2 Quantum Theory

SIF1004:Modern Physics
Classical Physics (pre-1890s)
MECHANICS

CLASSICAL
PHYSICS

ELECTRICITY
THERMODYN
AND
AMICS
MAGNETISM

CONSERVATION LAWS
Triumph of Classical Physics: The Conservation Laws

• Conservation of energy: The total sum of energy (in all its forms) is
conserved in all interactions.
• Conservation of linear momentum: In the absence of external forces,
linear momentum is conserved in all interactions.
• Conservation of angular momentum: In the absence of external
torque, angular momentum is conserved in all interactions.
• Conservation of charge: Electric charge is conserved in all
interactions.
The Need for Quantum Physics

Line spectrum Blackbody radiation

Issues in Classical
Physics
Photoelectric effect Compton effect
Photoelectric Effect
• The photoelectric effect is a quantum electronic phenomenon in which
electrons are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from
electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays or visible light.
• Because the electron are ejected with the aid of light, they are called
photoelectrons
• GOALS:
• Describe the relation between the energy of light and the energy of electron emitted
during the photoelectric effect.
• Explain how the photoelectric effect supports the concept that energy of light comes
in packets (photon)
• Explain how your observations support the relation between a photon’s energy and
the frequency of light.
When short wavelength light illuminates a
clean metal surface, electrons are ejected
from the metal. These photoelectrons
produce a photocurrent. The intensity light
in curve a is double of curve b.

What is the working mechanism?

6
• V is varied until it reaches a certain value,
called the stopping potential Vstop, at which
point the reading of meter A has just
dropped to zero
• The saturated photocurrents are found
proportional to the incident light intensity.
• However, the stopping potential is
independent of light intensity.
• The kinetic energy of the most energetic
photoelectrons is:

K max  eVstop
• Kmax does not depend on the intensity of
the light!
The Photoelectric Effect
In 1905, Einstein proposed that electromagnetic radiation (or
simply light) is quantized and exists in elementary amounts
(quanta) that we now call photons.

According to that proposal, the quantum of a light wave of

frequency f has the energy

Here h is the Planck constant, which has the value

If the frequency f of the incident
ab light is varied and the set of
slope  associated stopping potential Vstop is
bc measured, then the plot of Vstop
versus f as shown in the figure is
obtained.

• The photoelectric effect does not occur if the frequency is below a certain cutoff
frequency f0. This is so no matter how intense the incident light is.
• To escape from the metal surface/target, an electron must pick up a certain
minimum energy f , where f is a property of the target material called its work
function. If the energy hf transferred to an electron by a photon exceeds the work
function of the material (if hf > f ), the electron can be ejected. (F = hf0)
• If the metallic surface is changed, then the threshold frequency changes.

9
hf  K max   (photoelectric equation)

h 
Using K max  eVstop  Vstop   f 
e e

equation for a straight with slope h/e and intercept –F/e

h ab 2.35 V  0.72 V
slope     4.1  10 -15
V s
e bc 11.2  10  7.2  10  Hz
14 14

Multiplying this result by e

h   4.1 10-15 V  s 1.6  10-19 C   6.6  10-34 J  s

When the photoelectric effect experiments were performed, one
effect was inconsistent with classical physics. What was it?

a) The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons did not vary with light
intensity.

b) The fact that electrons could form a current within a vacuum.

c) The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons increased as the

frequency of light increased.

d) The fact that light could free electrons from the surface of a metal.

e) The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons increased as the

wavelength of light decreased.
When the photoelectric effect experiments were performed, one
effect was inconsistent with classical physics. What was it?

a) The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons did not vary with light
intensity.

b) The fact that electrons could form a current within a vacuum.

c) The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons increased as the

frequency of light increased.

d) The fact that light could free electrons from the surface of a metal.

e) The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons increased as the

wavelength of light decreased.
Consider the photoelectric effect experiment from the point of view of
classical (or Newtonian) physics. Which one of the following is not one
of the effects you would predict from a classical point of view?

a) There should be a measurable time delay between the time that light first
strikes the metal surface and the time when electrons are first emitted
from the surface of the metal.

