INTERACT WITH

AS
Physics
EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL A LEVELS

UNIT 1
TOPIC 1 MECHANICS

An interactive revision guide for Edexcel IAL Physics

Written for the updated 2018 syllabus

Designed for iPad

Charles Brierley B.Eng.

© Physics4U.net April 2020
Working as a Physicist
Chapter 1 Before starting this course, you should be able to:

Working as a 1.1 Quantities, Units & Symbols

Physicist
1.1.1 Base quantities & units
• distinguish between quantities and units.
• recall the seven base quantities.
1.1.2 Derived quantities & units
• to reduce a derived unit to its base unit
equivalents.
This section covers the background skills and 1.1.3 Unit prefixes
the understanding of practical techniques which • be familiar with unit prefixes from pico at one
you will need in order to progress smoothly extreme to tera at the other.
through the AS syllabus.
1.2 Practical Skills
1.2.1 Measurements & uncertainties
• be aware of uncertainties in all measurements.
• understand the difference between precision and
accuracy.
• estimate uncertainties in measurements.
• distinguish between systematic and random
errors.
• calculate percentage uncertainties in
measurements.
• determine percentage difference between result
and accepted values.
• to choose appropriate measuring instruments.
1.2.2 Criticise results tables
Symbols Used In This Book
Click on this and you will see a list of the Click on this symbol and you will be taken
syllabus content for the section you are in. to a video clip from the excellent A Level
Physics online site about the current topic.

After this symbol comes tips on ideas and

good practice. It is worth remembering these Click on this symbol and you will be taken
when attempting examination questions. to a Youtube video about the current topic.

Useful information comes after this This will take you to a relevant website,
i where you can find all manner of useful
symbol, like a reference to another part of the
information and fun activities to help
book, perhaps with a hyperlink to that section.
reinforce the ideas you are working on.

Key points are highlighted by being placed

Practice questions and answers can
in a pale blue box with this key at the top.
be found by clicking on these
symbols.
2
Section 1 . 1

Quantities, Units & Symbols

1.1.1 Base quantities & units

• A base quantity is something you can measure directly.

• There are seven base quantities. (We will not be concerned with the candela in this course.)

Base quantity Base unit Symbol

mass kilogram kg
length metre m
time second s
current ampere A
temperature Kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
light intensity candela cd

3
1.1.2 Derived quantities & units

• All other quantities can be derived from basic quantities.

• For example, speed is found by dividing length by time. The unit is also derived, namely metre per second or ms-1.

• The units we use are called S.I. units (système internationale)

• SI units must be used in equations, even though sometimes it is convenient to use other units, like cm instead of
m, or g instead of kg.

Derived quantity Derived unit Unit symbol Base unit equivalent

force newton N kg m s-2

energy joule J kg m2 s-2

power watt W kg m2 s-3

charge coulomb C As

voltage volt V kg m2 s-3 A-1

resistance ohm Ω kg m2 s-3 A-2

frequency hertz Hz s-1

4
• To find a quantity’s base unit equivalent, it is necessary to use a formula that involves the quantity and some base
quantities.

• For example, to put the joule (unit of energy) into base units, first write down an equation that resolves energy into
base quantities. This may take two equations or more to achieve.

Work done = F × d = m × a × d
Work done has units kg × ms −2 × m or kg m 2s −2

Examples:
F m× a
1. Pressure (Pascal) P= =
A A
kg × ms −2 −1 −2
Units are 2
or kg m s
m

RA VA EA FdA madA
2. Resistivity (Ω m) ρ= = = = =
l Il QIl QIl ItIl
kg × ms-2 × m × m 2
Units are or kg m 3 s −3A −2
A×s×A×m

5
1.1.3 Unit prefixes

• Very large or very small quantities are best expressed as powers of 10.

• 0.001 m is 1 mm or 1 x 10-3 m and 1000 m is 1 km or 1 x 103 m

• 0.00346234 is what your calculator says. Give the answer as 3.46 x 10-3 units if 3 sig. figs. is required.

• 136894637 is the answer on the calculator. Give your answer as 1.4 x 108 units if you need 2 sig. figs.

• We often use prefixes to denote powers of 10, (usually but not always in multiples of 1000).

Prefix Symbol Multiple Example

pico p 10-12 1 pF = 10-12 F

nano n 10-9 1 nm = 10-9 m

micro ! 10-6 1!s = 10-6 s

milli m 10-3 1 mA = 10-3 A

kilo k 103 1 kg = 103 g

mega M 106 1MJ = 106 J

giga G 109 1GW = 109 W

tera T 1012 1 THz = 1012 Hz

6
Section 1 . 2

Practical Skills
1.2.1 Measurements & uncertainties

• Every measurement we take is subject to an error, or Line-of-sight or

uncertainty. parallax error.

Keep eye straight above

• An instrument with a scale is accurate to ± one
smallest division, so a ruler reads to the nearest bar to be measured end of bar.
millimetre.

