FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS

Contents
UNIT 1. CONDUCTING MATERIAL _______________________________________________ 4
COMMONLY USED MATERIALS IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING _________________________ 4
COMMONLY USED RESISTORS ______________________________________________________________ 4
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE ALLOYS __________________________________________________________ 4
Manganin _____________________________________________________________________________ 7
Constantan or Eureka ___________________________________________________________________ 7
Nichrome _____________________________________________________________________________ 7
German silver or Nickel silver, or Mailechort, , Argentan, new silver, nickel brass, albata, alpacca, or
electrum ______________________________________________________________________________ 7
COMMONLY USED CONDUCTOR ____________________________________________________________ 8
COPPER: ______________________________________________________________________________ 8
ALUMINIUM: __________________________________________________________________________ 9
LEAD: ________________________________________________________________________________ 9

BAND STRUCTURE AND ENERGY GAP _______________________________________________ 9

FOR CONDUCTORS ______________________________________________________________________ 11
FOR INSULATORS _______________________________________________________________________ 11
FOR SEMICONDUCTORS __________________________________________________________________ 12

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES: RESISTIVITY, CONDUCTIVITY, EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ___ 12

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY _____________________________________________ 12

CONCEPT OF DRIFT AND MOBILITY _______________________________________________ 16

UNIT 2. MAGNETIC MATERIAL ________________________________________________ 17
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES ____________________________________________________________ 17
MAGNETIC FIELD _________________________________________________________________________ 17
MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY _________________________________________________________________ 18
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY (H) _____________________________________________________________ 20
MAGNETIC FLUX _________________________________________________________________________ 20
MAGNETIC POTENTIAL ____________________________________________________________________ 21
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (B) _______________________________________________________________ 21
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT _______________________________________________________________ 22
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN B AND H ___________________________________________________________ 23
MAGNETIZATION (M) _____________________________________________________________________ 23
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY _________________________________________________________________ 24
EDDY CURRENT __________________________________________________________________________ 25
Induction of eddy current: _______________________________________________________________ 25
Applications of eddy Current: ____________________________________________________________ 25
Eddy current Loss ______________________________________________________________________ 25
DOMAIN STRUCTURE _____________________________________________________________________ 26
CLASSIFICATION, USE & CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS ______________________ 27
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL _______________________________________________________________ 27
Curie temperature (TC), or Curie point: _____________________________________________________ 27
Properties of Ferromagnetic Materials _____________________________________________________ 28
Soft and Hard magnetic materials: ________________________________________________________ 28
PARAMAGNETIC MATERIAL ________________________________________________________________ 28
Properties of Paramagnetic Materials _____________________________________________________ 28
DIAMAGNETIC MATERIAL __________________________________________________________________ 30
Properties of Diamagnetic Materials ______________________________________________________ 30
B-H CHARACTERISTICS AND HYSTERESIS LOOP _________________________________________ 31

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FERROUS MATERIALS______________________________________________________________ 36
COMMON FERROUS MATERIALS AND THEIR ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS _______________________ 36

NON-FERROUS MATERIALS _________________________________________________________ 37

COMMON NON-FERROUS MATERIALS AND ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS ________________________ 39
SOME NON-FERROUS ALLOY (COPPER, ALUMINUM, BRASS, BRONZE, SILVER, GOLD) AND THEIR INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATION ____________________________________________________________________________ 39
Copper_______________________________________________________________________________ 39
Aluminium____________________________________________________________________________ 39
Lead _________________________________________________________________________________ 40
Tin __________________________________________________________________________________ 40
Zinc _________________________________________________________________________________ 40
Nickel________________________________________________________________________________ 40
Magnesium ___________________________________________________________________________ 41
ALLOYS OF COPPER _______________________________________________________________________ 41
Brass ________________________________________________________________________________ 41
Bronze _______________________________________________________________________________ 42
ALLOYS OF ALUMINUM ____________________________________________________________________ 43
Duralumin ____________________________________________________________________________ 43
ALLOYS OF NICKEL ________________________________________________________________________ 43
CARBON AS AN ELECTRICAL MATERIAL, ITS PRODUCT (BRUSHES) AND APPLICATION __________________ 44
Carbon Use for Making Electrical Contacts ________________________________________________ 44
Carbon Use for Making Resistors ________________________________________________________ 44
Carbon Use for Making Brushes for Electrical DC Machines and Alternators ____________________ 44
Carbon Use for Making Dry Cell Elements _________________________________________________ 46
Graphite Carbon use for Arc Lighting and Welding Electrodes ________________________________ 46
Carbon use as Component of Vacuum Valves and Tubes _____________________________________ 46
Carbon use for Makings Parts for Telecommunication Equipment ____________________________ 46
CORROSION OF SOME COMMONLY USED FERROUS MATERIALS ___________________________________ 46
Categories of Corrosion _________________________________________________________________ 47
1) Dry corrosion _____________________________________________________________________ 47
2) Wet Corrosion ____________________________________________________________________ 48
Types of corrosion _____________________________________________________________________ 49
General Attack Corrosion: _____________________________________________________________ 49
Galvanic corrosion ___________________________________________________________________ 49
Stress Corrosion _____________________________________________________________________ 50
Localized Corrosion: _________________________________________________________________ 51
Intergranular Corrosion _______________________________________________________________ 51
Corrosion prevention techniques _________________________________________________________ 52
Environmental Modification ___________________________________________________________ 52
Metal Selection and Surface Conditions __________________________________________________ 52
Cathodic Protection __________________________________________________________________ 53
Corrosion Inhibitors __________________________________________________________________ 53
Coatings ___________________________________________________________________________ 53
Plating ____________________________________________________________________________ 54

UNIT 3. DIELECTRIC MATERIALS _______________________________________________ 55

3.1 Definition of dielectric, macroscopic approach ___________________________________ 55
Basic Definitions in Dielectrics ______________________________________________________________ 55
Electric Field __________________________________________________________________________ 55
Electric field strength or electric field intensity (E) ____________________________________________ 55
Electric flux ___________________________________________________________________________ 55
Electric flux density or electric displacement vector (D) ________________________________________ 55

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Permittivity () ________________________________________________________________________ 55
3.2 Polarization, Dielectric constant, Electric Dipole moment, Electronic polarization, Ionic
polarization _____________________________________________________________________ 56
Polarization _____________________________________________________________________________ 56
Dielectric constant (the relative permittivity) __________________________________________________ 56
Electric dipole moment (p) _________________________________________________________________ 57
Electronic Polarization _____________________________________________________________________ 58
Ionic polarization _________________________________________________________________________ 58

3.3 Dielectric breakdown _______________________________________________________ 59

Dielectric breakdown in gases ______________________________________________________________ 59
Dielectric breakdown in liquids ______________________________________________________________ 60
Dielectric breakdown in solids ______________________________________________________________ 60

3.4 Piezo-electricity____________________________________________________________ 60
Properties ______________________________________________________________________________ 60
Uses ___________________________________________________________________________________ 61
Quartz _______________________________________________________________________________ 61

3.5 Ferro electricity _______________________________________________________________ 62

Properties ______________________________________________________________________________ 62

