UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN MINDANAO

Chapter 2

SOIL DEVELOPMENT

CELSO C. EVANGELISTA
Introduction
Rocks and minerals weather
when they disintegrate and
decompose.

The decomposition products

precipitate and crystallize to form new
minerals which largely constitute the
clay fractions of soils.
• Ionic forms of simple soluble products
are sorbed by clay particles, absorbed
by plants, or lost with drainage water
from the soil solum.
• Soils that form in similar climates
from different kinds of parent
rock may differ in nutrients, in
depth, in amount of clay and in color .
Definition
• Minerals are inorganic (nonliving)
substances that are homogenous, have
a definite composition and have
characteristic physical properties
such as shape, color, melting
temperature, hardness, luster, streak,
cleavage, fracture, and specific
gravity. Minerals are naturally
occurring chemical element or
compound formed as a product of
inorganic processes.
Mineral characteristics

• Crystal systems – the geometrical shapes

in which minerals crystallize (cubic,
monoclinic, triclinic, orthorhombic,
tetragonal, hexagonal/trigonal)

• Cleavage – is the way that a mineral

breaks along well-defined planes of
weakness (perfect, distinct, indistinct or
none)
• Fracture – it is a break that leaves rough
and uneven mineral surfaces (uneven,
conchoidal, hackly, splintery)

• Hardness – it is the resistance of minerals

to being scratched. The scale of hardness
from 1 (talc) to 10 (diamond) was
devised by Friedrich Mohs.
• Specific Gravity – a value representing
the weight of mineral with the weight of
an equal volume of water. An SG of 2.5
indicates that the mineral is two-and-
half times as heavy as water.

• Streak – color of a mineral’s powder. It is

obtained by rubbing the specimen across
the surface of an unglazed porcelain tile.
• Luster – describes the way light is
reflected off from a mineral’s surface
(silky, dull, vitreous, adamantine,
metallic)

• Transparency – refers to the way in

which light passes through a mineral
specimen (transparent, translucent,
opaque)
• Habit – is the characteristic appearance
of a crystal that is determined by its
predominant form (dendritic, bladed,
acicular, prismatic, massive, reniform)

• Color – the color of a mineral as seen in

natural light is an obvious and useful
identification feature.
Mineral composition
• Native elements
• Halides
• Sulphides
• Oxides and hydroxides
• Phosphates
• Sulfates
• Silicates
• Carbonates
Definition
• Rocks are aggregates of one or more
minerals (mostly two or more minerals)
and perhaps mineral materials that have
been brought together in to a cohesive
solid.

• Rocks are the essential building

materials of the earth.
Petrology – from the greek word petra or
petros meaning rock; branch of geology
which deals with the study of the nature
and origin of rocks
2.1. Classes of Rocks

1. Igneous rocks – formed by the

crystallization of once molten
material. This molten material is
called magma, a hot fluid (a
temperature of 500 - 1400oC ) mass or
rock melt and then lava once it
reaches the earth’s surface.

The word igneous comes from the Latin

ignis which means fire.
2. Sedimentary rocks – sediments
deposited in water and consolidated
(made into a hardened mass of rock);
consolidated fragments of igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
3. Metamorphic rocks - igneous or
sedimentary rocks changed by heat or
pressure (hardened or changed
mineral orientations) or chemical
solution; chemically and/or physically
transformed (metamorphism) igneous
or sedimentary rocks by means of heat
and/or pressure.
2.2. Mode of formation of
igneous rocks
a. Intrusive rocks

- also known as plutonic rocks

- the result of crystallization from

a magma that did not reach the
earth’s surface
- coarse-grained rocks
b. Shallow intrusive or hypabyssal rocks