• A digital meter is probably accurate to ± one smallest

digit.

• A stopwatch may be accurate to 0.01 s according to

the readout, but beware, your reaction time when
starting and stopping the watch may be as large as
0.2 seconds each time.

Keep eye level with the meniscus

and read from the bottom.

7
The difference between precision and accuracy

8
Systematic errors

• If a voltmeter is not zeroed correctly, ALL measurements taken with it are going to be too big or small by that
amount.

• If the wind is blowing when an archer shoots at a target, all his arrows may be off target by a similar amount.

• If you time something with a stopwatch, all your measurements are subject to similar reaction time errors.

• Measurements of nuclear radiation need to be corrected for background radiation or they will all be slightly too big.

• You may get PRECISE but not ACCURATE results. Systematic errors must be accounted for. This can often be
done by checking for zero errors on the measuring instrument.

Random errors

• Often a measurement is subject to a random uncertainty. These may be caused by measuring instruments or
environmental factors.They cannot be accounted for.

• They can be reduced by repeating the measurement a number of times and taking an average.

• Repeats should always be taken where appropriate. Take three readings of each measurement and find the
average to reduce random errors.

9
Percentage Uncertainties

• The uncertainty in a measurement is its absolute uncertainty. For instance, length = 5.4 ± 0.1 cm.

• It is often more useful to present an uncertainty as a percentage of the measurement.

• Measurement is 5.4 ± 0.1 cm

⎛ 0.1 ⎞
= 5.4 cm ± ⎜ × 100⎟ %
⎝ 5.4 ⎠
= 5.4 cm ± 1.85
= 5.4 cm ± 2%

•The larger the measurement, the smaller is the percentage uncertainty.

i •In the A2 course, it is necessary to combine uncertainties. The rules are simple:

•Adding measurements, like the sides of a rectangle, add the absolute uncertainties.

• Multiplying or dividing measurements, like finding the volume of a cube, add the percentage
uncertainties.

• Raising the measurement to a power, such as volume of a sphere, multiply the percentage uncertainty
by the power.

10
How close is close?

• It is often necessary to compare your experimental result with an accepted value.

your result- accepted value
The percentage difference is found from × 100%, to give a positive value.
accepted value

The right tool for the job.

• A length greater than 5-10 cm - a metre rule accurate to ± 1 mm is sufficient.

• Less than 5 cm and Vernier callipers are better, accurate to ± 0.1 mm.

• Less than about 1 cm and a micrometer should be used, accurate to ± 0.01 mm.

• If available, digital callipers are good for small lengths or thicknesses as they may be accurate to ± 0.01 mm too.

11
Be consistent Reaction times

• A measurement and its uncertainty must be • When using a digital stopwatch, the accuracy of the
consistent. watch is greater than the reaction time of the user.

• A measured time quoted as 9.4 ±0.01 s is not • Say your reaction time is 0.3 s.
consistent. The measurement should be 9.40 ±0.01 s.
• A time of 5.46 ± 0.3 s must be quoted as 5.5 ± 0.3 s
• Be careful of significant figures. 3 s.f is usually plenty
so that the uncertainty and the measurement are to
and often 2 is enough.
the same precision.
• As a rule, only give an answer to the same number of
sig. figs. as the smallest number in your data.

• Watch out! 920 might be 3 s.f. but it may only be 2.

• 0.92 is definitely 2 s.f. but 0.920 is 3.

When measuring thin wires of thin sheets, take three measurements at different places and
calculate an average.

Always repeat a measurement three times if possible and average again.

If the measurement is repetitive, like a swinging pendulum, measure 10 swings and divide time by 10.
Absolute uncertainty is divided by 10 too.

12
1.2.2 Criticise results tables

Length (m) Time for 10 swings (s) Time for 1 swing (s)

0.1 6.28 0.63

0.2 8.9 0.90

How to measure
0.6 15.42 1.542 the acceleration
of gravity.
0.7 16.7 1.67

0.75 54.69 5.5

• In an experiment to measure the period of a pendulum, the following results were taken:

•The range of lengths is fair, but there is a large gap between 0.2 and 0.6 m

•The lengths are given to an insufficient and inconsistent number of sig. figs.

•The times for 10 swings are given to an inconsistent degree of accuracy. You could argue that the hundredth
second is unreliable, since reaction time should preclude it.

•The times for 1 swing should be given to 2 decimal places, since dividing the time for 10 swings by 10 makes each
time 10 times more accurate.

13
Chapter 1 .3

Video Library
1.3.1 Links to useful videos
1. Percentage uncertainties in gradient 10. Parallax error.