b) The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons should vary linearly with the
frequency of light shining on the metal.

c) Light of any frequency shining on the metal surface should cause

electrons to be emitted.

d) The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons should increase

proportionately to the intensity of the light.
Consider the photoelectric effect experiment from the point of view of
classical (or Newtonian) physics. Which one of the following is not one
of the effects you would predict from a classical point of view?

a) There should be a measurable time delay between the time that light first
strikes the metal surface and the time when electrons are first emitted
from the surface of the metal.

b) The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons should vary linearly with the
frequency of light shining on the metal.

c) Light of any frequency shining on the metal surface should cause

electrons to be emitted.

d) The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons should increase

proportionately to the intensity of the light.
What was one surprising result of the photoelectric effect
experiments?

a) The electrons behaved like matter waves.

b) Below a certain frequency, no electrons could be ejected from the

metal surface.

c) Individual photons behaved like waves.

d) Above a certain light frequency, the current became zero amperes.

e) Light was proven to exhibit only a wave nature.

What was one surprising result of the photoelectric effect
experiments?

a) The electrons behaved like matter waves.

b) Below a certain frequency, no electrons could be ejected from the

metal surface.

c) Individual photons behaved like waves.

d) Above a certain light frequency, the current became zero amperes.

e) Light was proven to exhibit only a wave nature.

If light only had wave-like properties, you would not expect there
to be a cutoff frequency. Why is this true?

a) Only particles can eject electrons from a surface.

b) The energy of a wave does not depend on its frequency.

c) Light waves of lower frequency would still be able to eject

electrons.

d) An electromagnetic wave would be able to eject an electron from a

surface. It would just take longer.

e) None of the above answers are correct.

If light only had wave-like properties, you would not expect there
to be a cutoff frequency. Why is this true?

a) Only particles can eject electrons from a surface.

b) The energy of a wave does not depend on its frequency.

c) Light waves of lower frequency would still be able to eject

electrons.

d) An electromagnetic wave would be able to eject an electron from a

surface. It would just take longer.

e) None of the above answers are correct.

Blackbody Radiation
• We perceive ‘acceleration’ or ‘deceleration’ of electron from objects
as ‘light’
• Imagine heating up a piece of metal in furnace
• First turns red
• Then orange
• Then yellow
• Then white-blue
• The higher the temperature, the bluer it is
Blackbody Radiation
Black body radiation: classical theory
BLACKBODY A body that would absorb
all the radiation falling on it

• 19th Centuries – Spectrum of light emitted by objects

Q
= AT4
t
Intensity  T
4 Stefan–Boltzmann law

fmax T Wien's displacement law

= Emissivity (0-1) characteristic of the surface of the radiating material

= Stefan Boltzmann constant 5.67 x 10-8W/m2.K4
A= Surface area of the emitting object

• All bodies no matter hot/cold will continuously radiate EM wave.

• Average energy, 𝐸 = 𝜅𝑇;
• energy density, =f

What is the problem with this Rayleigh-Jeans blackbody spectrum?

Black body radiation: summary
Black body radiation: Planck’s theory
Energy density

I (, t) = 2hc2 -5

ehc/ kT -1
fmax T

Planck’s blackbody
spectrum
Challenge!
energy density
Example:
At absolute temperature T, a black body radiates its peak intensity
at wavelength λ. What would be the wavelength of the peak
intensity at absolute temperature 2T?

A)16λ

B) 2λ

C) λ

D) λ/2

E) λ/16
At absolute temperature T, a black body radiates its peak intensity
at wavelength λ. What would be the wavelength of the peak
intensity at absolute temperature 2T?