- crystallize at medium depths

- medium-grained rocks
c. Extrusive rocks

- also known as volcanic rocks

- includes those igneous rocks that
reached the earth’s surface in
a molten or partly molten state
- lava flows that pour from a vent
or fracture in the earth’s crust
tend to cool and crystallize
rapidly resulting in finer grain
size; if cooling is rapid,
resulting rock may be a glass
2.3. Identification of
igneous rocks:
1. based on grain size

a. Coarse-grained (phaneritic) – results

in slow cooling of magma at great
depths ex. granite, diorite, gabbro

b. Fine-grained (aphanitic) - results in

rapid cooling of molten materials
ex. rhyolite, andesite, basalt
2. based on mineral composition

a. silicic/felsic (acidic) – increasing

silica content (≈75% SiO2)
ex. granite and rhyolite

b. Intermediate – ex. diorite and

andesite

c. Mafic (basic) – decreasing silica

content (≈ 45% SiO2)
ex. gabbro and basalt
3. Colors of rocks
a. Light – high in quartz
ex. granite and rhyolite

b. Medium gray/green – intermediate

silica content
ex. diorite and andesite

c. Dark gray to black – high CaO,

FeO, and MgO
ex. gabbro and basalt
2.4. Examples of Igneous Rocks and
major mineral components
Igneous Rocks Mineral components

1. Granite quartz, K-feldspar, biotite

2. Diorite plagioclase, amphibole, quartz
3. Rhyolite K-feldspar, quartz, biotite
4. Gabbro pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine
5. Andesite plagioclase, amphibole, quartz
6. Basalt pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine
7. Obsidian volcanic glass
8. Volcanic tuff fragmental volcanic rocks
Granite gabbro

rhyolite basalt
2.5. Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks were at one time
rock and mineral particles or soluble
substances that became consolidated or
cemented into hard masses. They are laid
down by water. Loose deposits are
converted into rocks by lithification
which include compaction and
cementation of loose materials.
Sedimentary rocks
 Sediment implies settling from a fluid

 In geology, it implies current transport

as well

 Characterized by stratification or
layering – evidence of deposition
The cementing materials make
part of the name of some
sedimentary rocks:

a. Calcareous – for carbonates (lime)

(as in calcareous
sandstone)

b. Ferruginous – for iron oxides

c. Siliceous – for silica (SiO2)

2.5.1. Examples of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Sandstone (1/16 to 2 mm)

2. Siltstone (1/256 to 1/16 mm)
3. Shale (Claystone) (<1/256 mm)
4. Conglomerate (>2mm)
5. Limestone (CaCO3)
6. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
7. Chert (SiO2-quartz)
limestone sandstone

shale conglomerate
Limestone
2.6. Metamorphic rocks
Those which have undergone some
degree of changes depending upon the
variations in temperature and
pressure to which they have been
subjected.

They have undergone mineralogical,

textural, and structural changes at
considerable depth in the earth’s
crust.
• Metamorphic rocks exhibit certain
typical features. The minerals of which
they are made usually occur as crystals.

• They may be as hard or harder than the

igneous, sedimentary or other
metamorphic rocks from which they
formed but they weather to produce
similar soils
2.6.1. Examples of
metamorphic rocks
Pre-existing rock Metamorphic Rock
Equivalent

1. Granite Gneiss
2. Basalt Schists
3. Sandstone Quartzite
4. Limestone Marble
5. Shale Slate
6. Conglomerate Meta - conglomerate
Gneiss (from Granite)
Schist (from Basalt)
Marble (from Limestone)
Slate (from Shale)
marble slate

quartzite gneiss
Rock Cycle – transformations
of rocks into new types
The rock cycle begins with molten
rock magma below the ground, lava
above the ground which cools and
hardens to form igneous rock. Exposure
to weathering and erosion forces breaks
the original rock into smaller pieces.
The smaller materials (sediments) is
carried away by rivers, wind, glaciers
and other means and is eventually
deposited elsewhere.
These sediments can be buried and
lithified (compacted, cemented and
hardened) forming sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rock can be deeply buried,
subjected to heat and pressure which
over time cause it to change its
structure to metamorphic rock.
Metamorphism is a bug word meaning
change. Eventually, these metamorphic
rocks can be heated to the point where
they again melt into magma.
Rock cycle
2.7. Primary minerals versus
secondary minerals

Mineral : naturally occurring chemical

element or compound formed as
a product of inorganic
processes.

