff Abrahm gave the following equation to estimate
the strength of concrete for a given w/c ratio

COMPACTING FACTOR TEST

Where,  This test is more accurate and sensitive than the slump
S = strength of cement at 28 days and A, B are constants test especially for it is useful for concrete mixes of
X = water to cement ratio (w/c) medium and low workability
 According to Abrham’s Law it is evident that  Here the workability is measured in terms of
strength of concrete depends only upon w/c ratio compaction factor (0.4, 0.8, 0.9)
provided of the mix is workable  Concrete of very low workability (0.7 or below), this
test is NOT APPLICABLE
TESTS ON CONCRETE
 It is primarily ddesigned for laboratory work but can
 The tests on concrete can be divided on the following also be used in the field
lines: PROCEDURE
 Tests on Fresh concrete (wet concrete)  Sample of concrete to be tested is placed gently in the
* WORKABILITY TEST upper hopper, and levelled
 Tests on Hardened concrete  Trap-door is then opened to allow the concrete to fall
 For hardened concrete the most important tests are the into te lower hopper
assessment of strength of concrete, which can be  Concrete which has sticked in the upper hopper at
assessed by the following tests sides is gently puhed into lwer one
* COMPRESSION TEST * FLEXURE TEST
 The trap-door f the lowwer hopper is opened so that
* SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH TEST
the concrete falls in the cylinder
* NON DESTRUCTIVE TEST
 The excess of concrete remaining above the level of
the top of the cylinder should be cut and removed
WORKABILITY TEST
 Wight of the concrete in the ylinder is then
 Measurement of workability is done by the following
determined, which is known as weight of partially
tests:
compacted concrete
* Slump cone test
* Compaction factor test  The entire concrete is filled in cylinder and tamped
* Vee-Bee Consistometer test with tamping rod, and the weight of concrete n the
* Kelly ball test * Flow table test cylinder is then determined, which is known as
weight of fully compacted concrete
SLUMP CONE TEST  Thus compacting factor is defined as the ratio of
 Slump tests in one of the most extensively used test “weight of partially compacted concrtee to the weight
all over the world of fully compacted concrete”
 Dimensions of the mould are bottom diameter = 200
mm, top diameter = 100 mm and height = 300 mm
 Compacting factor values for concrete as follows: The load is aplied through two similar rollers mounted
at the third points. S[aced at 200 mm c/c
 The maximum load at which the pecimen fails is
noted and frm basics of strength of material, the
 Higher the compacting factor, Higher the workability
flexural strength is estimated
of concrete
TENSILE STRENGTH STRESS
 The tensile strength may be determined by by split
tensile strength test
VEE-BEE CONSISTOMETER TEST
 As it is practically very difficult to apply unaxial
 This test determines the time required for
tensile load, therefore few indirect methods are
transforming, by vibration aconcrete specimen in the
developed to determine tensile strength of concrete.
shape of conical frustum into a cylinder
Example is the split tensile strength test
 Apparatus consists of a vibrator tale resisting upon
 In split tensile strength test a compressive frce is
elastic supports, a metal pot, a sheet meatl cone, open
applied to the specimn such that specimen fails due to
at both ends, and a standard iron rod
induced tensile stresses
 Slump test isperformed in the cylindrical pot of thhe
 Specimen is made of cylindrical shape with diamter
consistometer which u=is good laboratory test
not less than 150mm. Length is generally twice the
(ONLY) to measure indirectly the workability of
diamter
concrete
 The maximum load at which the spceimen fails is
 The Slump cone is palced in the cylindircal pot, and
record and rom it indrectly the tensile strength os
slump is noted. Then the electrical vibrator is
calculated
switched on and the TIME TAKEN for the concrete to
spread out in the cylindrical pt is noted in seconds and
workability is measured in VEE-BEE degree

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TESt

 Cement, fine aggregate and Coarse aggregate (upto 38
mm) to be ussed for making concrete ar weighed in
the equired ratio to be used in field and are thoroughly
mixed, by adding requisite amount of water until the
concrete appear homogenous
 The test SPECIMENS are cast in the required sizes of NON DESTRUCTIVE TESting
cubes, 150mm x 150mm x 150mm or cylinders of  NDT can be done on both fresh concrete and hardened
150mm diamter and 300mm height (D/H = 12) concrete
 Test specimens are stored at room temperatue for  On fresh concrete Ultrasoinic pulse wave test
24hrs from the time of addition of water t dry (PUNDIT) can be done
ingredients  On hardened concrete Pull Out test, Ultrasonic
 After this time specimens are removed from the pulse wave test (PUNDIT), Schmidt rebound