A)16λ

B) 2λ

C) λ

D) λ/2

E) λ/16
A 10-mW laser emits light that has a wavelength of 780 nm. At
what rate are photons being emitted from the laser?

a) 2 × 1016 photons per second

b) 4 × 1016 photons per second

c) 8 × 1018 photons per second

d) 1 × 1020 photons per second

e) 3 × 1021 photons per second

A 10-mW laser emits light that has a wavelength of 780 nm. At
what rate are photons being emitted from the laser?

a) 2 × 1016 photons per second

b) 4 × 1016 photons per second

c) 8 × 1018 photons per second

d) 1 × 1020 photons per second

e) 3 × 1021 photons per second

A 5-mW laser emits 650-nm wavelength light. The light is
directed toward a polarizing sheet; and 70% of the light is
transmitted. At what rate are photons transmitted through the
sheet?

a) 1 × 1016 photons per second

b) 5 × 1017 photons per second

c) 2 × 1018 photons per second

d) 4 × 1019 photons per second

e) 7 × 1020 photons per second

A 5-mW laser emits 650-nm wavelength light. The light is
directed toward a polarizing sheet; and 70% of the light is
transmitted. At what rate are photons transmitted through the
sheet?

a) 1 × 1016 photons per second

b) 5 × 1017 photons per second

c) 2 × 1018 photons per second

d) 4 × 1019 photons per second

e) 7 × 1020 photons per second

Line Spectra
• When an electric discharge is passed through a gas, light is emitted
which, when examined spectroscopically, is typically found to consist
of a series of lines, each of which has a sharply defined frequency.
Line Spectra
• E.g.
,

• = Rydberg constant; = integers

• Assume that the light emitted from the atom consists of photons whose
energies are , → energy of the atom emitting the photon must have
been changed by the same amount
• Conclusion: energy of the hydrogen atom is itself quantized,meaning that it
can adopt only one of the values where:

• -ve sign = binding energy of atom

Line Spectra
• According to classical electromagnetic theory, an accelerated charge always loses
energy in the form of radiation, so a negative electron in motion about a positive
nucleus should radiate, lose energy, and quickly coalesce with the nucleus.
• The fact that the radiation is quantized should not affect this argument, but if the
energy of the atom is quantized, there will be a minimum energy level (that with
n = 1 in the case of hydrogen) below which the atom cannot go, and in which it
will remain indefinitely.
• Quantization also explains why all atoms of the same species behave in the same
way. As we shall see later, all hydrogen atoms in the lowest energy state have the
same properties.
• This is in contrast to a classical system, such as a planet orbiting a star, where an
infinite number of possible orbits with very different properties can exist for a
given value of the energy of the system.
Line Spectra
Photons Have Momentum:
Compton Effect

hf h  = 71 nm
p = (photon momentum)
c 

What is the main idea?

• 1923, Arthur Compton – supported that E, p are transferred via photons

• measured the wavelength and intensity of the x-rays that were scattered in various
direction from carbon target.
Compton’s results for four
values of the scattering
angle f. Note that the
Compton shift 
increases as the scattering
angle increases.
As a result of the collision, an x ray of wavelength ’ moves off at an angle f and the
electron moves off at an angle q, as shown. Conservation of energy then gives us
• Here hf is the energy of the incident x-ray photon, hf’ is the energy of the scattered x-ray photon,
and K is the kinetic energy of the recoiling electron.
• Since electron may recoil at speed approaching c, we must use the relativistic expression for K

Conservation of momentum x-axis

Conservation of momentum y-axis

Challenge!

h/mc is a constant called the Compton wavelength.

Photon Interactions
4 important types of interaction that a photon undergo after passes through matter:

1) Photoelectric effect – a photon may knock an e- out of an atom and in the process
the photon disappears.
2) Photon may knock the e- of atom to a higher state – atom in an excited state.
3) The photon can be scattered from an e- and in the process lose some energy
- Compton Effect
4) Pair production – create a matter (photon  e- + e+)
- E and p – must conserved
- Einstein’s equation E = mc2
- inverse process also occurs: e- + e+, the two will annihilate each
other and their energy, including their mass, appears as EM
energy of photons.
Example:
X-rays with a wavelength of 0.10 nm are scattered from an argon
atom. The scattered x-rays are detected at an angle of 85 relative
to the incident beam. What is the Compton shift for the scattered
x-rays?