3.5 Properties of some dielectric materials _________________________________________ 63

3.6 Insulating materials ________________________________________________________ 65
3.7 Identification of insulating materials in general uses and their characteristics __________ 65
3.8 Electrical characteristics of some insulating materials e.g. plastics, resign, porcelain, glass,
fiber glass, mica, oil, insulating varnishes, gases (SF6) ____________________________________ 65
UNIT 4. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS__________________________________________ 67
4.1. Definition, elements of semi-conductor materials, electrical nature. _________________ 67
4.2. Band structure of Group IV materials, energy gap. ________________________________ 67
4.3. Atomic structure of silicon, germanium_________________________________________ 67
4.4. Formation of electron and hole _______________________________________________ 67
4.5. Electrical conduction in semi-conductors _______________________________________ 67
4.6. Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductor, concept of doping __________________________ 67
4.7. N type semiconductor_______________________________________________________ 67
4.8. P type semiconductor _______________________________________________________ 67
UNIT 5. OLD QUESTIONS ______________________________________________________ 67

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UNIT 1. CONDUCTING MATERIAL
COMMONLY USED MATERIALS IN ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
COMMONLY USED RESISTORS
Resistive elements are categorized into three groups as follows:
1) For Instrumentation Devices: Several alloy systems based on nickel or containing
high nickel contents are used in instruments and control equipment to measure
and regulate electrical characteristics (resistance alloys)
2) For Resistive Element: Alloy materials are used for making resistors for laboratory
instruments and for laboratory standards where a high constancy of resistance is
desirable. For example For Variable resistor, Rheostat, Constantan Alloy is
extensively used because of its large temperature coefficient.
3) For heating or Furnace Resistors : Materials used for this purpose should have heat
stable property , high melting point, high corrosion resistance. For furnace
applications Platinum metal is used where Nichrome alloy is extensively used
material for heating applications. They are also used for making heater and thermo-
couple elements.

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE ALLOYS

Terms Regarding Mechanical properties:
1) Hardness: stiffness or temper, or to resistance to scratching, abrasion, or cutting.
2) Malleability: It is the ability of a solid to bend or be hammered into other shapes
without breaking.
3) Ductility: a measure of a metal's ability to withstand tensile stress—any force that
pulls the two ends of a material away from each other.
4) Brittleness: A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without
significant plastic deformation.

1. Nickel Alloy Resistor: Nickel Strengthens ferrite increases Hardenability and impact
strength and makes the cast iron usable at low temperature. High Nickel cast iron are
known for their excellent corrosion resistance. The properties of nickel are:

Mechanical Properties:
- It has resistance to the attack of most acid.
- It is hard malleable and ductile
- It is highly resistance to oxidation
Uses:
- Electroplating, Nickel-iron accumulators, thermocouple, support of glow lamp,
sparking plug, resistance grid. Corrosion resistance
- Aircraft gas turbines, Steam Turbine, Nuclear Power plants, Chemical and
Petrochemical industries. The material is used extensively for making the
electrodes of thermionic valves, and sparking plugs.

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- It is also, used to form the positive plate of the nickel–iron battery which has
distinct advantages over the ordinary lead acid battery.

Industrial Applications:

- High Resistance Alloys : More than about 15% Cr are used to provide oxidation
at temperature exceeding 760 degree Celsius.
- Corrosion Resistance Alloys
- Low Expansion Alloys : Alloys are designed to have a very low thermal
expansion or uniform and predictive expansion over temperature range eg. Iron-
Nickel Alloys
- Electrical Resistance Alloys : Furnace Heating alloys, etc.
- Welding Alloys: Nickel with Titanium and Magnesium for Electrode manufacture.

2. Iron Alloy Resistors: When iron contains small amount of carbon (called Steel), its
mechanical Properties are somewhat improved.
The cast iron properties can be improved by addition of alloying element. The
improved properties depends upon the nature and amount of alloying element.
Mechanical Properties:
- It has high tensile strength, Malleability, Ductility and Hardenability.
Industrial Applications:
- Manufacturing Process and Steel Industries.
- Steel is employed as conductor rail in traction on account of its cheapness and
rigidity.
- Galvanised steel and iron wires which are generally used for earth conductor in
low voltage distribution system may also be used for the phase conductors in rural
areas where cheapness is the main consideration.
- Such lines will however have large voltage drops because of the high resistance
and inductance.
- Addition of manganese has a hardening effect on steel and manganese steel (about
13% manganese) has the further property of being practically nonmagnetic .
- Steel alloyed with chromium and aluminum is used for making starter rheostats
where lightness combined with robustness and good heat dissipation are
important considerations. Cast iron is used in the manufacturing of “resistance
grids” to be used in the starting of the large dc motors.

3. Chromium Alloys Resistors: Chromium is the important alloying element added to

cast iron (2-6% carbon). It is present in solution with ferrite which ultimately gives
strength and toughness due to presence of ferrite compound in it.
Chromium is added to cast iron to strengthen the iron metal. High amount of
chromium (>12%) increases the corrosion resistance property in iron metal.
Industrial Applications:
- Electrolyte in fuel cell

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- Hydrogen Production
- Metallurgy Metal Industries (1900oC Melting Point)
- Heat resistive metals.

4. Aluminum Alloys Resistors: Two Types of these resistors are as:

 Casting Alloys
- Heat Treatable
- Non Heat Treatable
 Wrought Alloys. ( 85% of Alloys are these alloys for example : Foils. )
- Heat Treatable
- Non Heat Treatable

Mechanical properties:
- Low Tensile Strength
- Ductility
- Weldability
Industrial Applications:
- Use of aluminum as an electrical material particularly in the aircraft industry has
considerable advantages because of the saving in weight involved.
- Again electrochemical plants are enormous uses of aluminum bus bars because of
its lightness. This is because electrolytic cells operate with heavy current with low
voltages and to carry these currents massive bars are required.
- Since aluminum costs a little less than copper, an aluminum bus bar will cost only
about half as much as its copper counterpart.
- The steel reinforced aluminum conductor (A.C.S.R.) is extensively being used for
long span transmission lines. In the commercial form aluminum is obtainable with
a purity of about 99% but it is generally alloyed with small quantities of copper,
zinc, nickel or magnesium to improve its hardness and strength.
- Aluminum is not easily solderable but fluxes have been devised to make soldering
easy. Mechanical clamping and screwing methods have also been developed.

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Alloys with Characteristics Specific Resistivity Temperature Maximum Applications
Composition Weight (Ohm- Coefficient Working
(gm/cm3) mm2/m) *10-5 Temperature
(oC)

Manganin -(86% Cu, 2% Ni , 12% 8.4 0.42 – 0.48 5-30 60-70 - Particularly ammeter shunts, because of its virtually
Mn) zero temperature coefficient of resistance value.
-it has virtually zero - Cryogenic systems (Cryogenics is the branch of physics
temperature coefficient of that deals with the production and effects of very low
resistance value temperatures.)
- long term stability - Manganin wire is also used as an electrical conductor
- it has low strain in minimizing heat transfer between points which
sensitivity but high need electrical connections.
hydrostatic pressure
sensitivity
Constantan or Eureka -[(55-60%) Cu, (45-40%) 8.9 0.48-0.52 5-25 450-500 - Its main feature is its resistivity, which is constant
Ni] over a wide range of temperatures
-also known as Eureka, - Rheostat and control Devices
Advance, and Ferry
Nichrome -(60% Ni, 15% Cr, 24% 8.4-8.5 1 10-20 1100 - 1400 - Widely used in electric heating elements in
Fe) applications such as hair dryers and heat guns
-Nichrome is consistently - Nichrome is wound in coils to a certain electrical
silvery-grey in color, is resistance, and when current is passed through it the
corrosion-resistant, and Joule heating produces heat.
has a high melting point
-low cost of manufacture,
strength, ductility,
resistance to oxidation,
-stability at high
temperatures, and
resistance to the flow of
electrons.
German silver or Nickel (60% copper, 20% nickel 8.4-8.9 1.2 12-15 1500-2000 It is widely used in the production of coins.. Its industrial
silver, or Mailechort, , and 20% zinc) and technical uses include marine fittings and plumbing
Argentan, new silver, Nickel silver is named for fixtures for its corrosion resistance, and heating coils for
nickel brass, albata, its silvery appearance, but its high electrical resistance.
alpacca, or electrum it contains no elemental
silver unless plated