2. Percentage difference between values. 11. Results tables.

3. Experimental variables. 12. Light gates and data loggers.

4. Control variables and fair tests. Video Clip 1.3.1 Errors and uncertainties

5. Common control variables.

6. Anomalous results.

7. Results tables for log values.

8. Drawing graphs.

9. Gradients and y-intercepts.

14
2. Topic 1A: Motion
Chapter 2 For this topic, you should be able to:

Topic 1 Mechanics 2.1 Velocity & Acceleration

2.1.1 Quantities, units & symbols
• recall the symbols and units normally used in A
1A Motion Level Physics.
2.1.2 Definitions & equations
• use the equations for velocity and acceleration.
2.2 Motion Graphs
2.2.1 Displacement-time graphs
• to draw and interpret displacement-time graphs
• know the physical quantities derived from the
slopes and areas of displacement- time, including
cases of non-uniform acceleration and understand
how to use the quantities.
2.2.2 Velocity-time graphs
• velocity-time graphs.
• know the physical quantities derived from the
slopes and areas of velocity-time and
acceleration-time graphs, including cases of non-
uniform acceleration and understand how to use
the quantities.
2.3 Scalars & Vectors - Adding Forces
2.3.1 Scalars & vectors
• understand scalar and vector quantities and know
examples of each type of quantity and recognise
vector notation.
Section 2 . 1

Velocity & Acceleration

2.1.1 Quantities, units & symbols 2.1.2 Definitions & equations

In A Level we use the following quantities and •Distance is how far an object has moved.
symbols:
•Displacement is where the object is in relation to
1. Distance or displacement  s  (m) where it started.
s
2. Initial speed or velocity  u  (ms-1) • Speed is the distance travelled in a given time. v=
t
3. Final speed or velocity  v  (ms-1)
Δs
• Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. v=
4. Acceleration  a  (ms-2) Δt

5. Time  t  (s)
• Acceleration is the change of velocity in a given time.
We often refer to questions involving these
quantities as suvat problems.
a=
( v − u)
t
Δv
a=
Δt

16
Section 2 . 2

Motion Graphs
2.2.1 Displacement-time graphs

displacement
• A displacement- time graph could have negative parts
if the object moved behind its point of origin. Slope =
velocity at
• The velocity of the object at an instant is found from that

the slope of the line. Δs instant

Δs
• If the line is curved, find the tangent to the line at the
Δt Δt
relevant point.
time

displacement
Slope =
velocity at
Δs that
instant
Δs
Δt Δt
time

17
velocity
2.2.2 Velocity-time graphs • The distance
travelled by an
• Velocity-time graphs are more informative. object can be
found from the
• The velocity becomes negative if the object moves area under the
backwards.
velocity-time area = distance travelled

• The acceleration of the object at an instant is found graph.

from the slope of the line. time
• If the line is a curve, the area can be estimated
by adding together the squares on the graph paper,
taking into account what distance each square
represents.
velocity

Slope =
acceleration acceleration approaching zero

velocity
at that
Δv instant
Δv
Δt Δt

time distance travelled

found by estimating the
number of centimetre

sin on
ea ti
g
squares under the line
velocity

cr era
de cel
ac
Slope =
acceleration at
Δs that instant

Δv time

Δt Δt
time

18
Section 2 . 3

Scalars & Vectors - Adding Forces

2.3.1 Scalars & vectors 2.3.2 Combining vectors 1

• A scalar quantity simply has size or magnitude. • Suppose a boat is being rowed across a river at 2 ms-1.

• Examples are mass, pressure, energy, distance, • And the river is flowing at 1 ms-1 to the right.
speed.
• The boat will be affected by both motions.
• A vector has both magnitude and direction.

• Examples are displacement, velocity, acceleration, boat

force, momentum.
river

• Vectors cannot be simply combined like numbers.

• Two vectors acting at right angles can be combined

using Pythagoras’ theorem.

• If they are not at right angles, then a scale drawing is

the simplest way to combine them.

19
1.Draw two lines to scale to represent the two 2.3.3 Combining vectors 2
velocities of the boat and the river.
• A plane is fling due north at 120 ms-1.
2.Put the nose of the first vector up the tail of the
second vector. • The wind is blowing to the north-east at 60 ms-1.

3.The resultant vector goes from start to finish. • Same procedure as before.

4.Measure with a ruler to find magnitude of • Be careful to get the angle right.
resultant and protractor to find the angle.
• Measure the plane’s direction here.
5.Alternatively use Pythagoras and trig.
• We can use this process for
displacement, velocity, force
river 45°
and momentum vectors.
d
in
w
boat

mo ltant
t io n
Adding vectors is like two

resu
plane
n t
ot an

dogs meeting.
m sult
io

Put the nose of the first up the

re

tail of the second.

The resultant is start to finish.

20
Section 2 . 4

Moments
perpendicular distance d
2.4.1 Definition of a moment
from force to pivot

• The word moment has a very specific meaning

in Physics. It not a short interval of time.