Two groups of minerals

a. primary minerals
b. secondary minerals
Mineralogy – a branch of geology which
deals with the study of minerals; 2 to 3
thousand minerals are known to exist but
only about 100 are common.
Primary minerals
formed at temperatures and/or
pressure higher than that normally
encountered at the earth’s surface
(one atmosphere and <100oC).

have not been altered chemically

since they formed as molten lava
solidified
Primary minerals are components of
igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Minerals that persist from the

original rocks and appear primarily
in the soil

They have not been altered

chemically since they formed as
molten lava solidified

Components of igneous and

metamorphic rocks
Examples of primary minerals

a. Quartz
b. Feldspars (orthoclase, plagioclase)
c. Mica group (muscovite, biotite)
d. Amphibole pyroxene group
(hornblende, augite)
e. Apatite
f. Carbonate group ( calcite, dolomite)
Secondary minerals
form under conditions of temperature and
pressure found at the earth’s surface by the
weathering of pre-existing minerals.

Minerals that originate and are synthesized

from the chemical weathering of the less
resistant primary minerals.

Crystallized products of the chemical

breakdown and/or alteration of primary
minerals
Examples of secondary minerals

a. Clay group (kaolinite, montmorillonite,

illite)

b. Iron group ( hematite, limonite)

c. Aluminum group (boehmite, gibbsite)

d. Gypsum (Calcium sulfate)

Importance of knowing the chemical
composition of minerals

1. Economic implication – big deposits

large enough to be mined
2. Petrologic implication – classification
of minerals
3. Agricultural implication – source of
nutrients
calcite quartz
chlorapatite

orthoclase

phosphorite
talc

diamond
kaolin
Much less common minerals of commercial value
Halite NaCl Chloride

Diamond C Native element

Gold Au (gold) Native element

Hematite Iron oxides (Fe2O3) Oxide

Magnetite Iron oxides (Fe3O4) Oxide

Chalcopyrite Cu, Fe sulfide Sulfide

Sphalerite Zn sulfide
Sulfide
Galena Pb sulfide Sulfide
2.8. Weathering
all physical and chemical changes
produced in rocks, at or near the
earth’s surface, by atmospheric agents

the disintegration of primary (original)

minerals and the formation of some of
those dissolved materials into new
secondary minerals
only when a solid rock mass is
disintegrated to unconsolidated material
is a soil formed

mixture of dead vegetation, clay, rock

fragments of sand and silt size particles
produces soil.
Two types of weathering
1. Physical weathering - disintegration or
breakdown of rocks and minerals into
smaller sizes

Processes:
a. Exfoliation due to temperature
variations
b. Disintegration by water
c. Grinding by ice
d. Abrasion by wind
e. Other processes and agents
Exfoliation – peeling away of
scale-like layers from rock surface
Disintegration by water
Waterfall has tremendous
cutting power on rock formations; the
water constantly strikes the base of
the falls creating a deep plunge pool
where abrasion and plucking make
the rocks susceptible to caving and
disintegration into small fragments
River banks are eroded due to
meandering (the zigzag pattern or
river formations); fine sediments are
deposited in deltas, valleys and flood
plains
When loaded with sediment, water
has tremendous cutting power as amply
demonstrated by gorges, ravines, and
valleys around the world.

The rounding of riverbed rocks and

beach sand grains is further evidence of
the abrasion that accompanies water
movement.
Grinding by ice – number two agent next
to water in temperate countries; not
involves as weathering agent in the
tropics

The weight of huge blocks of ice is

sufficient to cause disintegration of rocks
underneath; the grinding action of
moving ice is intensified by pebbles or
gravel picked up on its path.
Abrasion by wind – disintegration process
most active in deserts and other arid
regions of the world; due to wind-blown
particles that bombards the rock surfaces.