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COMMONLY USED CONDUCTOR
COPPER:
Copper is a tough, ductile (able to be drawn out into a thin wire) and malleable (able to be
hammered or pressed into shape without breaking or cracking) material. The key properties
exhibited by copper and its alloys include:

- Excellent heat conductivity

- Excellent electrical conductivity
(1.68×10−8 Ohm meter Resistivity and 5.96×107 Simon per meter Conductivity)
- Good corrosion resistance
- Good biofouling resistance
- Good machinability
- Retention of mechanical and electrical properties at cryogenic temperatures
- Non-magnetic

Annealing is the process of heating metal or glass and allow it to cool slowly, in order to
remove internal stresses and toughen it. Pure annealed copper is used for the winding of
electrical machines. High purity copper is obtained by electrolytic refining. Traces (0.1%)
of iron, silicon or phosphorous seriously reduce the conductivity of copper.

Fig: copper wire and Copper Bus Bars

 The conductivity of copper is also decreased when it is hard drawn into wires for use
in machines. Annealing is therefore necessary before the material can be used in
machines.
 Because of its increased mechanical strength compared with annealed copper hard
drawn copper is used for conductors in low voltage overhead distribution lines.
 Long span lines of thin cross section require conductors of higher mechanical strength.
This is achieved by adding a small percentage of cadmium to copper.
 Cadmium increases the mechanical strength of copper without affecting its
conductivity adversely. The usual addition of cadmium are between 0.8% and 1%.
 Copper conductors having a steel core are also employed for long span transmission
lines, where a combination of high conductivity, small sag and minimum cross section
are desired.
 In such conductors, an insulating tape over the wire has to be provided in order to
prevent the corrosive action of steel on copper.

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 For ordinary insulated stranded cables V.I.R (Vulcanized Indian Rubber) insulation is
almost universally employed.
 In such cables the conductor stands are tinned in order to protect the copper from the
Sulphur of the V.I.R. The tinning process assists in soldering and operations. Further, it
can be soldered easily thus simplifying the joint ing operation.
 Copper is employed in machine windings because it is easily workable without any
likelihood of fracture.

ALUMINIUM:
 Aluminum conductors are particularly suitable for operations in very high ambient
temperatures.
 The current carrying capacity of aluminium being 75% that of copper and its density
being approximately one-third that of copper and aluminium bus bar is only half the
weight of copper bush bar of equal current carrying capacity.

LEAD:
Lead has two important electrical applications. It is used to form
 Cable sheaths: Lead sheaths are required to protect the insulation of the cable from
effects of moisture and
 The plates of lead acid batteries.

BAND STRUCTURE AND ENERGY GAP

Based on the ability of various materials to conduct current, the materials are classified as
conductors, insulators and the semiconductors.
A metal which is very good carrier of electricity is called conductor. A very poor conductor of
electricity is termed as insulator. A metal having conductivity which is between conductor and an
insulator is called semiconductor.
Copper and aluminum are good examples of a conductor. Glass, wood, mica, diamond the
examples of an insulator which do not conduct current. Silicon and germanium are the examples
of a semiconductor which do not conduct current at low temperatures but as temperature
increases these materials behave as good conductors.

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Every solid has its own characteristic energy-band structure. This variation in band structure
is responsible for the wide range of electrical characteristics observed in various materials.
The band formed by the combination of valence orbitals of the atoms is called valence band and
that formed by the combination of next lying empty orbitals is called conduction band. The
conducting behavior of a crystal is determined by the nature of the valence band & its separation
from the empty conduction band (energy gap or band gap) . Thus the band can differentiate
crystals with respect to their conducting behavior as conductors, semiconductors & insulators.
In semiconductors and insulators, electrons are confined to a number of bands of energy, and
forbidden from other regions.
The term "band gap" refers to the energy difference between the top of the valence band and
the bottom of the conduction band.
Electrons are able to jump from one band to another. However, in order for an electron to jump
from a valence band to a conduction band, it requires a specific minimum amount of energy for
the transition. The required energy differs with different materials. Electrons can gain enough
energy to jump to the conduction band by absorbing either a phonon (heat) or a photon
(light).

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FOR CONDUCTORS
It has been mentioned earlier that a material having large number of free electrons can
conduct very easily. For example, copper has 8.5 x 1028 free electrons per cubic meter which is a
very large number. Hence copper is called good conductor.
In fact, in metals like copper, aluminum there is no forbidden gap between valence band and
conduction band. The two band overlap. Hence even at room temperature, a large number of
electrons are available for conduction. So without any additional energy, such metals contain a
large number of free electrons and hence called good conductors. An energy band diagram for a
conductor is shown in the Fig. above.

FOR INSULATORS
An insulator has an energy band diagram as shown. In case of such insulating material, there
exists a large forbidden gap in between the conduction band and the valence band. Practically it
is impossible for an electron to jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Hence such
materials cannot conduct and called insulators.
The forbidden gap is very wide, approximately of about 7 eV is present in insulators. (1 electron
Volt = a unit of energy equal to the Joules of work done on an electron in accelerating it through a
potential difference of one volt.)
For a diamond, which is an insulator, the forbidden gap is about 6 eV. Such materials may conduct
only at very high temperatures or if they are subjected to high voltage. Such a conduction is rare
and is called breakdown of an insulator. The other insulating materials are glass, wood, mica,
paper etc.

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FOR SEMICONDUCTORS
Now let us come to an important category of materials, which are neither insulators nor
conductors. The forbidden gap in such materials is very narrow as shown. Such materials are
called semiconductors.
The forbidden gap is about 1 eV. In such materials, the energy provided by the heat at room
temperature is sufficient to lift the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band.
Therefore at room temperature, semiconductors are capable of conduction. But a 0o K or absolute
zero (-273o C), all the electrons of semiconductor materials find themselves locked in the valence
band.
Hence at 0o K, the semiconductor materials behave as perfect insulators. In case of
semiconductors, forbidden gap energy depends on the temperature.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES: RESISTIVITY, CONDUCTIVITY,

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY
Electrical resistivity (also known as resistivity, specific electrical resistance, or volume resistivity)
is a fundamental property that quantifies how strongly a given material opposes the flow of
electric current.
A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows the flow of electric current. Resistivity is
commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm-
metre (Ω⋅m).
As an example, if a 1 m × 1 m × 1 m solid cube of material has sheet contacts on two opposite faces,
and the resistance between these contacts is 1 Ω, then the resistivity of the material is 1 Ω⋅m.

Many resistors and conductors have a uniform cross section with a uniform flow of electric
current, and are made of one material. (See the adjacent diagram.) In this case, the electrical
resistivity ρ (Greek: rho) is defined as:

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Where
R is the electrical resistance of a uniform specimen of the material
L is the length of the piece of material
A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen
Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity, and
measures a material's ability to conduct an electric current. It is commonly represented by the
Greek letter σ (sigma), Its SI unit is siemens per metre (S/m)
Conductivity, σ, is defined as the inverse of resistivity:

Conductivity has SI units of "siemens per metre" (S/m).