moulds and placed in water and kept there until taken hammer test, Radioactive methods
out just before the test
 Usually specimens are tested for 7 days or 28 dyas REBOUND HAMMER TEST
strength, but IS: 456 suggests only 28 days tsrength  It is a surface hardness test for which an empirical
 Specimen is palced between the plaes of compression correlation has been established between strength and
testing machine, gradually load is applied at the rate rebund number
of 14 N/mm2/minute, until the specimen is crushed  It is based on the principle that the rebound of an
 Average os 3 specimen values is taken as the elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface
cmpressive strength f concrete, provided individual which the mass impinges
vibration is not mre than +/- 15% of the avergae Procedure:
 Generally the Cube specimen strength is  For this test, a rebound hammer (easily carried) also
approximately equal to 1.25 stress the Cylindrical called SCHMIDT HAMMER, which weighs about
specimen strength. (This is d to the influence of size 1.8kg is rquired and the test is suitable for both
of the specimen) laboratory and field work
 The Schnidt hammer has a spring-controlled hammer
FLEXURAL STRENGTh mass that slides on plunger with a tubulaar casing
 Flexura sttrength test is done to dtermine the tensile  The hammer is frced against the surface f the concrete
load at which concrete may crack by the spring and the distance of rebound is measured
 It is an indirect test for assessing the tensile strength on a scale of the instrument which gives indication of
of concrete concrete strength
 The size of concrete is 150mm x 150mm x 700mm  This test is suitable fr the concrete having strength in
 The pecimen is placed in the testing machine on two the range of 20026 Mpa
38mm diameter rollers with a c/c distance of 600mm. Limitations:
 Results are mostly affected by factors such as  The reinforcing steel also supplements concrete in
smoothness o surface, size and shape of specimen, bearing compressve forces, as in the case of columns
moisture condition of the concrete, type of cement &
coarse aggregate and extent of carbonation of surface PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
 SCHMIDT HAMMER  One of the serious limitation of reinforced cement
cncrete is the cracking which is a natural phenomenon
for concrete cnstructionns
 Once cracks occur they do not disappear evn after
removal of load.
 The issues with the presence of cracks
 Presence of cracks lowers the capacity of structure
to bear reversal of stresses, impact vibration and
shocks
 Also, the reinforcing bars may get corroded in due
 REBOUND HAMMER TEST course of time and the concrete detoriorates
 Besides these disadvantages, the pessence of
cracks makes theory of reinforced concrete quite
cumbersome. Efforts were made to eliminate the
cracking of concrete by artificially introducing in
it either befre or simultaneously with the
application of external loads, a compressive force
of permanent nature. This force is so applied that it
causes compressive stresses in that zone o fthe
member where tensile stress will be caussed by
external loads. The tensile stress in concrete will
TYPES OF CONCRETE thus neutralized and it will not crack.
 The conventional cement concretes are commonly  A prestressed concrete may thus be defined as a
used for structures in normal environment conditions. concrete in which stresses of suitable magnitude and
With the advancement of technology and pressing distribution are introduced to counteract, to a desired
demands of better mecahnical properties and degree, the stresses resulting from external loads
durability than the convetional ones as well as
improvements in selected propties of interest has lead  In prestressed concrete high strength concrete and
to the development of special cement concretes steel are desirable. The former is required because of
 Following are some of the various types of Concrete the followiwng:
used today in the industrial and residential 1. The use of high strength concrete results in
construction: smaller cross-section of member and hence samller
* Reinforced cement concrete self weight; longer spans become technically and
* Prestressed concrete economically practicable
* Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) 2. High bearing stresses are generated in anchorage
* Light weight concrete zones, thus we need very high grade of concrete to
* High strength concrete resist these stresses
* Ready mix concrete 3. The shrinkage cracks are reduced, with higher
* Self Compacting concrete modulus of elasticity and smaller creep strain
* Shotcrete resulting in smaller loss of prestress

REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)  The loss o prestress at the initial stages is very high
 Reinforced cement concrete is a composite material and for this reason high strength steel is required.