a) 0.0022 nm

b) 0.011 nm

c) 0.022 nm

d) 0.041 nm

e) 0.12 nm
X-rays with a wavelength of 0.10 nm are scattered from an argon
atom. The scattered x-rays are detected at an angle of 85 relative
to the incident beam. What is the Compton shift for the scattered
x-rays?

a) 0.0022 nm

b) 0.011 nm

c) 0.022 nm

d) 0.041 nm

e) 0.12 nm
An x-ray photon with an initial wavelength  strikes an electron
that is initially at rest. Which one of the following statements best
describes the wavelength of the photon after the collision?

a) No photon remains after the collision.

b) The scattered photon’s wavelength will still be , but its frequency

will decrease.

c) The scattered photon’s wavelength will be longer than .

d) The scattered photon’s wavelength will be /2.

e) The scattered photon’s wavelength will be between /2 and .

An x-ray photon with an initial wavelength  strikes an electron
that is initially at rest. Which one of the following statements best
describes the wavelength of the photon after the collision?

a) No photon remains after the collision.

b) The scattered photon’s wavelength will still be , but its frequency

will decrease.

c) The scattered photon’s wavelength will be longer than .

d) The scattered photon’s wavelength will be /2.

e) The scattered photon’s wavelength will be between /2 and .

Resolution?
Quantum Physics!
The Nature of Light
Contributions made by:
• Isaac Newton (1642-1742)
• Christian Huygens (1629 -1695)
• Thomas Young (1773 -1829)
• Augustin Fresnel (1788 – 1829)
The Nature of Light
• Newton promotes the corpuscular (particle) theory
• Particles of light travel in straight lines or rays
• Explained sharp shadows
• Explained reflection and refraction
The Nature of Light
• Christian Huygens promotes the wave theory
• Light propagates as a wave of concentric circles from the point of origin
• Explained reflection and refraction
• Did not explain sharp shadows
Particles and Waves
• Two ways in which energy is transported:
• Point mass interaction: transfers of momentum and kinetic energy:
particles
• Extended regions where in energy transfers by way of vibrations and
rotations are observed: waves
Particles and Waves
• Two distinct phenomena describing most of the physical interactions
• Particles in the form of point masses and waves in the form of perturbation in
a mass distribution, i.e., a material medium
• The distinctions are observationally quite clear; however, not so for the case
of visible light
• Thus by the 17th century begins the major disagreement concerning the
nature of light
The Wave Theory Advances…
• Contributions by Huygens, Young, Fresnel and Maxwell
• Double-slit interference patterns

• Light was an electromagnetic phenomenon

• Establishes that light propagates as a wave
De Broglie Hypothesis: matter waves
• All moving matter/particle has a WAVE associated with it.
• The energy, and momentum, of the particle concept are connected
with the frequency, and wavelength,  of the wave concept through
Planck’s constant as:
(De Broglie Wavelength)
Or
• Where: = Dirac’s constant ( ), , is the

wavenumber,  is the angular frequency.
• Experiment condition : a represents a characteristic dimension of
an optical apparatus eg. width of a lens/mirror/slit. Diffraction effect are
easily observed.
de Broglie suggested that 𝑝 = might apply not only
to photons but also to electrons
Single Slit Diffraction
Dark fringes


sin q  m m  1,2,3,
W
 - de broglie wavelength
Double Slit Diffraction
• Young’s double slit experiment:
• Bright Fringes – light waves coming from each slit
interfere constructively, high probability of e- striking
the screen
• Dark fringes – the waves interfere destructively, low
probability of e- striking the screen
• Can not specify the location of each e- → Particles
are waves of probability
Double Slit Diffraction
• Implications:
• Wave nature of particles: Wave-Particle Duality
• Behavior of large numbers of particles is predictable
• Individual particle path has no certainty
Estimate the de Broglie wavelength of a honey bee flying at its
maximum speed.

a) A honey bee cannot have a wavelength.

b) 2  1018 m

c) 5  1032 m

d) 4  1036 m

e) 1  1040 m
Estimate the de Broglie wavelength of a honey bee flying at its
maximum speed.
M = 2 mg
a) A honey bee cannot have a wavelength. V = 24 km / hour

b) 2  1018 m

c) 5  1032 m

d) 4  1036 m

e) 1  1040 m
Since an interference pattern eventually builds up on the screen, we can speculate that each photon
travels from source to screen as a wave that fills up the space between source and screen and then
vanishes in a photon absorption at some point on the screen, with a transfer of energy and
momentum to the screen at that point.