• A moment is defined as the magnitude of a

force multiplied by the perpendicular distance Force F
turning point
between the line of action of he force and the or
turning point. pivot

M= F ×d

• Very often, the distance is simply measured from

where the force acts to the pivot. pe
rp
e
• But the force could act at an angle. f r nd
o
m icu
fo la
rc r d Force F
e i
to sta
pi nc
vo e
t d

21
2.4.2 The principle of moments The principle states:

• Any child knows that it is not just a matter of size

when trying to balance a seesaw. It also depends on The sum of all clockwise
how far each person is sitting from the pivot in the
moments about a point is equal to the
middle.
sum of all anti-clockwise moments about the

distance d same point.

2
distance d 1

There may be more than one moment on each side of

the pivot.

It is the moments that balance NOT just the forces.

W
1
∑ ∑
M = M
W2 clockwise anticlockwise
• The principle of moments states how ⇒ W1 × d1 = W2 × d 2
balance or rotational equilibrium is achieved.   Mc1 + Mc2 + . . . = Mac1 + Mac2 + . . .

22
2.4.3 Centre of gravity • To find the centre of gravity of an irregular shape,
suspend it from one edge.

• Hang a weight from a string so that it can lie vertically

The centre of gravity of an against the shape.
object is a place in or near an object
• Draw a line to
from which its weight can be considered to
show where the
act. string was.

• it is often quite obvious where the centre of

gravity (or centre of mass) is, but not always.

• Repeat for two more

positions of the suspended
shape.
centre
• The centre of gravity
is where the three lines of gravity
cross.

centre of gravity

23
Section 2 . 5

Newton’s Laws Of Motion

2.5.1 Newton’s 1st law of motion • The important word here is
resultant.

N1 states that an object remains in a • Two or more forces may act

on an object and it not
state of rest or in uniform motion in a
move if the forces are all
straight line unless acted upon by a resultant force.
balanced.
Sir Isaac Newton
Or to put it more simply:
• A book on a table has a weight downwards and
No resultant force means no change in motion. a contact force upwards of equal size. The
book remains at rest.

• A car moving at steady speed along the

• If a car is at rest, it will stay at rest unless a resultant motorway requires a force from the engine equal
force acts. in size and opposite in direction to the air
resistance force in order to remain at the same
• If a car is moving, it will keep moving in a straight line
speed.
at constant speed unless a resultant force acts.
• A ship in outer space, far from gravitational
• Two equally-matched tug-of-war teams will not move
forces, moves in a straight line at constant speed
either way as there is no resultant force acting.
without the rockets needing to burn.

24
2.5.2 Newton’s 2nd law of motion 2.5.3 Free body force diagrams

For Laws 1 and 2, free body force diagrams help to

N2 states that if a resultant force determine which law applies. The object is drawn on its
does act on an abject, it will accelerate own and the forces acting are drawn to scale.

In other words:
contact
a resultant force causes an object’s motion to force

change.

table
∑
F = ma
weight equal
and
opposite
• A book held above the table will have an
unbalanced force acting on it due to its weight air resistance engine
and so will accelerate towards the ground.

• A car slows down if air resistance is greater than

the force from the engine. It has a negative
acceleration.
air resistance bigger than engine force
• A car going round a corner at a constant speed
is accelerating since its direction is changing.
An unbalanced force due to friction between
tyres and road must exist to make this happen.

25
• Force is an example of a vector. Interactive 2.5.1 A girl on a swing.

• Clearly, direction is important when considering

forces.

• Free-body force diagrams can simplify situations.

• A single object is drawn isolated from everything else

and the forces which act on it are drawn to scale at
the the points where they act.

• The resultant force can then be determined.

1. Consider a child on a swing.

2. The child and swing are considered as one point

object and the forces act through the centre of
gravity.

There are two forces acting:

a. the child’s weight and that of the swing

N1 can be considered to be merely
b. the tension in the chain supporting the swing. a special case of N2, where ΣF = 0
3. The resultant force is the vector sum of these two and so the acceleration is zero.
forces.

26
2.5.4. Newton’s 3rd law of motion • You push off from the side of a pool in a boat. The
pool pushes back on you equally. You move because
Newton’s 3rd law can be hard to get your head the pool cannot.
around.
• A falling book is pulled on by the gravity of the earth.
The earth is pulled back with an equal gravity force
N3 states that for every force due to the book, but the earth’s motion is not
(action), there is an equal and observable.
opposite force (reaction).

Or to put it a simpler way,

If A pushes on B, then B pushes on A equally. • With Laws 1 and 2:

The forces are different in type acting on the

But if there is always an equal but opposite force, same body.
how can anything ever accelerate???
The resultant force is the vector sum of all the
Simple! The forces act on different objects, never forces and determines whether equilibrium exists
the same object. or not.

Remember, if A pushes on B, then B pushes on A • With Law 3:

with the same force.
The forces are the same type acting on different
• You push backwards on the floor with your feet, bodies. They are also equal in size and opposite in
the floor pushes forwards on you equally. You direction.
move forwards because the floor cannot move
backwards.