made up of cement concrete and reinforcement in High tensile strength wires with ultimate tensile
which the cncrete resists compression with strength up to 2010 N/mm2 are the choice. For
reinforecemnt resisting the tennsion and shear. It is prestressed concrete members, the high tensile steel
the mst versatile building material available and is used generally consists of bars or strands
extensively used in the construction industry ranging  Prestressing is achieved by either pre-tensioning or
from small structural elements such as beams and post-tensioning
columns to massive structures like dams and bridges  In the former the wires or cables are anchored,
Why is the purpose of the reinforcement provided in the tensioned and concrete is cast in the mulds. After
RCC? the concrete has gained strength the wires are
 The steel bars are embedded in the tensile zone of released. This sets up compression in concrete
concrete t compensate the poor tensile resiatnce of wich counteracts tension in concrete because of
concrete. The bond between steel and the surrounding bending in the member
concrete sensures stain compatability  In the pst-tensioning prestressing force is applied
 Mooreover, the reinforcing steel imparts ductility to to the steel bars or cables, after the concrete has
this cmposite material hardened sufficiently. After applying the full
prestress the cable passages are grouted. The Fibre reinforced concrete is useful in hydraulic
minimum 28-day cube compressive strength for stuctures, airfield pavements, highwayas, bridge decks,
concrete is 40 N/mm2 (M40 grade) for pre- heavy duty floors, and tunnel linings
tensioned members are 30 N/mm2 (M30 grade)
for post-tensioned members ACTION OF FRC
 The tensile cracking strain of cement matrix is aboout
ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 1/50 of that of yield of steel fibres. Consequently
1. The cracking of concrete is eliminated enabling when FRCis loaded, the matrix (CEMENT
the entire cross-section of the member to take part in CONCRETE MATRIX) cracks long before the fibres
resisting moment are fractured
2. As dead load moments are neutralized and the  Once the matrix is cracked the composites continue to
sheaar stresses are reduced, the sections required are carry increasing tnsile stresses, provided the pullout
much smaller than those for reinforced concrete. This resistance off fibres at the first crack is greater than
reduces the dead weight of structure the load at the first cracking.
3. In ordianry reinforced concrete (RCC) the * the bond or the pullout resistance of thefibres
economy is not as pronounced as in prestressed depends on the average bond strength between the
concrete (PSC) fibres and the matrix, the number of fibres crossing
USES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE the crack, the length nad diameter of fibres, and the
 It is widely used for construction of precast units such aspect ratio.
as beams, floors, roofing systems, bridges, folded  The first flexural cracking load on a FRC member
plate roofs, marine structures, towers and railway increases (COMPARED TO ORDINARY
sleepers RCC/PCC) due to crack arresting mechanism of the
FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE (FRC) closely spaced fibres. After the first crack fribres
 Conventional concrete is modified by random continue to take load provided the bond is good.
dispersal of short discrete fine fibers of abestos, steel, Thereafter the fibres, reaching the breaking strain
sisal, glass, carbon, polypropylene, nylon, natural fracture
fibres etc…
 The main role o fine fibers is to bridge the cracks that LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
develop in concrete and increase the ductility of  Coventional cement concrete is a heavy building
concrete elements. Also imparts ore resistance to material
impact load  For sturctures such as multistore buildings it is
 The improvement in structural performance depends desirable to reduce the dead loads. Light weight
on the strength characteristics, volume, spacing, concrete (LWC) is most suitable for such construction
disperion and orientation, shape and their aspect ratio works. Lightweight aggregate concrete is particularly
(ratio of length to diameter) of fibres suitable for use where low density, good thermal
 A fibre-reinforced concete requires a coonsiderably insulation or fire protection are required
gretaer amount of fine aggregate than that for  It can be obatined by anyone of the following
conventional concrete for convenient handling methods:
 Fo FRC to be fully effective, each fibre needs to be  By making concrete with cement and coarse
fully embedded in the matrix, thus the cement paste aggregate only. Sometimes such a concrete is
requirement is more reffered to as no-fines concrete. Suitable ggregates
are – natural aggregate, blast fumace slag, clinker,
ADVANTAGES/DIS-ADVANTAGES/ foamed slag, etc. Since fine aggregates a not used,
APPLICATIONS voids will be created and the concrete produced
Advantages: will be light weight
1. Strength of concrete increases  By replacing coarse ggregate by porous or cellular
2. Fibres help to reduce cracking and permit the use of aggregate. The concrete thus produced is called
thin concrete sections CELLULAR CONCRETE
3. Mic becomes cohesive and possibilities of * Types of cellular concrete are Foam concrete,
segregation are reduced gas concrete etc…
4. Ductility, impact resistance, tensile and beding  Among the main shortcomings of cellular concrete are
strength are improved high tendency to deformation, shrinkage

Disadvantages: FOAM / GAS CONCRETE

1. Fibres reduce the wrkability of a mix and may cause Foam Concrete:
the entrainment of air  It is obtained by mixing cement paste or mortar with
2. Steel fibres tend to intermesh and form balls during stabilized foam. After hardening, the foam cells from
mixing of concrete concrete of a cellular structure
* The foam is obtained by stirrng a mixture of resin
Application: soap and animal glue. The best foaming agents are
alumino sulpho napthene compounds and hydrolysed
slaughter blood.