We cannot predict where this transfer will occur (where a photon will be detected) for any given
photon originating at the source.

However, we can predict the probability that a transfer will occur at any given point on the screen.

Transfers will tend to occur (and thus photons will tend to be absorbed) in the regions of the bright
fringes in the interference pattern that builds up on the screen. Transfers will tend not to occur (and
thus photons will tend not to be absorbed) in the regions of the dark fringes in the built-up pattern.

Thus, we can say that the wave traveling from the source to the screen is a probability wave, which
produces a pattern of “probability fringes” on the screen.
Probability Wave

The probabilistic description of a

light wave is another way to view
light. It is a probability wave.
That is, to every point in a light
wave we can attach a numerical
probability (per unit time
interval) that a photon can be
detected in any small volume
centered on that point.
Wave Function
• Wavefunction solution to Schrödinger equation:
Amplitude

Displacement Oscillating term

 
Depends on Phase
position and time Angular wave
number = 2/ Angular Frequency
= 2/T = 2𝜈
= Probability to find a particle at a given time and at certain location
Vibrations and Waves
• A wave is defined as a disturbance that is self-sustained and propagates in
space with a constant speed.
• Waves can be classified in the following three categories:
• Mechanical waves. These involve motions that are governed by Newton’s laws and
can exist only within a material medium such as air, water, rock, etc. Common
examples are: sound waves, seismic waves, etc.
• Electromagnetic waves; ie light (photon). These waves involve propagating
disturbances in the electric and magnetic field governed by Maxwell’s equations.
They do not require a material medium in which to propagate but they travel
through vacuum. Common examples are: radio waves of all types, visible, infra-red,
and ultra-violet light, x-rays, gamma rays. All electromagnetic waves propagate in
vacuum with the same speed c = 300,000 km/s.
• Matter waves. All moving microscopic particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons,
atoms etc have a wave associated with them.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• Classical physics: deterministic (Newton’s law)
• The equation of motion with a given forces can be solved to give precise
position and momentum.
• Future motion can be predicted exactly.
• Quantum physics: in-deterministic
• Can not simultaneously measure the exact position and momentum, as
limited by:

 - de broglie wavelength
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
ℏ
• Momentum and position:
• = uncertainty in a particle’s position along the direction
• = uncertainty in the x component of the linear momentum of the particle
ℏ
• Energy and time
• = uncertainty in the energy of a particle when the particle is in a certain
state
• = time interval during which the particle is in the state

 - de broglie wavelength
Matter Waves
• Classical
• Wave: not localized; to
• Classical particle: localized
• QUANTUM: particle & wave = WAVE
PACKET
• The superposition of a large number of
waves, which interfere constructively in the
vicinity of the particle, giving the resultant
wave a large amplitude, and interfere
destructively far from the particle, so that
the resultant wave has a small amplitude in
region where we don’t expect to find the
 - de broglie wavelength
particle.
Matter waves
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 + Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡
• where
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = sin 2𝜋 𝜅𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = sin 2𝜋 𝜅 + 𝑑𝜅 𝑥 − 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 𝑡
• Now,
𝐴−𝐵 𝐴+𝐵
sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵 = 2 cos sin
2 2
• Applying this to the case at hand, we have
𝑑𝜅 𝑑𝑣 2𝜅 + 𝑑𝜅 2𝑣 − 𝑑𝑣
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2 cos 2𝜋 𝑥− 𝑡 sin 2𝜋 𝑥− 𝑡
2 2 2 2
• Since 𝑑𝑣 ≪ 2𝑣 and 𝑑𝜅 ≪ 2𝜅, this is
𝑑𝜅 𝑑𝑣
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2 cos 2𝜋 𝑥− 𝑡 sin 2𝜋 𝜅𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
2 2