27
Section 2 . 6

Kinematics Equations
2.6.1 The suvat equations 2.6.2 Examples:

• The following equations can be used to solve A toy car rolls from rest down a slope with a constant
problems involving motion in a straight line acceleration of 1.5 ms-2.
where the acceleration is constant.
a) What speed will it be travelling at after 2.6 s?
• These are sometimes referred to as the suvat
Identify each of the suvat letters and write them down.
equations.

s u v a t
v = u + at
x 0 ? 1.5 2.6
1 2
s = ut + at
2 • We are not concerned with displacement s, so write x.
For symbol v 2 = u 2 + 2as • Choose appropriate equation to use:  v = u + at
definitions,
⎛ v + u⎞
click here. s=⎜ ⎟ t • Substitute the data and calculate answer:
⎝ 2 ⎠
v = u + at
v = 0 + (1.5 × 2.6 ) = 3.9 ms −1

28
b) How far will it have travelled in this time? • We could do it this way, but it is a little more complex:

Choose equation to find s. There is a choice of two v 2 = u 2 + 2as

now, but pick the simpler, if possible.
⇒ 3.92 = 0 + ( 2 × 1.5s )
1 2 3.92
s = ut + at ⇒ s = = 5.1 m
2
2 × 1.5
1
⇒ s = 0 + × 1.5 × 2.62 = 5.1 m
2

We shall be using these equations a lot when dealing with

motion in two dimensions.

Be aware of the directions of velocities and accelerations.

Choose a direction to be positive and be consistent.

If velocity is upwards, but acceleration is downwards, just make the

acceleration negative.

Check out the next example.

29
2.6.3 Vertical motion under gravity • Choose upwards as the positive direction.

• The acceleration of gravity will be negative.

A boy throws a ball vertically into the air.

It leaves his hands at 15.5 ms-1. s u v a t

a) How high does the ball go? x 15.5 ms-1 0 -9.8 ms-2 ?
b) How long is it in the air?
v2 = u2 + 2as
• Once the ball has left the boy’s hands, the only
force acting on it its weight due to gravity. ⇒ 0 = 15.52 − ( 2 × 9.8 × s) since a is gravity
⇒ 0 = 240.25 −19.6s
• Throughout its flight, both up and down, the
⇒ 19.6s = 240.25
acceleration of the ball always be 9.8 ms-2
towards the ground. ⇒ s = 12.3 m

• It will be slowing down on its upwards journey

• For part b), choose half the journey, either going up or
and then accelerating towards the ground on its
coming back down, each takes the same amount of time.
way down.
• Repeat suvat to find the time and double it.
• Because the acceleration is always constant, this
is a suvat question.
v = u + at
⇒ 0 = 15.5 − 9.8 × tup
• As always, write out the letters, substitute the
⇒ 9.8tup = 15.5
data and choose the appropriate equation to
solve the problem. ⇒ tup = 1.58 s
⇒ ttotal = 2 × 1.58 = 3.2 s

30
Section 2 . 7

Resolving Vectors
2.7.1 Finding components

• Two vectors at right angles can easily be

combined to produce a resultant.

• Put the nose of the first up the tail of the second.

• The resultant goes from start to finish.

+ =
• See section 2.3.1.

• The reverse is true, so a single vector can be

split, or resolved, into two components at right
angles to each other.

• The choice of the first direction to resolve in is

yours.
=
• The second component must be at right angles
+
to the first.

31
2.7.2 An inclined plane

• A block on a frictionless inclined plane or slope experiences an unbalanced force

θ
si n
down the slope.

W
W

co
• This unbalanced force makes the block accelerate down the slope.

s
θ
• This the component of the block’s weight down the slope.

• The steeper the slope, the bigger the angle θ becomes, the
greater is the component of the block’s weight down the weight W
θ
slope.

• Ultimately, when θ = 90°, all of the weight acts down the slope .

• Sin 90° = 1, so W sin θ = W.

• If this happens when θ increases, the component is found from sine of the angle.

• The other component, which must be at right angles to the first, is the component of the block’s weight which
holds the block on to the slope.

• As angle θ increases, this component decreases.

• When θ = 90°, none of the block’s weight holds the block on to the slope.

• Cos 90° = 0 and W cos θ = 0.

• If this happens when θ increases, the component is found from cosine of the angle.

32
2.7.3 Resolving force vectors Tension T Tension T

• Consider a basket of washing, mass 5 kg, hanging

from a clothes line. 10° 10°

• The line makes an angle of 10° to the

horizontal.

• The point where the basket is suspended is at rest so

by Newton’s 1st law, it must be in both vertical and
5 kg
horizontal equilibrium.

• As the angle increases, less and less of the tension in 5 x 9.81 N

the washing line acts horizontally.