Other processes and agents – earthquakes

and landslides results in increased surface
area without producing chemical change;
root pressure disintegrates rocks
2. Chemical weathering

the most active and effective

weathering process.

the main processes involved is the

chemical decomposition of primary
minerals and synthesis of new
minerals.

produces clays on which vegetation can

grow.
Processes of chemical weathering

a. Hydrolysis
b. Hydration
c. Oxidation
d. Reduction
e. Carbonation
f. Solution
g. Other acidic processes
1. Hydrolysis – replacement of the basic
ions by the hydrogen, with consequent
collapse and disintegration of the
structure.

KAlSi3O8 + H2O HAlSi3O8 + KOH

orthoclase aluminosilicic acid
2. Hydration – association of water
molecules or of hydroxyl groups
with minerals, often without actual
decomposition or modification of the
mineral itself.

CaSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l) CaSO4 . 2H2O

anhydrite gypsum
3. Oxidation – removal or loss of one or
more electrons from an ion
or an atom.

4FeO (s) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) 4FeO(OH) (s)

Ferrous Ferric
goethite

4. Reduction – removal of oxygen

5. Carbonation – minerals are replaced by
carbonates. Introducing carbon
dioxide into water.

CO2(g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq) H+(aq) + HCO3 (aq)

carbonic acid bicarbonate

CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2

calcite calcium
(less soluble) bicarbonate
(more soluble)
6. Solution – dissolving of simple salts as
carbonates and chlorides.

CaCO3 + 2H+ H2CO3 + Ca++

calcite calcium ion
Characteristics of rocks and
minerals that determine their
resistance or susceptibility to
weathering.

a. Particle size

 In general, a given mineral is more

susceptible to decomposition when
present in fine particles than in large
grains. The much larger surface area of
finely divided materials presents a
greater opportunity for chemical
attack.
b. Hardness

A dense quartzite or a sandstone

cemented firmly by a slowly
weathered mineral will resist
mechanical breakdown and present
a small amount of total surface area
for chemical activity.
c. degree of cementation

Porous rocks such as volcanic ash or

coarse limestone are readily broken
into smaller particles. These have on
total a larger surface area for
chemical attack and are obviously
more decomposed.
d. chemical characteristics

Minerals such as gypsum which is

slightly soluble in water are quickly
removed if there is adequate rainfall.
Dark-colored primary minerals
(ferromagnesian) are more
susceptible to chemical weathering
than feldspars and quartz.
e. crystalline characteristics

Tightness of packing of the ions in the

crystal units of the minerals
influences weathering rates.

For example, olivine and biotite

which are relatively easily weathered
have crystal units less tightly packed
than zircon and muscovite .
Order of resistance to weathering

Quartz > muscovite and feldspars > Na

and Ca feldspars > hornblende and
augite > olivine > dolomite > calcite >
gypsum
2.9. Factors Influencing
Soil Formation (CLORPT)
1. Parent Material - Geological or organic
precursors to the soil

2. Relief - Topography

3. Climate - Primarily precipitation and

temperature

4. Organisms - Especially vegetation,

microbes, and soil animals
5. Time
1. Parent material - inorganic (rocks
and minerals) and organic material
where soils may originate. Initial
material of the soil body.

Types of parent material

a. Residual - bedrocks such as igneous,

sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks.

b. Transported - loose materials like

sand, silt and clay deposits where
soils developed (alluvium, ash,
colluvium, glacial drift, dune).
Parent materials influence soil
formation by their different rates of
weathering, the nutrients they contain
for plant use, and the particle sizes
they contain.

The less developed a soil is, the greater

will be the effect of the parent material
on the properties of the soil.
clay formation is favored by high
percentage of decomposable dark
minerals and by less quartz

soils from weakly-cemented sandstones

will be sandy

soils from shales will be shallow and

fine-textured
Parent Material - Transported
Agent Deposited in or by Name of deposit
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Water Stream Alluvium
Lake Lacustrine
Ocean Marine
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ice Ice Till, Moraine
Melt water Alluvium,
Lacustrine
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Wind Wind Loess (silt)
Dune (sand)
Volcanic ash
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Gravity Gravity Colluvium
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Topography - refers to soil’s
position in the landscape.