* this concrete is very suitable for heat insulation loaded into agitator truck mixers and water added
purposes during transportation and transported to the site
 Use of RMC to its full advantages requires more
Gas Concrete: careful planning on the site as compared to the site
 It is manufactured by expanding the binding material mixing. Due to better quality cntorl measures adopted,
paste, which may or may not include aggregates. It is RMC can be considered to be almost a factory-made
also known as aerated concrete product
* The approximate relative proportions of gas  It is adavntageous not only for mass concreting but
concrete ingredients are as follows: 90% Portland also for small quantities of concrete to be placed at
cement 9.75% powdered lime, 0.25% aluminium intervals. RMC is extremely useful on congested sites
power (for a water to cement ratio of 0.55 – 0.65). or in road construction where limited space is
About 2/3 of sand are grund in a wet state available for aggregate stock piling and mixing plant
 The major set back to the use of RMC is its cost.
HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE (HSC) However, through a little bit expensive, the increasing
 For mix made with normal weight aggregates, high emphasis on quality, wit skilled labour becoming
strength concrete (HSC) is considered to be the one expensive, the increasing emphasis on quality, with
having a compressive strength in excess of 40 Mpa skilled labour becoming expensive, out weigh thecost
 To produce concrete above this strength more issue of RMC
stringent quality control and more care in selection  Quality of RMC is generally specified in terms of
and proportioning of materials are needed performance parameters, i.e., purchaser specifies the
 The tricalcium aluminate component of cement is kept strength level and intended use
as low as possible (<8%) (REASON HIGH HEAT OF
HYDRATION AND LATER IT MIGHT LEAD TO ADVANTAGES OF RMC
SHRINKAGE CRACKS) 1. Enhanced quality and durability resulting in lower
 Most cements used to produce HSC have fineness in maintenance costs and increased speed of construction.
the range of 300 – 400 m2/kg. (THAT MEANS WE Ready mix concrete is consistently of the same quality
WANT VERY FINE CEMENT) and provides a high quality of construction material;
 For HSC a smaller maximum size of coarse aggregate construction time is also reduced
leads to higher strength, however for Fine aggregate it 2. It is an environmentally safer alternative
should have a F.M > 3 3. Convenience – Ready Mix Concrete is delivered at
the site with minmum logistical hassles
APPLICATIONS OF HSC 4. Different types of concrete can be made for different
 The use of the highest possible strength concrete and applications
minimum steel offers the most economical solutions 5. Use of RMC obviates the need to set up the
for columns of high rise buildings infrastructre required for site manufacturers of concrete
 This clearly demonstrates the economy of using HSC (LIKE BATCHING PLANTS). This also reduces the
in multistrey buildings working capital to be invested by the customers, aas
 So far, for industrial application, HSCs are limited to they will not be required to maintain stock of
structural members that are not exposed to freeze thaw aggregates, cement, plant annd machinery etc.
cycles
 Further, superplasticized, low w/c ratio HSC SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE (SCC)
containing high cement content and a gd quality  SCC is a very special type of concrete which can flow
puzzolana has a great potential of use where and fill into every corner of formwork, even in the
impermeability or durability, not strength is the main presence of congested reinforcemnt, purely by means
consideartion of its own weight and without the need of vibrating
* Such applicaions include floors in the cehmical and compaction, tamping etc.
food industry, and bridge deck overlays that are  SSC as it sunds is nothing different from noraml
subject to severe chemical and physical processes of soncrete. It is just usage of extra admixtures (super
degredation plastcizers and viscosity meodifying admixtures) that
makes SSC act different to normal one
READY MIX CONCRETE (RMC)  In SSC, high amount of supplementary cementitious
 Ready mixed concrete (RMC) is a concrete, delivered materials, up to 70 % of the total powder content, are
at site or into the prurchaser’s vehicle, in plastic added. Normally thses supplementary materials are fly
cndition and requires no further treatment before ash, silica flume, blast furnace slag etc.