• Therefore the horizontal component of the tension in

• The horizontal components are the same as the
the clothes line is T cos 10°.
angles are both 10°. Therefore equilibrium, since
• However, as the angle increases, more of the tension
T cos10 = T cos10
acts vertically.
• Vertically, the weight of the basket is balance by the
• Therefore the vertical component of the tension is
vertical components of tension, so
T sin 10°.
⇒ W = 2T sin10
• Because there is tension in the line on both sides of
the hanging basket, the weight of the washing basket W 49
⇒T = = = 140 N
is balanced by two vertical components of tension. 2sin10 0.347

33
Section 2 . 8

Projectiles
2.8.1 What is projectile motion

• A projectile is any object whose motion is

determined ONLY by its own weight.

• We normally ignore air resistance.

• A projectile’s motion is split into two independent

parts: •A projectile may be fired at an angle θ to the
1. Accelerated vertical motion due to gravity horizontal.

2. Constant horizontal motion without air resistance • If its velocity is v0, then its

• These two separate motions are connected by the 1. Horizontal velocity component is v0 cosθ .
time-of-flight.
2. Vertical velocity component is v0 sin θ .
• If the range R is required, use the vertical motion to
find the time-of-flight.
To find time-of-flight from vertical motion, it

• If the height reached H is needed, use the horizontal is often simpler to find the time to reach

motion to find the time-of-flight. maximum height H and then double it.   

34
2.8.2 Worked example The key to solving this type of

Problem problem is to remember that we can

A rugby ball is kicked at a velocity of 20 ms-1 and at treat the vertical and horizontal
an angle of 35° to the horizontal.
motions completely separately.
1. Find the time for which the ball is in the air.
The vertical motion is accelerated motion,
2. How far away from the kicker does the ball land?
where the acceleration is always due to

•A projectile follows a path called gravity.

a parabola.
The horizontal motion is constant, if we
• It is symmetrical, so going up is exactly the are able to ignore air resistance.
same as coming down.

• Range increases up to an angle of 45° and

20 ms -1
then decreases again.
20 sin 35°

height h

20 cos 35°
35°

range R

35
• The ultimate aim of this question is to find the
horizontal range of the ball. s u v a t
• So we need to use the vertical motion to find x 20 sin35 ms-1 0 -9.8 ms-2 ?
the time of flight, which always links the two
motions together.
v = u + at
• Then we can use this time to find how far ⇒ 0 = 20sin35 −9.81t
horizontally the ball goes.
⇒ 9.81 t = 20sin35
Solution 20sin35 11.47
⇒ t = = = 1.17s
• The initial vertical velocity is 20sin35 ms-1.
9.81 9.81
• This is to the top of its flight, so double it to get total time-of-
• The final speed at the top of its flight is zero. flight of 2.34 s.
• The acceleration is always 9.81 ms-2 towards the • Now use constant horizontal motion to find range.
ground, so negative.
• The horizontal component of motion is  20cos35 = 16.4 ms-1
• Use suvat to choose the right equation to find
the time-of-flight, t. • The ball lands s = ut  = 16.4 × 2.34 = 38.3 m from the kicker.

• Having found t, use constant motion with a

horizontal velocity of 20cos35 ms-1 to find how far
the ball goes in time t.

36
3. Topic 1B: Energy
Chapter 3 For this topic, you should be able to:

Topic 1 Mechanics 3.1 Gravitational & Kinetic Energies

3.1.1 Gravitational potential energy
• Identify and calculate values for gravitational
1B Energy potential energy using the equation EG = mgh.
3.1.2 Kinetic energy
• Identify and calculate values for kinetic energy
mv 2
using the equation EK = .
2
3.1.3 Energy transfer
• Recognise that GPE is being transferred to KE
and/or other way round and calculate unknowns
by equating the equations for both energies.
3.2 Work & Power
3.2.1 Doing Work
• be able to use the equation for work ΔW = FΔs.
3.2.2 Forces at an angle
• understand that work done is the same
irrespective of route taken.
3.2.3 Useful work done
• calculate useful done from the component of
applied force in the direction of movement ×
distance travelled.
3.2.4 Power
• be able to use the equations relating power, time
E
and energy transferred or work done P = and
t
Section 3 . 1

Gravitational & Kinetic Energies

3.1.1 Gravitational potential energy 3.1.2 Kinetic energy

• Gravitational potential energy, or Eg for short, is • Any object that is moving possesses kinetic
the energy an object possesses by being vertically energy.
higher than it was.
• Both mass and speed determine the amount of
• It is always the vertical increase in the object’s EK the object may have.
position that is used to calculate Eg.
• Like all energies, EK is a scalar measured in
• If an object descends a vertical distance, it loses Eg. Joules.

• The height has to be close to the Earth’s surface so

that g does not change significantly.