Summit
Shoulder

Backslope

Footslope
(1) Summit and (2) Shoulder
- develop horizons the fastest;

(3) Backslope
- soils develop slower because:
a. rainfall will run off this slope
position faster,
b. there will be more soil erosion,
c. and there will be less leaching.

(4) Footslope
- soils will collect sediment from
upslope that can bury the
horizons and slow down their
development.
Topography can hasten or delay the work
of climatic forces; steep slopes generally
encourage erosion of the surface layers
and allow less rainfall to enter the soil
before running off, thus, preventing soil
formation from getting very far ahead of
soil destruction.

Soils on steep slopes have relatively

shallow, poorly differentiated soil profile
compared to nearby soils of more level
terrain
3. Climate - typical weather condition of
a region

Components that strongly influence

soil development:

a. precipitation or rainfall - with more

rainfall, there will be greater
weathering and greater leaching,
therefore, faster rate of soil
development
b. temperature - weathering of rocks and
minerals and biochemical reaction
increases with increasing temperature.

for every 100C rise in temperature, the

rate of biological reactions more than
doubles; if warm temperature and
abundant water are present at the same
time, the processes of weathering,
leaching and plant growth will be
maximized
4. Biota: Living organisms

Organic matter accumulation,

biochemical weathering, profile
mixing, nutrient cycling, and
aggregate stability are all enhanced by
the activities of organisms in the soil

vegetative cover reduces erosion rates

Role of natural vegetation:

 the kind of vegetation that dominates

the landscape also give rise to soil
bodies with varying soil characteristics
( grass land vs. forest land)

 cation cycling by trees - conifer trees

allow more of the base-forming cations
to be lost through leaching; more
strongly acid soil developed under
coniferous trees than deciduous trees
Difference in the soil profile under
grassland versus forest vegetation
5. Time

 The length of time for the soil to form.

 It is approximated by the time since the

site for soil development became stable
(no significant erosion and deposition).

 Age of a soil is not considered in years

but how much development the soil has
undergone.
 time zero is a point in time at which
pedologically catastrophic event is
completed, initiating a new cycle of soil
development

 OM will accumulate to form a dark-

colored A horizon in a decade or two

 formation of B-horizon would likely

take centuries
 accumulation of silicate clays usually
becomes noticeable after thousands of
years

 mature, highly weathered deep soils

would take hundreds of thousands of
years

Young soil versus mature soils - not

referring to the age of soils in years but
by the degree of weathering and profile
development
Time as a factor of soil formation
We must keep in mind that the factors of
soil formation (CLORPT) do not exert
their influences independently. Indeed
interdependence is the rule.
In certain situations one of these
factors has had the dominant influence
in determining differences among set of
soils. Soil scientists refer to such set of
soils as catenas, chronosequence,
lithosequence, climosequence,
biosequence and toposequence.
Catenas
• When soils are developed on the
same parent material and the soils
only differ on the basis of drainage
due to variations in relief

Chronosequence
• A sequence of related soils that
differ in certain properties
primarily as a result of time as a
soil-forming process
Lithosequence

• A group of related soils that differ

as a result of parent material

Climosequence

• A sequence of soils that differ as a

result of changes in climatic
regimes (temperature and
precipitation)
Biosequence

• A group of related soils that differ

primarily due to variation in kinds
and numbers of plants and soil
organisms

Toposequence

• A sequence of soils that differ as a

result of changes in relief or
topography
2.10. Four basic processes
of soil formation

These are processes involved in

the formation of soils and the
development of vertical variations in
soil bodies.
The soil horizons are developed as
a result of four basic kinds of changes
in the soil namely:

a. Transformations
b. Additions
c. Removals
d. Transfers

These four kinds of changes

include a wide range of processes and
each kind of change affects many
constituents in the soil.
a. Transformations
• processes involve in the disintegration
and decomposition of rocks and
minerals and synthesis of new
minerals (weathering)
• development of clay minerals,
• weathering of minerals to elements,
• chemical reactions involved in soil
formation
b. Additions or gains
• these are brought about by
accumulation of organic matter in the
surface soil eventually forming A
horizon

• OM accumulation is influenced by
decayed plants and animals

• H2O, organic matter, air, soil

particles, salts
c. Removals or losses of
soluble products

• Under the influence of rainfall,

soluble products from decomposition
of rocks and minerals are eventually
leached or washed away.