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CONCEPT OF DRIFT AND MOBILITY
The drift velocity is the average velocity that a particle, such as an electron, attains in a material
due to an electric field. It can also be referred to as axial drift velocity. In general, an electron will
propagate randomly in a conductor at the velocity called as Fermi velocity. An applied electric
field will give this random motion a small net flow velocity in one direction.
In a semiconductor, the two main carrier scattering mechanisms are ionized impurity scattering
and lattice scattering.
Because current is proportional to drift velocity, which in a resistive material is, in turn,
proportional to the magnitude of an external electric field, Ohm's law can be explained in terms of
drift velocity.
Assume a current I = 1 ampere, and a wire of 2 mm diameter (radius = 0.001 m). This wire has a
cross sectional area of 3.14×10−6 m2 (A = π × (0.001 m)2). The charge of one electron is q =
−1.6×10−19 C. The drift velocity therefore can be calculated:

In solid-state physics, the electron mobility characterizes how quickly an electron can move
through a metal or semiconductor, when pulled by an electric field.
The electron mobility characterizes how quickly an electron can move through a metal or
semiconductor, when pulled by an electric field. In semiconductors, there is an analogous quantity
for positive particles called holes, and their mobility is called hole mobility. The term carrier
mobility refers in general to both electron and hole mobility in semiconductors.
Electron and hole mobility are special cases of electrical mobility of charged particles in a fluid
under an applied electric field.
When an electric field E is applied across a piece of material, the electrons respond by moving
with an average velocity called the drift velocity (u),
Then the electron mobility μ is defined as
u= μE
E is an electric field gradient (Voltage gradient applied) measured in Volts per metre (V/m). Thus,
Electron mobility μ is almost always specified in units of cm2/(V·s). This is different from the SI
unit of mobility, m2/(V·s).

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UNIT 2. MAGNETIC MATERIAL
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
MAGNETIC FIELD

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MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY

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MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY (H)

MAGNETIC FLUX

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MAGNETIC POTENTIAL

MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (B)

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MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT
The magnetic moment of a magnet is a quantity that determines the torque that a magnet or
electromagnet will experience in an external magnetic field. A loop of electric current, a bar
magnet, an electron, a molecule, and a planet all have magnetic moments.
The magnetic moment may be considered to be a vector having a magnitude and direction. The
direction of the magnetic moment points from the south to North Pole of the magnet (inside the
magnet). The magnetic field produced by the magnet is proportional to its magnetic moment.

If the circulating current is I and Area enclosed by the current is A then, magnetic moment 𝜇⃗ 𝑜𝑟 𝜇𝑚
is defined by:
Magnetic dipole moment (𝜇𝑚 )=kIA
The unit for magnetic moment is not a base unit in the International System of Units (SI). As the
torque is measured in newton-meters (N·m) and the magnetic field in Teslas (T), the magnetic
moment is measured in newton-meters per tesla. This has equivalents in other base units:
N·m/T = A·m2
Where A is amperes.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN B AND H

MAGNETIZATION (M)

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MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY

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EDDY CURRENT
Eddy currents (also called Foucault currents) are loops of electrical current induced within
conductors by a changing magnetic field in the conductor due to Faraday's law of induction.

Induction of eddy current:

Eddy currents are induced within nearby stationary conductors by a time-varying magnetic field
created by an AC electromagnet or transformer, or by relative motion between a magnet and a
nearby conductor. Eddy currents flow in closed loops within conductors, in planes perpendicular
to the magnetic field.
The magnitude of the current in a given loop is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field
(B or H), the area of the loop (A), and the rate of change of flux (∅), and inversely proportional to
the resistivity of the material (𝜌).
By Lenz's law, an eddy current creates a magnetic field density (B) that opposes the change
in the magnetic field that created it, and thus eddy currents react back on the source of the
magnetic field. In the figure below, a nearby conductive surface will exert a drag force (shown by
velocity v) on a moving magnet that opposes its motion, due to eddy currents induced in the
surface by the moving magnetic field.

Applications of eddy Current:

This effect is employed in eddy current brakes which are used to stop rotating power tools
quickly when they are turned off. The current flowing through the resistance of the conductor also
dissipates energy as heat in the material. Thus eddy currents are a cause of energy loss in
alternating current (AC) inductors, transformers, electric motors and generators, and other AC
machinery, requiring special construction such as laminated magnetic cores or ferrite cores (
shown in figure above- right) to minimize them.
Eddy currents are also used to heat objects in induction heating furnaces and equipment, and
Eddy currents are also used to detect cracks and flaws in metal parts using eddy-current testing
instruments.

Eddy current Loss

The power lost due to eddy currents per unit mass for a thin sheet or wire can be calculated from
the following equation:

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Where,
P is the power lost per unit mass (W/kg),
Bp is the peak magnetic field (T),
d is the thickness of the sheet or diameter of the wire (m),
f is the frequency (Hz),
k is a constant equal to 1 for a thin sheet and 2 for a thin wire,
ρ is the resistivity of the material (Ω m), and
D is the density of the material (kg/m3).

DOMAIN STRUCTURE
A magnetic domain is a region within a magnetic material in which the magnetization is in a
uniform direction. This means that the individual magnetic moments of the atoms are aligned
with one another and they point in the same direction.
When cooled below a temperature called the Curie temperature, the magnetization of a piece of
ferromagnetic material spontaneously divides into many small regions called magnetic domains.
The magnetization within each domain points in a uniform direction, but the magnetization of
different domains may point in different directions. Magnetic domain structure is responsible for
the magnetic behavior of ferromagnetic materials like iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys, and
ferrimagnetic materials like ferrite. (In physics, a ferrimagnetic material is one that has populations
of atoms with opposing magnetic moments, as in antiferromagnetism)

Magnetic domain includes the formation of permanent magnets and the attraction of
ferromagnetic materials to a magnetic field. The regions separating magnetic domains are called
domain walls, where the magnetization rotates coherently from the direction in one domain to
that in the next domain. The study of magnetic domains is called micromagnetics.

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Magnetic domains form in materials which have magnetic ordering; that is, their dipoles
spontaneously align due to the exchange interaction. These are the ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic
and antiferromagnetic materials.
Paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, in which the dipoles align in response to an
external field but do not spontaneously align, do not have magnetic domains.

CLASSIFICATION, USE & CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL
Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form
permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets. In physics, several different types of magnetism
are distinguished.
Those materials which creates forces strong enough to be felt, and is responsible for the
common phenomena of magnetism in magnets encountered in everyday life. Ferromagnetism
(including ferrimagnetism) is the strongest type
Permanent magnets (materials that can be magnetized by an external magnetic field and remain
magnetized after the external field is removed) are either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic, as are
the materials that are noticeably attracted to them. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic. The
common ones are iron, nickel, cobalt and most of their alloys, and some compounds of rare earth
metals such as: Co, Fe, Fe2O3, FeOFe2O3 NiOFe2O3, etc.
Ferromagnetism is very important in industry and modern technology, and is the basis for many
electrical and electromechanical devices such as electromagnets, electric motors, generators,
transformers, and magnetic storage such as tape recorders, and hard disks, and nondestructive
testing of ferrous materials.