Eg = mgh J mv 2
EK = J
2
m = mass in kg g = gravity
m = mass in kg v = speed in ms-1
h = vertical height in m

38
3.1.3 Energy transfer For an object travelling at speed
v and rising a vertical height h:
• It is very common for Eg to change into Ek and
EG = E K
back again.
in practice mv 2
⇒ mgh =
2
v2
⇒ h=
2g
• In the absence of air resistance or other damping
effects, EG can be converted to EK and back again.
• Notice the mass of the object cancels and so makes
• This is often a useful way to analyse a situation.
no difference.

For an object falling a vertical height h: in theory

E K = EG

mv 2
⇒ = mgh 5. if no energy
2 is lost, ball returns
to same height
maximum speed

⇒ v = 2gh at botto m

height h
1. ball has GPE 4. all KE converte d
and is released back to GPE.

2. ball loses some

GPE but gains KE
3. all GPE
converted to KE 39
Section 3 . 2

Work & Power

3.2.1 Doing work 3.2.2 Forces at an angle

Work is done when a force • A ramp into the back of a lorry enables a piano to be
loaded more easily, rather than lifting it straight in.
moves through a distance.
• The same amount of work is done in both cases, as
ΔW = FΔs
the piano gains the same amount of EG either way.
F = force and Δs is the distance
• The force F needed to push the piano up the ramp (if
moved by the force.
there is no friction) is Wsinθ.

• The work done is therefore

mg sin θ × s

•This will be the same as mgh for

mg s the piano in the truck.
in θ

distance moved
height up ramp, s
θ gained, h
θ

weight mg 40
3.2.3 Useful work done

• Often, a force does not act in the direction the

object is moving.

• Such as when pushing a supermarket trolley or

lawnmower along.
? A man pushes a lawnmower with a 40N force
• In the diagram below, the useful work done is directed at an angle of 20 degree downward
the work done in moving the trolley along the from the horizontal.
supermarket floor.
Find the work done by the man as he cuts a
• Only the horizontal component of the applied strip of grass 20m long.
force, Fcosθ, contributes to this.

• The useful work done is W = Fcosθ × s.

Component of force acting in the direction of
movement is F = 40cos20 = 37.6 N.
F cos θ
θ Work done in cutting a 20 m strip of lawn is
therefore
Force F
W = F ×s
⇒ W = 37.6 × 20
⇒ W = 750 J

distance moved, s
41
3.2.4 Power Video Clip 3.2.1 Extreme truck power

• Power is the rate of doing work, how quickly

energy is transformed from one form to another.

W
P= Watts
t

• Another way of calculating power is by seeing

how fast a force is moving.

W
P=
t
FΔs
⇒ P=
t
⇒ P = Fv

It does not matter what route you take to go from one place to another, which is vertically
higher than the first:

you gain the same amount of gravitational potential energy

but you develop more power if you make the trip in a shorter time.

42
3.2.5 Powerful tips

• If a question refers to mass per second, for instance in the case of water through a pump or air through a wind
turbine, consider the changes in energy per second to calculate the power involved.

? What is the maximum theoretical power output of a turbine whose

blades are 100 m long when the wind speed is 11 m s-1?
100 m
Density of air = 1.2 kg m-3.

A Consider what happens in 1 second.

A cylinder of air of radius 100 m and length 11 m flows through the

turbine.

Its mass is the volume of this cylinder × density of air.

m = π × 1002 × 11 × 1.2 = 4.15 × 105 kg

mv 2
The kinetic energy of this air is given by EK = and this is the energy
2
which could be converted to electricity per second. In other words, the
power of the turbine.

4.15 × 105 × 112

So power will be P = = 25 MW.
2

43
3.2.6 Efficiency
? A mass of 5.4 kg is raised by an electric motor
• No machine can convert energy from one form to
from the floor through a height of 0.75 m in 2.6 s.
another without losing even a little bit, usually as heat.
The motor is rated at 25 W.

Calculate the efficiency of the

Efficiency is defined as
motor.
useful energy or power output
efficiency = × 100%
total energy or power input
A The gain in gravitational potential energy is
calculated by

Perpetual motion machines have been the EG = mgh = 5.4 × 9.8 × 0.75 = 40.0 J
ambition of inventors for a very long

time. A machine that never stops without

any energy being put into it, once it has started. The power developed by the motor is therefore

Any system will loses some energy, however small, E 40.0

P= = = 15.3 W
due to friction and air resistance.
t 2.6

Close to absolute zero, some of these limitations

So the efficiency is

become insignificant and perpetual motion does 15.3

Efficiency = × 100 = 61%
indeed seem to have been achieved. 25

But has it?