being placed in a position in which it is to set and  Since SSC does not require any compaction, it saves
harden time, labour and energy. Also good surface finish is
 It is a high quality concrete of required grade produced
produced under strictly controlled conditions in a  SSC is characterized by high powder content. The
centralized automativ batching plant and supplied to parameter that is important in SSC is water-powder
the customer in a transit mixer truck for its placement ratio, water-cement ratio is completely ignored. Other
at site. The concrete is mixed at the batching plant, important parameters are fly ash concrete, sand-
aggregate ratio, paste percentage, types of admixture
used etc. the aggregate content in SSC is smaller than low. The admixtures such as accelerators are used to
that for conventional cncrete requiring vibration permit quick setting of shortcrete
 On the other hand, the viscosity of the paste in SSC is  The high cost of shortcrete and the wastage due to
highest among the various types of concrete due to its rebound has to be weighed with other techniques
lowest wtaer-powder rati. This characteristics is before recommending it. It is also to be remembered
impratant in inhibiting segregation that it is not eco friendly as lot of dusting problem and
 The method for achieving self-compatability involves waste due to rebound is there
not only high deformability of paste or mortar, but
also resistance to segregation between coarse ADMIXTURES
aggregate and mortar when the concrete flows through  Admixtures are adiitives which are added to concrete
the confined zoned of reinforcing bars mix at the mixing stage to modify the properties of
 To achieve self-compactability, theaggregate content fresh and hardened concrete
are limited, the water-pwder ratio is kept low, and  It is either chemical (liquid) or mineral (fine granular)
super plasticizers are used  However admixtures should never be regarded as a
Why is it used: substitute for good mix design, good workmanship
 The main reason for the employment of SCC are the and use of good materials
shortened construction perod, assured compaction in  The uses of admixtures include:
the structural elements; especially in confined zones  Increase workability without changing w/c ratio or
where vibrating compaction is difficult and, to reduce w/c ratio without changing workability
eliminate noise due to vibration; effective especially  To decrease density, reduce segregation and
at products plants bleeding, improve pumpbality, accelerate initial
 SSC does snot require any compaction, it sabes time, setting time, increase strength and rate of gain of
labour and energy. Also, good surface finish is strength etc.
produced
CLASSIFICATION OF ADMIXTURES
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCC  Admixtures are normally categorised according to
 Non-Segregating: the aggregate stay in suspension in their effect produced on concrete:
the mix as it flows into the form. (STRENGTH IS  Plasticizers (water – reducing agents)
SECONDARY IN THIS CASE, BUT IMPORTANT)  Super Plasticizers (high range water reducers)
 Air entertainers
 Non-Bleeding: water does not rise to the top of the  Accelerators
mix or is observed on the outer edges out of a flow  Retarders
test Many admixtures provide for the combination of the
above effects
 Vibration: No vibration is required during placement. PLASTICIZERS
SCC flow around rebar and other inclusions in the  Chemicals to improve plasticity in fresh concrete; for
form under its own weight improving workability (for a given w/c ratio) to
facilitate placement of concrete in location that are not
 Flow spread: Flow spreads of 45cm diameter or easily accesible or these are mainly for achieving
grater are obtainable higher strength w/c ratio
 Examples include: Lingnosulphonic acids and their
 Set time: The initial set time in many SCC mixes salts (e.g. Ca, Na, Ammonium salts); Hydroxylated
increase upwards of 90 minutes, depending on the caboxylic acids and their salts
admixtures used and water content of the mix Uses:
 Platicizers usually increase the slump of concrete
 Workability: Workability of Self-Compacting with a given water content
concrete is equilibrium of its fluidity, deformability  Plasticizers can reduce the wwater requirement of a
and resistance to segregation and filling ability. This concrete mix for a given workability
equilibrium has to be maintained for a sufficient time (approximately 10%)
period to allow for its transportation, placing and
finishing SUPER PLASTICIZERS
 These admixtures are chemically distint from normal
SHORTCRETE
plasticizers and although their action is basically the
 Shortcrete is the concrete conveyed through a hose same, it is more marked.
and pneumatically projected at a high velocity on a
 When the are used they produce flowing concrete
surface. It is similar to genuine (mortar) but with
and a rapid loss of workability can be expected and
coarse aggregates.