Curie temperature (TC), or Curie point:

The Curie temperature (TC), or Curie point, is the temperature at which certain materials lose their
permanent magnetic properties, to be replaced by induced magnetism. The Curie temperature is
named after Pierre Curie, who showed that magnetism was lost at a critical temperature.
That is, when we increase the temperature beyond the Curie temperature, it will cause the
ferromagnetic materials to lose their magnetic property.
The force of magnetism is determined by the magnetic moment, a dipole moment within an atom
which originates from the angular momentum and spin of electrons. Materials have different
structures of intrinsic magnetic moments that depend on temperature; the Curie temperature is
the critical point at which a material's intrinsic magnetic moments change direction.
The magnetic ordering of the dipoles of the ferromagnetic material is interrupted by thermal
energy.

kB → Boltzmann constant

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T → Temperature in Kelvin
C → Curie Constant
Curie temperature of some materials are shown below.
Material Curie temperature in Kelvin
Fe 1043
Ni 627
Gd 293
Co 1388

Properties of Ferromagnetic Materials

 When a rod of this material is placed in a magnetic field, it rapidly aligns itself in the track
of the field.
 It is strongly attracted by the magnet.
 The ferromagnetism mechanism is not present in liquids and gases.
 The intensity of magnetization (M), magnetic susceptibility (χm), relative permeability (µr),
and magnetic flux density (B) of this material will be always prominent and positive.

µ0 → Magnetic permittivity of free space.

H → Applied peripheral magnetic field strength.

Soft and Hard magnetic materials:

Ferromagnetic materials are basically divided into two broad classes: Soft magnetic
materials and hard magnetic materials.
Substances that can be permanently magnetised are described as magnetically hard. These
are often alloys of iron, nickel and cobalt.
Substances that can only be temporarily magnetised are described as magnetically soft.
Alloys with less iron, nickel or cobalt will be magnetically soft and have a weaker magnetic
field.

PARAMAGNETIC MATERIAL
Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby certain materials are weakly attracted by an
externally applied magnetic field, and form internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of
the applied magnetic field.

Properties of Paramagnetic Materials


Paramagnetic materials include most chemical elements and some compounds; they have
a relative magnetic permeability slightly greater than 1 (i.e., a small positive magnetic
susceptibility) and hence are attracted to magnetic fields.
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 The magnetic moment induced by the applied field is linear in the field strength and rather
weak.
 It typically requires a sensitive analytical balance to detect the effect and modern
measurements on paramagnetic materials are often conducted with a SQUID
magnetometer (superconducting quantum interference device).
 Paramagnetism is due to the presence of unpaired electrons in the material, so all atoms
with incompletely filled atomic orbitals are paramagnetic.
 Due to their spin, unpaired electrons have a magnetic dipole moment and act like tiny
magnets.
 An external magnetic field causes the electrons' spins to align parallel to the field, causing
a net attraction. Paramagnetic materials include aluminum, oxygen, titanium, and iron
oxide (FeO).
Material Magnetic susceptibility, [10−5]
Tungsten 6.8
Caesium 5.1
Aluminium 2.2
Lithium 1.4
Magnesium 1.2
Sodium 0.72

 Unlike ferromagnets, paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the absence of an

externally applied magnetic field because thermal motion randomizes the spin
orientations
 The total magnetization drops to zero when the applied field is removed.
 In the presence of the field there is only a small induced magnetization because only a small
fraction of the spins will be oriented by the field.
 According to Curie's law, the susceptibility, of paramagnetic materials is inversely
proportional to their temperature, i.e. that materials become more magnetic at lower
temperatures. The mathematical expression is:

Where:
M is the resulting magnetization
𝜒 is the magnetic susceptibility
H is the auxiliary magnetic field, measured in amperes/meter
T is absolute temperature, measured in kelvins
C is a material-specific Curie constant

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DIAMAGNETIC MATERIAL
Diamagnetic materials are repelled by a magnetic field; an applied magnetic field creates an
induced magnetic field in them in the opposite direction, causing a repulsive force.
In contrast, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials are attracted by a magnetic field.
Diamagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect that occurs in all materials; when it is the only
contribution to the magnetism, the material is called diamagnetic.

Properties of Diamagnetic Materials

 Materials called diamagnetic are those that make people generally think of as non-
magnetic, and include water, wood, most organic compounds such as petroleum and some
plastics, and many metals including copper, particularly the heavy ones with many core
electrons, such as mercury, gold and bismuth.
 The magnetic permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than μ0, the permeability of
vacuum.
 Diamagnetic materials, like water, or water-based materials, have a relative magnetic
permeability that is less than or equal to 1, and therefore a magnetic susceptibility less
than or equal to 0, since susceptibility is defined as χ = μr − 1. This means that diamagnetic
materials are repelled by magnetic fields.
Material χ (× 10−5 )
Superconductor −105
Pyrolytic carbon −40.9
Bismuth −16.6
Mercury −2.9
Silver −2.6
Carbon (diamond) −2.1
Lead −1.8
Carbon (graphite) −1.6
Copper −1.0
Water −0.91

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HARD AND SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Hard Magnetic Material: Substances which

B-H CHARACTERISTICS AND HYSTERESIS LOOP

We know that the magnetic flux generated by an electromagnetic coil is the amount of magnetic
field or lines of force produced within a given area and that it is more commonly called “Flux
Density”. Given the symbol B with the unit of flux density being the Tesla, T.
We also know that the magnetic strength (H) of an electromagnet depends upon the number of
turns of the coil, the current flowing through the coil or the type of core material being used, and
if we increase either the current or the number of turns we can increase the magnetic field
strength, symbol H.
Previously, the relative permeability, symbol μr was defined as the ratio of the absolute
permeability μ and the permeability of free space μo (a vacuum) and this was given as a constant.
However, the relationship between the flux density, B and the magnetic field strength, H can be
defined by the fact that the relative permeability, μr is not a constant but a function of the magnetic
field intensity thereby giving magnetic flux density as:
B = μ H.
Then the magnetic flux density in the material will be increased by a larger factor as a result of its
relative permeability for the material compared to the magnetic flux density in vacuum, μoH and
for an air-cored coil this relationship is given as:

So for ferromagnetic materials the ratio of flux density to field strength ( B/H ) is not constant but
varies with flux density. However, for air cored coils or any non-magnetic medium core such as
woods or plastics, this ratio can be considered as a constant and this constant is known as μo, the
permeability of free space, ( μo = 4.π.10-7 H/m ).
By plotting values of flux density, ( B ) against the field strength, ( H ) we can produce a set of
curves called Magnetization Curves, Magnetic Hysteresis Curves or more commonly B-H
Curves for each type of core material used as shown below.
Magnetization or B-H Curve

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The set of magnetization curves, M above represents an example of the relationship
between B and H for soft-iron and steel cores but every type of core material will have its own set
of magnetic hysteresis curves. You may notice that the flux density increases in proportion to the
field strength until it reaches a certain value were it cannot increase any more becoming almost
level and constant as the field strength continues to increase.
This is because there is a limit to the amount of flux density that can be generated by the core as
all the domains in the iron are perfectly aligned. Any further increase will have no effect on the
value of M, and the point on the graph where the flux density reaches its limit is called Magnetic
Saturation also known as Saturation of the Core and in our simple example above the saturation
point of the steel curve begins at about 3000 ampere-turns per meter.
Saturation occurs because the random haphazard arrangement of the molecule structure within
the core material changes as the tiny molecular magnets within the material become “lined-up”.
As the magnetic field strength, ( H ) increases these molecular magnets become more and more
aligned until they reach perfect alignment producing maximum flux density and any increase in
the magnetic field strength due to an increase in the electrical current flowing through the coil
will have little or no effect.
Magnetic Hysteresis Loop