44
4. Topic 1C: Momentum
Chapter 4 For this topic, you should be able to:

Topic 1 Mechanics 4.1 Momentum

4.1.1 Momentum definition
• use equation for momentum of objects moving at
1C Momentum non-relativistic speeds.
4.1.2 Newton’s 2nd law
• recall that N2 is derived from principles of
momentum change.
4.1.3 Conservation of momentum
• recall that momentum is conserved in any given
direction, as long as no external forces act.
4.1.4 Video Gallery
• understand these examples of momentum and its
conservation.
4.1.5 Putting it all together
• explain he conditions under which energy and
momentum can be conserved.
4.1.6 Measuring the speed of a bullet
• apply conservation laws of energy and momentum
to determine an unknown quantity that would be
difficult to measure directly.
Section 4 . 1

Momentum
4.1.1 Momentum definition 4.1.2 Newton’s 2nd law

• Momentum is a property possessed by all • Newton actually defined a force as something that would
moving objects. It has the symbol p and is bring about a rate of change in an object’s momentum.
calculated by Δp
• So he said that F =
Δt
Δ(mv) mΔv
⇒ F = =
Δt Δt
p = mv ⇒

⇒ F =
mv − mu
=m
(v − u)
t Δt
⇒ F = ma
• and is measured in kg m/s.
• Rearranging slightly gives
• An object’s momentum therefore depends on its
Ft = mv − mu
mass and velocity.
⇒ Ft = Δp
• It is a vector quantity and so has size and
direction. • Ft , a force acting for a time, is an impulse and causes an
object's momentum to change.

46
4.1.3 Conservation of momentum 4.1.4 Video Gallery

• A collision is when objects come together. Check these out.

• An explosion is when objects fly apart.

Video Clip 4.1.2 Momentum Video Clip 4.1.3 N3 and
conservation in space explosions
• Conservation of momentum is a fundamental
conservation law in the universe. It is therefore
very powerful when it comes to analysing
systems of moving objects, both on a large scale
and a very small one.

The principle of conservation of

momentum states that the
momentum in any given direction
before and after a collision or explosion is the
same, provided no external forces act. Video Clip 4.1.1 Don’t try this at Video Clip 4.1.4 Do try this at
home! home!

i At AS, conserving momentum in a

single direction is enough. In A2, we
shall see how we can conserve
momentum in two directions in order to
analyse more complex situations.

47
4.1.5 Putting it all together 4.1.6 Measuring the speed of a bullet

• To summarise: • A technique for finding the speed of a bullet is to fire it

into a block, suspended by a string.
• Considerations of energy and momentum
allow us to analyse collisions and explosions. • The bullet becomes embedded in the block and they
both move together after the impact.
• We have to consider how or if energy and
momentum may be conserved in an interaction • After the impact, the block swings like a pendulum
between two objects. and the maximum height gained by the block is
measured, perhaps using a video to freeze the action
• Energy is always conserved in that it cannot be
when needed.
created or destroyed, but merely transferred
from one type to another.
maximum
• However, very often some energy is transferred height
to a non-useful form, such as heat through reached
friction, and we say energy is “lost”.

• Gravitational potential energy may be

+M
m
transferred entirely to kinetic energy when an
object is falling. The converse is true for an height h

object rising vertically. m

M m+M
• Momentum is always conserved in a collision
or explosion as long as no external forces act. velocity v velocity V
before after
collision collision
48
• To solve this problem and find the speed of the • Next we can conserve momentum during the
bullet before it hits the block, we work collision to find the initial velocity v of the bullet.
backwards from the end of the experiment.

• The gravitational energy gained by block and pbefore = pafter

bullet when it reaches its maximum height is ⇒ mv = ( m + M )V

EG = (m + M )gh
⇒ v =
( m + M )V
m
• The kinetic energy that the block and bullet
must have had immediately after the bullet hit • Finally, we substitute the earlier expression for V, to
the block is equal to this gravitational potential get our answer in terms of quantities we can
energy. measure.

• So we can find the velocity V of block and

bullet immediately after impact. v =
( m + M )V
m
EK = EG
1 ⇒ v =
(m + M ) 2gh
⇒
2
( m + M )V 2 = ( m + M ) gh m
⇒ V2 = 2gh
• If mass of bullet is 5g (0.005 kg), mass of block is
⇒ V = 2gh note ( m + M ) cancels
300 g (0.30 kg), and the maximum height reached
is 45 cm (0.45 m), then the speed of the bullet
works out to be 180 ms-1.

49
5. Practice questions & past papers
Chapter 5 When you have reached the end of this topic, you
should spend some time practising what you have
Practice Questions revised on as many questions as you can.

& Past Papers 5.1.1 Working as a physicist

Questions
Answers

5.1.2 Energy, work & power

Questions
Answers

5.1.3 Resolving & moments

Questions & answers

5.1.4 Work & power

Questions
Answers

5.1.5 Scalars & vectors

Scientific calculator
Questions
Answers
Section 5 . 1

Practice Questions

Motion and SUVAT Forces

Newton’s Laws Mechanics

Momentum Projectiles

51
Section 5 . 2

2017 Exam Session

52
Section 5 . 3

2018 Exam Session

53