Modulated to form an envelope of periodically varying amplitude Wavefunction

Particle-Wave packet

𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑

𝒑  Energy of the particle – frequency of the de broglie wave

𝒑  Momentum of the particle – wavelength of the de broglie wave

𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆

The particle & wave packet move together-whenever the particle

goes, its de Broglie wave packet moves along with it like a shadow.
Schrödinger’s Equation
• Localization of a wave can be accomplished by using a WAVE PACKET
• Wave function represent a complex function in the form ;
and are real number, imaginary value
• The space and time variable could be grouped separately
∗
(Probability Density)
• where, ∗ is complex conjugate
• It represent the probability of finding the particle in a given unit volume and time
• Because the e- has to have a probability of unity of being observed somewhere
along the screen, we integrate the probability density over all space by
integrating over ranges from to → NORMALIZATION
Written Notes
Quantized Energy
• The quantized wave number now becomes: 𝑘 = = ħ
ħ
• Solving for the energy yields 𝐸 = 𝑛 where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … or 𝐸 = 𝑛
• Note that the energy depends on the integer values of n. Hence the energy is quantized and non-
zero.
ħ
• The special case of n = 1 is called the ground state energy. 𝐸 =

Imagine a 3-D probability distribution function!

Finite Square-Well Potential

• The finite square-well potential is

ħ
• The Schrödinger equation outside the finite well in regions I and III is − = 𝐸 − 𝑉 or

using 𝛼 = yields =𝛼 𝜓
ħ

• Considering that the wave function must be zero at infinity, the solutions for this equation are

 Finiteness
 Single-valuedness
 Continuity
Finite Square-Well Solution
• Inside the square well, where the potential
V is zero, the wave equation becomes
where
ħ
• Instead of a sinusoidal solution we have

• The boundary conditions require that

, and
that the wave function must be smooth
where the regions meet.
• Note that the wave function is nonzero
outside of the box.
Penetration Depth
• The penetration depth is the distance outside the potential well
where the probability significantly decreases. It is given by

• It should not be surprising to find that the penetration distance that

violates classical physics is proportional to Planck’s constant.
Three-Dimensional Infinite-Potential Well
• The wave function must be a function of all three spatial coordinates. We begin
with the conservation of energy,
• Multiply this by the wave function to get

• Now consider momentum as an operator acting on the wave function. In this

case, the operator must act twice on each dimension. Given:

• The three dimensional Schrödinger wave equation is

Degeneracy
• Analysis of the Schrödinger wave equation in three dimensions
introduces three quantum numbers that quantize the energy.
• A quantum state is degenerate when there is more than one wave
function for a given energy.
• Degeneracy results from particular properties of the potential energy
function that describes the system. A perturbation of the potential
energy can remove the degeneracy.
Simple Harmonic Oscillator
• Simple harmonic oscillators describe many physical situations:
springs, diatomic molecules and atomic lattices.

• Consider the Taylor expansion of a potential function:

• Redefining the minimum potential and the zero potential, we

have

• Substituting this into the wave equation:

• Let and which yields

ℏ ℏ
Parabolic Potential Well

• If the lowest energy level is zero, this violates the uncertainty principle.
• The wave function solutions are where are Hermite
polynomials of order .
• In contrast to the particle in a box, where the oscillatory wave function is a
sinusoidal curve, in this case the oscillatory behavior is due to the polynomial,
which dominates at small x. The exponential tail is provided by the Gaussian
function, which dominates at large x.
Analysis of the Parabolic Potential Well

• The energy levels are given by

1 𝜅 1
𝐸 = 𝑛+ ℏ = 𝑛+ ℏ𝜔
2 𝑚 2
• The zero point energy is called the Heisenberg limit:
1
𝐸 = ℏ𝜔
2
• Classically, the probability of finding the mass is greatest at the
ends of motion and smallest at the center (that is, proportional
to the amount of time the mass spends at each position).
• Contrary to the classical one, the largest probability for this
lowest energy state is for the particle to be at the center.
The Parabolic Potential Well
• The wave function solutions are
where are Hermite
polynomials of order n.
The Parabolic

Potential Well
• Classically, the probability of finding the
 mass is greatest at the ends of motion
and smallest at the center.
• Contrary to the classical one, the largest
probability for this lowest energy state
is for the particle to be at the center.