• H2O, organic matter, CO2 , nutrients

by plant removal
d. Transfers/Translocations of
soil constituents

• movement from one horizon to another

of organic matter, clay, water, iron,
and nutrients in colloidal size,
(very small particles)

• clay films on peds are evidence of this

translocation = clay (film) coating
Major processes in soil profile
development (after Simonson)
ADDITION-
precipitation w/ ions
and solid part.;
Ground organic matter
Surface
TRANSFORMATIONS
Organic matter humus
Primary minerals hydrous oxides; clay;
ions, H2SiO4

TRANSFER TRANSFER
Humus, clays, Ions, H4SiO4
ions, H4SiO4

REMOVALS
IONS, H4SiO4
Processes/Terminologies in Soil
Formation
Term Categorization Description
*
1a. Eluviation 3 Movement of material out of a portion of a soil profile
1b. Illuviation 3 Movement of material into a portion of a soil profile

2a. Leaching 2 Washing out of eluviating material from the solum

2b. Enrichment 1 Addition of material from the soil body

3a. Erosion 2 Removal of soil material from the surface

3b. Cumulization 1 Aeolian & hydrologic add. of particles in the surface

4a. Decalcification 3 Reaction that removes CaCO3 from 1or more horizon
4b. Calcification 3 Accumulation of CaCO3 from 1or more horizon
5a. Solonization 3 Accumulation of sodium ion
5b. Solodization 3 Leaching of sodium ion

6a. Lessivage 3 Enrichment in clay (mech. mitigation of small particle)

6b. Pedoturbation 3 Homogenizing the solum in varying degrees
*1 – Gains 2 – Losses 3 – Translocations 4 - Transformations
Term Categorization Description
*
6a. Decomposition 4 Breakdown of mineral and organic material
6b. Synthesis 4 Formation of new material and organic species
7a. Melanization 1 Darkening of light-colored mineral (admixture of OM)
7b. Leucinization 3 Paling of soil horizon (removal of OM)

8a. Littering 1 Accumulation of OM in the soil surface

8b. Humification 4 Transformation of raw OM to humus
8c. Paludization 4 Accumulation of deep deposits of OM (peats &
mucks)
8d. Ripening 4 Changes in organic soil with O2 (increase
microorganisms activity)
8e. Mineralization 4 Releases of oxide solids through decomposition of
OM
9a. Braunification 4 Releases of Fe from primary minerals (reddish soil)
9b. Gleization 4 Reduction of Fe under waterlogged soil condition
*1 – Gains 2 – Losses 3 – Translocations 4 - Transformations
1 – Gain, 2 – Losses, 3 – Translocation, 4 - Transformation
2.10. The Soil Profile

A soil profile is the

sequence of soil layers which are
exposed when a pit is dug to a
depth of about four feet. The
individual layer is regarded as
horizon.

Soil profile may be

examined in pits, in road banks,
or in mounted sections called
soil monoliths.
Soil profile – a vertical
section of the soil from the
surface through all its
horizons and extending
into the parent material.
Master Horizons and Layers

O horizons or layers : Horizons or

layers dominated by organic soil
materials. Some are saturated with
water for long periods or were once
saturated but are now artificially
drained; others have never been
saturated.
Oi - slightly decomposed organic
horizon (fibric)

Oe - intermediately decomposed organic

horizon (hemic)

Oa - highly decomposed organic horizon

(sapric)
Master Horizons and Layers
L horizons or layers: These include
both organic and mineral limnic
materials that were either
(1) deposited by water by precipitation
or through the actions of aquatic
organisms, such as algae and diatomes,
or (2) derived from underwater and
floating aquatic plants and
subsequently modified by aquatic
animals
Master Horizons and Layers

A horizons: Mineral horizons that

have formed at the soil surface or
below an O horizon. They exhibit
obliteration of all or much of any
original rock structure.
Master Horizons and Layers