therefore they should be added just prior to placing
 The noraml specifications with respect to cement,
 Finer the cement higher is the super platicizer dose
aggregate and water also apply to shortcrete but the
 Examples are sulphonated melamine formaldehyde
coarse aggregate used should be harder to account for
condensates napthalene sulphonate formaldehyde
attrition and of small size. The w/c ratio is kept quite
condensates, Modified lignosulphonate (MLS) and  Accelerator calcium chlroride (CaCl 2) can be used
mixture of sacchrates and acid amines upto maounts of 2% by mass of cement. If used in
 It is capable of reducing water requirement by 20- higher quantities there is possibility of high
40% shrinkage leading to cracks in concrete
Uses:
AIR ENTRAINERS  Where rapid setting and high earlay strengthsd are
 An air entraining introduces air in the ofrm if minute required
bubbles that occupy upto 5% of volume of concrete  Where faster removal of formwork is required
distributed uniformly throughout the cement paste Practcal limitation:
 Examples include salts of wood resins, animal or  All chloride based accelerators cause corrosion of
vegetable fats & oils (like strearic acid and oleic steel and thus should not be used in RCC works
acid ) and sulphonated hydrocarbons
 Air entrainment however may reduce the strength of RETARDERS
concrete and overdosing can cause major loss of  These admixtures slow or prolong the chemical
strnegth (REMEMBER THE ISSUES OF VOIDS) reaction of the cement and water leading to longer
 Uses: setting times and slower initial strength gains
 Where improved resistance of hardened concrete to  The most common retarders are hydroxylated
damage from freezing and thawing is required carboxylic acids, lignins, sugar and some phosphates
 For improved qorkability, especially in harsh or lean Uses:
mixes  When placing concrete in hot weather
 To reduce bleeding and segregation, especially when  In concrete which ahs to be transported for a long
a mix lacks fines time
 Practical limitations:
ACCELERATORS  Retraders often increase plastic shrinkage and plastic
 These admixtures (notably Calcium chloride) speed settelement and cracking
up the chemical reaction between cement and water,  Delayed addition of retarders can result in extended
thus accelerating the setting time or early gain in retardation
strength of concrete

METALS
 STONE working the metal and by heat treatment and
 METALS ARE OFTEN EXTRACTED FROM cold working (in the case of steel and certain
THE EARTH BY MEANS OF MINING, titanium and aluminum alloys)
RESULTING IN ORE 2. BRITTLENESS - property of metal that allows
 An ORE is a type of rock that contains little bending or deformation without
MINERALS with important elements including shattering.
metals. Once mined, metals must be extracted 3. MALLEABILITY - ability of steel to be
usually by chemical or electrolytic reduction. hammered, rolled or pressed into various
shapes without cracking or breaking or other
PYROMETALLURGY detrimental effects.
Uses high temperatures to convert ore into raw 4. DUCTILITY - a property that permits the metal to
materials be permanently drawn, bent or twisted without
breaking it.
HYDROMETALLURGY 5. ELASTICITY - property that enables a metal to
employs aqueous chemistry for the same purpose. return to its original shape.
6. TOUGHNESS - when a metal can withstand
PROPERTIES OF METALS (mechanical) tearing or shearing and may be stretched or
1. HARDNESS - ability of a metal to resist abrasion, otherwise deformed without b r e a k i n g .
penetration, cutting action, or permanent 7. FUSIBILITY - ability of a metal to become liquid
distortion. Hardness may be increased by by the application of heat.
8. CONDUCTIVITY - property that enables a metal • Impurities such as Carbon, give pure iron the
to carry heat or electricity. Governs the strength to be malleable enough to form basic tools.
amount of heat that will be required for proper
fusion. Properties of Iron
9. DENSITY - weight of a unit volume of a material. * Luster * Soft
* Malleable * Ductile
PROPERTIES OF METALS (physical) * Strong
1. STRONG & HARD
2. LUSTER - metals shine because of its properties Characteristics of Iron
which is metallic bonding. * Easily magnetized
3. HEAT CONDUCTORS - able to conduct heat and * Very reactive once exposed
take it from a high temperature place to a * A good conductor of heat and electricity.
lower temperature. Heat transfer occurs due to
the combination of vibrations from molecules.
4. ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS - metals consists
FREE electrons which makes is a good
electrical conductor.
5. DENSE - tightly balance, packed crystals in the
metal structure.

CLASSIFICATION OF METALS
FERROUS METALS
* contain IRON • Pig Iron- it is the intermediate product of smelting
* MAGNETIC Iron. It is the molten iron from the furnace.
* gives little resistance to corrosion. • This is newly smelted iron therefore it has high
carbon content at 3.5-4.5% of its composition is
Non-FERROUS METALS carbon
* Does not contain IRON
* not MAGNETIC IRON ALLOYS
* gives more resistance to corrosion than ferrous Wrought Iron- The after product of pig iron the basic
metals form of iron alloy with low carbon content.
• It is the most common form of iron. It is tough,
FERROUS METALS (Iron and Steel) ductile, malleable, corrosion-resistant and can
IRON easily be welded.