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The Magnetic Hysteresis loop above, shows the behavior of a ferromagnetic core graphically as
the relationship between B and H is non-linear. Starting with an un-magnetized core
both B and H will be at zero, point 0 on the magnetization curve.
 From point o to point a : If the magnetization current, I is increased in a positive direction
to some value the magnetic field strength H increases linearly with I and the flux
density B will also increase as shown by the curve from point o to point a as it heads
towards saturation.
 From point a to point b : Now if the magnetizing current in the coil is reduced to zero, the
magnetic field circulating around the core also reduces to zero. However, the coils magnetic
flux will not reach zero due to the residual magnetism present within the core and this is
shown on the curve from point a to point b.
 From point b to point c : To reduce the flux density at point b to zero we need to reverse
the current flowing through the coil. The magnetizing force which must be applied to null
the residual flux density is called a “Coercive Force”. This coercive force reverses the
magnetic field re-arranging the molecular magnets until the core becomes un-magnetized
at point c.
 From point c to point d: An increase in this reverse current causes the core to be
magnetized in the opposite direction and increasing this magnetization current further will
cause the core to reach its saturation point but in the opposite direction, point d on the
curve.
 From point d to point e: This point e is symmetrical to point b. If the magnetizing current
is reduced again to zero the residual magnetism present in the core will be equal to the
previous value but in reverse at point e.

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 From point e to point f and a: Again reversing the magnetizing current flowing through
the coil this time into a positive direction will cause the magnetic flux to reach zero,
point f on the curve and as before increasing the magnetization current further in a positive
direction will cause the core to reach saturation at point a.
Then the B-H curve follows the path of a-b-c-d-e-f-a as the magnetizing current flowing through
the coil alternates between a positive and negative value such as the cycle of an AC voltage. This
path is called a Magnetic Hysteresis Loop.
The effect of magnetic hysteresis shows that the magnetization process of a ferromagnetic core
and therefore the flux density depends on which part of the curve the ferromagnetic core is
magnetized on as this depends upon the circuits past history giving the core a form of
“memory”. Then ferromagnetic materials have memory because they remain magnetized
after the external magnetic field has been removed.
However, soft ferromagnetic materials such as iron or silicon steel have very narrow
magnetic hysteresis loops resulting in very small amounts of residual magnetism making
them ideal for use in relays, solenoids and transformers as they can be easily magnetized and
demagnetized.
Hysteresis loss:
Since a coercive force must be applied to overcome this residual magnetism, work must be
done in closing the hysteresis loop with the energy being used being dissipated as heat in the
magnetic material. This heat is known as hysteresis loss, the amount of loss depends on the
material’s value of coercive force.
By adding additive’s to the iron metal such as silicon, materials with a very small coercive force
can be made that have a very narrow hysteresis loop. Materials with narrow hysteresis loops are
easily magnetized and demagnetized and known as soft magnetic materials.

Retentivity:
Let’s assume that we have an electromagnetic coil with a high field strength due to the current
flowing through it, and that the ferromagnetic core material has reached its saturation point,
maximum flux density. If we now open a switch and remove the magnetizing current flowing
through the coil we would expect the magnetic field around the coil to disappear as the magnetic
flux reduced to zero.
However, the magnetic flux does not completely disappear as the electromagnetic core material
still retains some of its magnetism even when the current has stopped flowing in the coil. This
ability for a coil to retain some of its magnetism within the core after the magnetisation process
has stopped is called Retentivity or remanence, while the amount of flux density still remaining
in the core is called Residual Magnetism, BR .
The reason for this that some of the tiny molecular magnets do not return to a completely random
pattern and still point in the direction of the original magnetizing field giving them a sort of

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“memory”. Some ferromagnetic materials have a high retentivity (magnetically hard) making
them excellent for producing permanent magnets.
While other ferromagnetic materials have low retentivity (magnetically soft) making them ideal
for use in electromagnets, solenoids or relays. One way to reduce this residual flux density to zero
is by reversing the direction of the current flowing through the coil, thereby making the value of H,
the magnetic field strength negative. This effect is called a Coercive Force, HC .
If this reverse current is increased further the flux density will also increase in the reverse
direction until the ferromagnetic core reaches saturation again but in the reverse direction from
before. Reducing the magnetizing current, I once again to zero will produce a similar amount of
residual magnetism but in the reverse direction.
Then by constantly changing the direction of the magnetizing current through the coil from a
positive direction to a negative direction, as would be the case in an AC supply, a Magnetic
Hysteresis loop of the ferromagnetic core can be produced.
Magnetic Hysteresis Loops for Soft and Hard Materials

Magnetic Hysteresis results in the dissipation of wasted energy in the form of heat with the
energy wasted being in proportion to the area of the magnetic hysteresis loop. Hysteresis losses
will always be a problem in AC transformers where the current is constantly changing direction
and thus the magnetic poles in the core will cause losses because they constantly reverse
direction.
Rotating coils in DC machines will also incur hysteresis losses as they are alternately passing north
the south magnetic poles. As said previously, the shape of the hysteresis loop depends upon the
nature of the iron or steel used and in the case of iron which is subjected to massive reversals of
magnetism, for example transformer cores, it is important that the B-H hysteresis loop is as small
as possible.

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FERROUS MATERIALS
COMMON FERROUS MATERIALS AND THEIR ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS

Some common ferrous metals include alloy steel, carbon steel, cast iron and wrought iron. These
metals are prized for their tensile strength and durability.
Ferrous metals have a high carbon content which generally makes them vulnerable to rust when
exposed to moisture. There are two exceptions to this rule: wrought iron resists rust due to its
purity and stainless steel is protected from rust by the presence of chromium.

Steel (Mild Steel) (0.1 to 0.3% Carbon and 99.7 to 99.9% Iron Content)
Steel is made by adding iron to carbon which hardens the iron. Alloy steel becomes even tougher
as other elements like chromium and nickel are introduced. Steel is made by heating and melting
iron ore in furnaces. The steel can is tapped from the furnaces and poured into molds to form steel
bars. Steel is widely used in the construction and manufacturing industries.
Carbon Steel (structure steel) (0.6 to 1.4% Carbon and 98.6 to 99.4% Iron Content)
Carbon steel has a higher carbon content in comparison to other types of steel making it
exceptionally hard. It is commonly used in the manufacturing of machine tools, drills, blades, taps,
and springs. It can keep a sharp cutting edge.

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Alloy Steel (Stainless steel) (18% Cr, 8% Ni and 0.4% Carbon Content)
Alloy steels incorporate elements such as chromium, nickel and titanium to impart greater
strength and durability without increasing weight. Stainless steel is an important alloy steel made
using chromium. Alloy steels are used in construction, machine tools, and electrical components.

Cast Iron (2 to 6% Carbon and 94to 98% Iron Content)

Cast iron is an alloy made from iron, carbon, and silicon. Cast iron is brittle and hard and resistant
to wear. It’s used in water pipes, machine tools, automobile engines and stoves.
Wrought Iron (100% Iron Content)
Wrought iron is an alloy with so little carbon content it’s almost pure iron. During the
manufacturing process, some slag is added which gives wrought iron excellent resistance to
corrosion and oxidation, however, it is low in hardness and fatigue strength. Wrought iron is used
for fencing and railings, agricultural implements, nails, barbed wire, chains, and various
ornaments.
Use and their characteristics
Carbon Steel – also known as structure steel – is a staple in the construction industry and is used
in the tallest skyscrapers and longest bridges. Ferrous metals are also used in shipping containers,
industrial piping, automobiles, railroad tracks, and many commercial and domestic tools.
Most ferrous metals are magnetic which makes them very useful for motor and electrical
applications. The use of ferrous metals in your refrigerator door allows you to pin your shopping
list on it with a magnet.