E horizons: Mineral horizons in

which the main feature is the eluvial
loss of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or
some combination of these, leaving a
concentration of sand and silt
particles. These horizon exhibit
obliteration of all or much of the
original rock structure.
Master Horizons and Layers

B horizons: Mineral horizons that

have formed beneath an O, A, or E .
They exhibit illuvial concentration of
silicate clay, iron, aluminum, humus,
sesquioxides, carbonates, anhydrite,
gypsum, salts more soluble than gypsum,
or silica, alone or in combination.
Master Horizons and Layers

C horizons or layers: Mineral

horizons or layers, excluding strongly
cemented and harder bedrock, that are
little affected by pedogenic processes
and lack the properties of O, A, E, B, or
L horizons. The material of the C
horizons or layers may be either like or
unlike the materials from which the
solum has presumably formed. The C
horizon may have been modified, even
if there is no evidence of pedogenesis.
Master Horizons and Layers

R layers : Strongly cemented to

indurated bedrock.

M layers: Root-limiting layers

beneath the soil surface consisting of
nearly continuous horizontally-
oriented, human-manufactured
materials.
Master Horizons and Layers

W layers: Water layers. This symbol

indicates water layers within or beneath
the soil. The water layer is designated as
Wf if it is permanently frozen and as
W if it is not permanently frozen.
Relative age of soil
Young soil : A-Bw-C and/or R
slightly to moderately
weathered

Mature soil : A-Bt-C

moderately to highly
weathered

Senile soil : A-Bo-C

high to extremely weathered
Suffix symbols to designate
subordinate distinction within
the master horizons

a – highly decomposed organic matter

b – buried soil horizon
c – concretions or nodules
co – coprogenous earth
d – physical root restriction
di – diatomaceous earth
Suffix symbols to designate
subordinate distinction within
the master horizons
e – organic material of intermediate
decomposition
f – frozen soil or water
ff – dry permafrost
g – strong gleying
h – illuvial accumulation of organic
matter
i – slightly decomposed organic
material
Suffix symbols to designate
subordinate distinction within
the master horizons

j – accumulation of jarosite
jj – evidence of cryoturbation
k – calcium carbonates accumulation
kk – engulfment of horizon by
secondary carbonates
m – pedogenic cementation
ma – marl
Suffix symbols to designate
subordinate distinction within
the master horizons
n – accumulation of sodium
o – residual accumulation of sesquioxides
p – tillage or other disturbance
q – accumulation of silica
r – weathered or soft bedrock
s – illuvial accumulation of sesquioxides
and organic matter
Suffix symbols to designate
subordinate distinction within
the master horizons

se – presence of sulfides
ss – presence of slickensides
t – silicate clay accumulation
u – presence of human-manufactured
materials (artifacts)
v – plinthite
Suffix symbols to designate
subordinate distinction within
the master horizons

w – development of color or structure

x – fragipan character
y – accumulation of gypsum
yy – dominance of horizon by gypsum
z – accumulation of salts more soluble
than gypsum
Young Soil
•Has ochric and none
diagnostic horizons
•Typical profile sequence
would be A, C or A, Bw and
C
•Includes soils on steep
slopes, flood plains and sand
dunes
•Soil that has little or slight
development and properties
that reflect its parent
materials
Mature Soil
• Formed in semi-arid to humid
areas that have a clay enriched
and nutrient enriched subsoil
(argillic horizon)
• Has the potential to be very
productive if conserved, but can
also be degraded rapidly if
eroded
• Diagnostic horizon features are
the ochric epipedon and the
argillic horizon
• Typical profile sequence is A, E,
Bt and C
Senile Soil
• Only in the tropics; diagnostic
feature is the oxic horizon
• Intensely - weathered, resulting
in colors that are yellow to red
from the accumulation of large
amounts of iron oxides
• Clayey texture but the ability to
retain water is low as the clay
fraction consists of iron oxides
and kaolinite
• Frequently does not have very
distinct horizons and is very
deep
• Typical horizon sequence is
A, Bo1, Bo2