• It is the most abundant metal on Earth. • Types of wrought iron-
• The Earth’s outer and inner core is mostly made up • Tough iron- for tools
of entirely pure Iron. • Blend iron- from variety pig iron
• Present in rocky planets like Earth and Mars. • Best iron- best quality iron
• It is reactive to water and oxygen thus giving it its • Marked Bar iron
distinct reddish color when exposed (result of Cast Iron - It is another by-product of Pig Iron.
oxidation). • This time, it is heated until it is molten iron then
• It is also present in some asteroids due to the poured into a mold to solidify thereby already
impacts of the planets during the formation of the forming the desired shape needed while cooling.
Solar System. Galvanized Iron
• It is probably the sixth mostabundant element in • it is Iron with a zinc coating to prevent corrosion.
the universe. • It is used for plumbing and/or hardware that have
• It oxidizes easily therefore it is rarely found without to stay long periods of time under the elements.
having its reddish hue. • It is applied by dipping the iron in a hot zinc
• It is also found inside the human body specifically solution, by dipping it in electrically charged
blood. solution and by tumbling it in a hot drum that
• Iron comes in ores. will stick the zinc to the metal.
• Ore- a mineral-rich rock that is mined for its STEEL
minerals. • Is an alloy of Iron and Carbon.
• It is mined around the world due to its abundancy. • It is a by-product of Iron smelting that has been
• To extract the iron from the Ore, smelting is used. reproduced, reheated, and may have added elements
• SMELTING is the process of breaking down the ore such as copper, bronze or tin.
using heat and reducing agent to form the base • It is known to be strong and very durable to work
metal. In ancient times, Charcoal was used as the with.
reducing agent. • Steel has been around almost as long as Iron has
• It has been in use since ancient times, but preceding although not as extensive until improved methods of
it were Copper and Bronze. producing steel were available.
• Pure Iron is relatively soft, therefore it had to be
strengthened to be of further use.
• Earliest steel products were found in Anatolia development, aluminium alloys were used in many
(modern-day Turkey) and are around 4000 years structural applications, including the civil
old. engineering field. Aluminium is the second most
• South Indian states exported wootz steel to the widely specified metal in building after steel, and is
Mediterranean civilizations and also to the Chinese. used in all sectors from commercial building to
• The Romans also used steel for their weapons. domestic dwelling.
• Until the 17th century, steel was made in low • This paper contains complete overview of use of
quantities because of lack of improved machinery aluminium in building construction. How it is
to help mass- produce it. beneficial in modern age building construction.
• The Pig Iron is returned to the furnace and by WHY USE ALUMINUM?
adding coke (fuel) or Charcoal, it enhances the iron • Aluminum is the second most widely specified
and imbibes it with more strength and more metal in buildings after steel, and is used in all
durability. construction sectors, from commercial buildings to
• Steel today comprises almost everything we use for domestic dwellings.
transport, communications, even services.
• Almost every major world power has its own steel ALUMINUM AS A BUILDING MATERIAL
production, but lately China has one the most • Modern building and construction is more than
advanced and productive steel industries in the merely erecting buildings as functionally as
world. possible. In addition to functional and economic
criteria, aesthetic and design considerations
Properties of Steel together with ecological demands placed on
* Luster * Conductivity building projects play an equally important role.
* Malleable * Ductile This means the materials used are of major
* String * Durable significance.

Characteristics of Steel PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM

* Its strength gives it advantage. • Durability: Aluminium building products are made
* The speed to assemble steel into its desired from alloys, which are weather-proof, corrosion-
construction. resistant and immune to the harmful effects of UV
rays, ensuring optimal performance over a very long
STEEL ALLOYS serviceable lifetime.
CARBON STEEL • Design flexibility: The extrusion process offers an
• An unalloyed steel wherein Carbon, Manganese, almost infinite range of forms and sections, allowing
Phosphorus, Sulfur and Silicon are mixed in a designers to integrate numerous functions into one
controlled environment. profile. Rolled products may be manufactured flat,
• Any increase in the carbon content increases curved, shaped into cassettes, or sandwiched with
strength but reduces the welding and ductile other materials. In addition, aluminium can be
capabilities. sawed, drilled, riveted, screwed, bent, welded and
STAINLESS STEEL soldered in the workshop or on the building site.