NON-FERROUS MATERIALS

Non-ferrous metals include aluminum, copper, lead, zinc and tin, as well as precious metals like
gold and silver. Their main advantage over ferrous materials is their malleability. They also have
no iron content, giving them a higher resistance to rust and corrosion, and making them ideal for
gutters, liquid pipes, roofing and outdoor signs. Lastly they are non-magnetic, which is important
for many electronic and wiring applications.

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Aluminum
Aluminum is lightweight, soft and low strength. Aluminum is easily cast, forged, machined and
welded. It’s not suitable for high-temperature environments. Because aluminum is lightweight, it
is a good choice for the manufacturing of aircraft and food cans. Aluminum is also used in castings,
pistons, railways, cars, and kitchen utensils.
Copper
Copper is red in color, highly ductile, malleable and has high conductivity for electricity and heat.
Copper is principally used in the electrical industry in the form of wire and other conductors. It’s
also used in sheet roofing, cartridge cases, statutes, and bearings. Copper is also used to make
brass, an alloy of copper and zinc.
Lead
Lead is a soft, heavy, malleable metal with a low melting point and low tensile strength. It can
withstand corrosion from moisture and many acids. Lead is widely used in electrical power cables,
batteries, building construction and soldering.

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Zinc
Zinc is a medium to low strength metal with a very low melting point. It can be machined easily,
but heating may be required to avoid cleavage of crystals. Zinc is most widely used in galvanizing,
the process of applying a protective zinc coating to iron or steel to prevent rust.
Tin
Tin is very soft and malleable, ductile with low tensile strength. It’s often used to coat steel to
prevent corrosion. Tinplate steel is used to make tin cans to hold food. In the late 19th century, tin
foil was commonly used to wrap food products, but has since largely been replaced by aluminum
foil. Tin is can also be alloyed with copper to produce tin brass and bronze.

COMMON NON-FERROUS MATERIALS AND ENGINEERING CHARACTERISTICS

Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain significant quantity of iron or iron as base
metal. These metals possess low strength at high temperatures, generally suffer from hot
shortness and have more shrinkage than ferrous metals. They are utilized in industry due to
following advantages: 1. High corrosion resistance 2. Easy to fabricate, i.e., machining, casting,
welding, forging and rolling 3. Possess very good thermal and electrical conductivity 4. Attractive
colour and low density The various non-metals used in industry are: copper, aluminium, tin, lead,
zinc, and nickel, etc., and their alloys.

SOME NON-FERROUS ALLOY (COPPER, ALUMINUM, BRASS, BRONZE, SILVER, GOLD) AND
THEIR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION
Copper
The crude form of copper extracted from its ores through series of processes contains 68% purity
known as Blister copper. By electrolytic refining process, highly pure (99.9%) copper which is re-
melted and casted into suitable shapes. Copper is a corrosion resistant metal of an attractive
reddish brown colour.
Properties and Uses
 High Thermal Conductivity: Used in heat exchangers, heating vessels and appliances,etc.
 High Electrical Conductivity: Used as electrical conductor in various shapes and forms
for various applications.
 Good Corrosion Resistance: Used for providing coating on steel prior to nickel and
chromium plating
 High Ductility: Can be easily cold worked, folded and spun. Requires annealing after cold
working as it loses its ductility.

Aluminium
Aluminium is white metal which is produced by electrical processes from clayey mineral known
as bauxite. However, this aluminium ore bauxite is available in India in plenty and we have a
thriving aluminium industry.
Properties and Uses
(1) Like copper it is also corrosion resistant.
(2) It is very good conductor of heat and electricity although not as good as copper.
(3) Possesses high ductility and light weight so widely utilized in aircraft industry.
(4) Needs frequent annealing if cold worked since it becomes hard after cold working.
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(5) In view of its ductility and malleability it has replaced copper in electrical transmission and
appliances to some extent.
(6) It is used in manufacturing of household utensils including pressure cookers.

Lead
Lead is the heaviest of the common metal. Lead is extracted from its ore known as galena. It is
bluish grey in colour and dull lusture which goes very dull on exposure to air.
Properties and Uses
(1) Its specific gravity is 7.1 and melting point is 360°C.
(2) It is resistant to corrosion and many chemicals do not react with it (even acids).
(3) It is soft, heavy and malleable, can be easily worked and shaped.
(4) Lead is utilized as alloying element in producing solders and plumber’s solders.
(5) It is alloyed with brass as well as steel to improve their machinability.
(6) It is utilized in manufacturing of water pipes, coating for electrical cables, acid tanks and roof
covering etc.

Tin
It is a brilliant white metal with yellowish tinge. Melting point of tin is 240°C
Ferrous Materials and Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys 33
Properties and Uses
(1) Tin is malleable and ductile, it can be rolled into very thin sheets.
(2) It is used for tinning of copper and brass utensils and copper wire before its conversion into
cables.
(3) It is useful as a protective coating for iron and steel since it does corrode in dry or wet
atmosphere.
(4) It is utilized for making important alloys such as fine solder and moisture proof packing with
thin tin sheets.

Zinc
The chief ores of zinc are blende (ZnS) and calamine (ZnCO). Zinc is a fairly heavy, bluish-white
metal principally utilized in view of its low cost, corrosion resistance and alloying characteristics.
Melting point of zinc is 420°C and it boils at 940°C.
Properties and Uses
(1) High corrosion resistance: Widely used as protective coating on iron and steel. Coating may
be provided by dip galvanizing or electroplating.
(2) High fluidity and low melting point: Most suitable metal for pressure die casting generally
in the form of alloy.
(3) When rolled into sheets, zinc is utilized for roof covering and for providing a damp proof
non-corrosive lining to containers.
(4) The galvanized wires, nails, etc. are produced by galvanizing technique and zinc is also used
in manufacture of brasses.

Nickel
About at least 85% of all nickel production is obtained from sulphide ores.
Properties and Uses
1. Pure nickel is tough, silver coloured metal, harder than copper having some but less ductility
but of about same strength.

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2. It is plated on steel to provide a corrosion resistance surface or layer.
3. Widely used as an alloying element with steel. Higher proportions are advantageously added in
the production of steel such as monel or in conel.
4. It possesses good resistance to both acids and alkalis regarding corrosion so widely utilized in
food processing equipment.

Magnesium
Principal ores of magnesium are magnesite, carnallite and dolomite. Magnesium is extracted by
electrolytic process.
Properties and Uses:
(1) It is the lightest of all metals weighing around two-thirds of aluminium.
(2) The tensile strength of cast metal is the same as that of ordinary cast aluminium, i.e., 90 MPa.
(3) The tensile strength of rolled annealed magnesium is same as that of good quality cast iron.
(4) Magnesium can be easily formed, drawn forged and machined with high accuracy.
(5) In powdered form it is likely to burn, in that situation adequate fire protection measures
should be strictly observed.
(6) Its castings are pressure tight and achieve good surface finish. Magnesium castings include
motor car gearbox, differential housing and portable tools.