Analysis of the Parabolic Potential Well
As the quantum number increases, however, the solution
approaches the classical result.

1/v
The Parabolic Potential Well
The energy levels are given by:

The zero point

energy is
called the
Heisenberg
limit:
Barriers and Tunneling
• Consider a particle of energy approaching
a potential barrier of height V0 and the
potential everywhere else is zero.
• We will first consider the case when the
energy is greater than the potential barrier.
• In regions I and III the wave numbers are:

ℏ
• In the barrier region we have

ℏ
Reflection and Transmission
• The wave function will consist of an incident wave, a reflected wave, and a transmitted wave.
• The potentials and the Schrödinger wave equation for the three regions are as follows:
𝑑 𝜓 2𝑚
Region I x < 0 ; V = 0; + 𝐸𝜓 = 0
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
𝑑 𝜓 2𝑚
Region II 0 < x < L ; V = V ; + (𝐸 − 𝑉 )𝜓 = 0
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
𝑑 𝜓 2𝑚
Region III x > L ; V = 0; + 𝐸𝜓 = 0
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
• The corresponding solutions are:
Region I x < 0 ; 𝜓 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒
Region II 0 < x < L ; 𝜓 = 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐷𝑒
Region III x > L ; 𝜓 = 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐺𝑒
• As the wave moves from left to right, we can simplify the wave functions to:
Incident wave; 𝜓 (𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒
Reflected wave; 𝜓 (𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑) = 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐷𝑒
Transmitted wave; 𝜓 (𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑) = 𝐹𝑒
Probability of Reflection and Transmission
• The probability of the particles being reflected R or transmitted T is:
∗

• Because the particles must be either reflected or transmitted we have: .

• By applying the boundary conditions , and , we arrive at the
transmission probability:

• Notice that there is a situation in which the transmission probability is 1.

Tunneling
• Now we consider the situation where classically the
particle does not have enough energy to surmount the
potential barrier, 𝐸 < 𝑉 .
• The quantum mechanical result, however, is one of the
most remarkable features of modern physics, and there is
ample experimental proof of its existence. There is a small,
but finite, probability that the particle can penetrate the
barrier and even emerge on the other side.
• The wave function in region II becomes 𝜓 = 𝐶𝑒 +
√( ( )
𝐷𝑒 where 𝜅 = ℏ
• The transmission probability that describes the
phenomenon of tunneling is
𝑉 sinh (𝜅𝐿)
𝑇= 1+
4𝐸(𝐸 − 𝑉 )
Uncertainty Explanation
• Consider when then the transmission probability becomes:
•
√( ( )
• with where
ℏ
Analogy with Wave Optics
• If light passing through a glass prism reflects from an
internal surface with an angle greater than the critical angle,
total internal reflection occurs. However, the
electromagnetic field is not exactly zero just outside the
prism. If we bring another prism very close to the first one,
experiments show that the electromagnetic wave (light)
appears in the second prism The situation is analogous to
the tunneling described here. This effect was observed by
Newton and can be demonstrated with two prisms and a
laser. The intensity of the second light beam decreases
exponentially as the distance between the two prisms
increases.
Potential Well
• Consider a particle passing through a potential well
region rather than through a potential barrier.
• Classically, the particle would speed up passing the
well region, because 𝐾 = = 𝐸 + 𝑉
• According to quantum mechanics, reflection and
transmission may occur, but the wavelength inside
the potential well is smaller than outside. When
the width of the potential well is precisely equal to
half-integral or integral units of the wavelength,
the reflected waves may be out of phase or in
phase with the original wave, and cancellations or
resonances may occur. The reflection/cancellation
effects can lead to almost pure transmission or
pure reflection for certain wavelengths. For
example, at the second boundary (𝑥 = 𝐿) for a
wave passing to the right, the wave may reflect
and be out of phase with the incident wave. The
effect would be a cancellation inside the well.