• An alloy containing chromium, nickel, • Fire safety: Aluminum does not burn and is
molybdenum, manganese therefore classed as a non-combustible construction
• Increased resistance to heat and corrosion material. Aluminum alloys will nevertheless melt at
• Does not rust, or stain as ordinary steel, but it around 650°C, but without releasing harmful gases.
can be stained. Industrial roofs and external walls are increasingly
TOOLS STEEL made of thin aluminium cladding panels, intended to
• They are alloys that far more suitable to be used melt during a major fire, allowing heat and smoke to
as tools. escape and thereby minimizing damage.
• They are harder, resistant to abrasion and
deformation, and they have cutting edge ADVANTAGES OF ALUMINUM
capabilities. • Lightweight - Aluminium is one of the lightest
Weathering Steel available commercial metals with a density
• A very strong, low-alloy steel that has an oxide approximately one third that of steel or copper.
coating when exposed to moisture and rain. • Excellent Corrosion Resistance - Aluminium has
• Also known as Cor-Ten Steel excellent resistance to corrosion due to the thin
HSLA (HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY) STEEL layer of aluminium oxide that forms on the surface
• They have less carbon that increases their of aluminium when it is exposed to air.
strength, ductility, and corrosion-resistance. • Strong at Low Temperatures - Where as steel
• An improved Carbon steel alloy. becomes brittle at low temperatures, aluminium
increases in tensile strength and retains excellent
NONFERROUS METALS toughness.
ALUMINIUM • Easy to Work - Aluminium can be easily fabricated
• The aluminium element was discovered 200 years into various forms such as foil, sheets, geometric
ago. After an initial period of technological shapes, rod, tube and wire.
• Easy Surface Treatment - For many applications,
aluminium requires no protective or decorative LEAD
coating; the surface supplied is entirely adequate • It is a concemalleable poor metal, also considered to
without further finishing be one of the heavy metals. Lead has a bluish white
color when freshly cut, but tarnishes to a dull
TIN grayish color when it is exposed to air and is a
• A crystalline, silvery metallic element obtained shiny chrome silver when melted into a liquid.
notable chiefly from cassiterite, and having two • Very easy to cut and work, enabling it to be fitted
allotropic forms. Malleable white tin is the useful over uneven surfaces.
allotrope, but at temperatures below 13.2°C it • Used for roofing, flashing and spandrel wall panels.
slowly converts to the brittle gray allotrope. Tin is
used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion and is COPPER
a part of numerous alloys, such as soft solder, • Ductile, malleable and bright reddish brown color
pewter, type metal, and bronze. with high thermal and electrical conductivity.
• Has high tensile strength
CHARACTERISTICS OF TIN • Available in a wide variety of shapes
* Silvery-white metal * Non-magnetic • Used as electrical wiring, piping, flashing and
* Fairly resistant to corrosion roofing material.
* Non-combustible * Lightweight • is a common type of flashing due to its strength,
* Durable * Soft appearance, malleability and high resistance to the
* Ductile * Malleable elements.
* Expensive, but can last long time when
properly maintained- DEFFECTS IN METAL STRUCTURES
* Low maintenance material consisting primarily of • Dislocations – undermines the integrity of the
routine inspection and periodic painting. structure, occurs when metal ions in each layer are
missing and cause the other layers to weaken. The
HEALTH EFFECTS OF TIN less grain boundaries, the more likely dislocation in
• Tin is mainly applied in various organic substances. the structure of the metal is to occur, and this
The organic tin bonds are the most dangerous forms weakening of the metal itself creates movement and
of tin for humans. Despite the dangers they are causes the metal to lose shape as well as weaken.
applied in a great number of industries, such as the • Corrosion/Rusting - this means electrochemical
paint industry and the plastic industry, and in oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such
agriculture through pesticides. The number of as oxygen.
applications of organic tin substances is still • Point Defects – point defects are a single atom
increasing, despite the fact that we know the defect found in the grains of the metal’s lattice
consequences of tin poisoning. structure. Point defects can and do affect the
Acute effects are: integrity of the metal, affecting the ability of the
* Eye and skin irritations metal to resist corrosion and other environmental
* Headaches factors.
* Stomachaches • Volume defects – while equally connected to the
* Sickness and dizziness atomic structure of the metal, also occur during and
* Severe sweating after processing. This form of defect can be broken
* Breathlessness down into three major categories:
* Urination problems 1. Voids – result when there are holes in the
Long-term effects are: materials.
* Depressions 2. Cracks – that occur during the process of the
* Liver damage metal.
* Malfunctioning of immune systems 3. Inclusion of foreign particles – that become
* Chromosomal damage implanted in the structure of the metal.
* Shortage of red blood cells
* Brain damage (causing anger, sleeping disorders,
forgetfulness and headaches)