ALLOYS OF COPPER
Copper alloys are among the best conductors of heat and electricity and they have good corrosion
resistance. The common types of copper alloys are brasses and bronzes. The various alloys of
copper are discussed as follows:
Brass
All brasses are basically alloys of copper and zinc. Commercially there are two main varieties of
brasses:
(1) Alfa brass: Contains upto 36% Zn and rest copper for cold working.
(2) Alfa-Beta brass: Contains 36 to 45% Zn and remainder is copper for hot working.
The tensile strength and ductility of brass both increase with increase in content of
Zn up to 30% zinc. With further increase in zinc content beyond 30%, the tensile strength
continues to increase upto 45% of Zn, but ductility of brasses drops significantly. ß-phase is less
ductile than a-phase but it is harder and stronger.
Thus, there are various types of brasses depending upon proportion of copper and zinc.
Fundamentally brass is a binary alloy of copper with as much as 50% zinc. Various classes of
brasses such as cartridge brass, Muntzmetal leaded brass, Admirality brass, naval brass and nickel
brass depending upon the proportion of copper and zinc plus third alloying metal are available
for various uses. Suitable type of brasses can undergo the processes of casting, hot forging, cold
forging, cold rolling into sheets, drawing into wires and extrusion for obtaining requisite special
cross-section bars. The melting point of brass varies according to its composition but most of the
brasses in the common range liquefy between temperatures of 840°C to 960°C. By adding small
quantities of other elements, the properties of brass may be greatly affected. For example, addition
of 1 to 2% zinc improves the machinability of brass. Brass has a greater strength than that of
copper but has a lower thermal and electrical conductivity. Brasses possess very good corrosion
resistance and can be easily soldered. Brasses are used in hydraulic fittings, pump linings, utensils,
bearings and bushes, etc.

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Bronze
The alloy of copper and tin are usually termed bronzes. The useful range of composition is 75 to
95% copper and remainder tin. In general, it possesses superior mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance to brass. The alloy can be easily cold rolled into wire, rods and sheets. With
increase in tin content, the strength of this alloy and its corrosion resistance increases. It is then
known as hot working bronze. Bronze is generally utilized in hydraulic fittings, bearings, bushes,
utensils, sheets, rods and many other stamped and drawn products.
The generally used bronzes are as follows:
(1) Phosphor bronze: When bronze contains phosphorus, it is known as phosphor bronze.
Phosphorus present in such alloy increases the strength, ductility and soundness of castings.
Various compositions of this alloy are available for different applications.
The composition of the alloy varies according to whether it is to be forged, wrought or cast. A
common type of phosphor bronze has the following composition as per Indian standards. Copper
= 93.6%, tin = 9%, and phosphorus = 0.1 to 0.3%. The alloy possesses good wearing qualities and
high elasticity. The alloy is resistant to salt water corrosion.
Cast phosphor bronze is utilized for production of bearings and gears. Bearings of bronze contain
10% tin and small addition of lead. This is also used in making gears, nuts, for machine lead screws,
springs, pump parts, linings and many other such applications.
(2) Gun metal: Gun metal contains 2% zinc, 10% tin and 88% copper. It is a very famous
composition. Sometimes very small amount of lead is also added to improve castability and
machinability. The presence of zinc improve its fluidity. This bronze is used for bearing bushes,
glands, pump valves and boiler fittings, etc.
(3) Silicon bronze: Silicon bronze has an average composition of 3 per cent silicon, 1 percent
manganese and rest copper. It possesses good general corrosion resistance of copper with higher
strength and toughness. It can be cast rolled, stamped, forged and pressed either hot or cold and
can be welded by all the usual methods.
Silicon bronze is widely utilized for parts of boilers, tanks, stoves or where high strength as well
as corrosion resistance is required.
(4) Bell metal: This alloy contains 20 to 21% tin and rest copper. It is hard and resistant to surface
wear. It can be readily cast, is generally utilized for casting bells, gongs and utensils, etc.
(5) Manganese Bronze: It is an alloy of copper, zinc and manganese. It contains 55 to 60% copper,
40% zinc, with 3.5% manganese. This alloy is highly resistant to corrosion. It is stronger and
harder than phosphor bronze. It has poor response to cold working but can be easily hot worked.
It is generally utilized for producing bushes, plungers, feed pumps and rods, etc.
Worm gears are frequently made of manganese bronze.
(6) Muntz Metal: The composition of this alloy is 60 per cent copper and 40 per cent zinc.
Sometimes a small quantity of lead is also added. This alloy is stronger, harder and more ductile
than normal brass. While hot working between 700°C to 750, it responds excellently for process
but does not respond to cold working.
This alloy is utilized for a wide variety of small components of machines, bolts, rods, tubes,
electrical equipment as well as ordinance works. It is widely employed in producing such articles
which are required to resist wear.

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ALLOYS OF ALUMINUM
Aluminum may be alloyed with one or more alloying elements such as copper, manganese,
magnesium, silicon and nickel. The addition of small quantities of alloying elements converts the
soft and weak aluminium into hard and strong metal, while it retains its light weight. The main
alloys of aluminium are: Duralumin, Y-alloy, Magnalium and Hindalium which are discussed as
follows:
Duralumin:
A famous alloy of aluminium containing 4% copper, 0.5% manganese,0.5% magnesium and a trace
of iron with remainder as aluminium is known as duralumnin. It possesses high strength
comparable with mild steel and low specific gravity. However, its orrosion resistance is much
lower as compared with pure aluminium. The strength of this alloy increases significantly when
heat treated and allowed to age for 3 to 4 weeks it will be hardened. The phenomenon is termed
age hardening. To improve upon the corrosion resistance of it, a thin film of aluminium is rolled
on the duralumin sheets. These sheets are known as Alclad by trade name and are widely used in
aircraft industry.
It is widely utilized in wrought conditions for forging, stamping, bars, tubes and rivets. It can be
worked in hot condition at 500°C. However, after forging and annealing it could also be cold
worked. Due to light weight and high strength this alloy may be used in automobile industry.
(2) Y-Alloy: It is also known as copper-aluminium alloy. The addition of copper to pure aluminium
improves its strength and machinability. Y-alloy contains 93% aluminium, 2% copper, 1% nickel
and magnesium. This alloy is heat treated as well as age hardened just like duralumin. A heat
treatment of Y-alloy castings, consisting of quenching in boiling water from 510°C and then aging
for 5 days develops very good mechanical characteristics in them. Since Y-alloy has better strength
at elevated temperature than duralumin therefore it is much used in aircraft cylinder heads and
piston. It is also used in strip and sheet form.
(3) Magnalium: It is produced by melting the aluminium 2 to 10% magnesium in a vacuum and
then cooling it in vacuum or under a pressure of 100 to 200 atmospheres. About 1.75% copper is
also added to it. Due to its light weight and good mechanical characteristics, it is mainly used for
aircraft and automobile components.
(4) Hindalium: It is an alloy of aluminium and magnesium with small quantity of chromium. It is
manufactured as rolled product in 16 gauge mainly used in manufacture of anodized utensils.

ALLOYS OF NICKEL
(1) German silver: The composition of this alloy is 60% Cu, 30% Ni and 10% zinc. It displays
silvery appearance and is very ductile and malleable. It is utilized for electrical contacts, casting
of high quality valves, taps and costume jewellery. It is also used in producing electrical wires.
(2) Monel metal: It contains 68% Ni, 30% Cu, 1% iron and remainder small additions of Mn and
other elements. It is corrosion resistant and possesses good mechanical properties and maintains
them at elevated temperatures.
(3) Nichrome: It is an alloy of nickel and chromium which is utilized as heat resistant electrical
wire in electrical applicances such as furnaces, geysers and electric iron, etc.
(4) Inconel and incolony: These alloys principally contain, Ni, Cr, Fe, Mo, Ti and very small
proportions of carbon. These are used as high temperature alloys. Inconel does not respond to
heat treatment.

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CARBON AS AN ELECTRICAL MATERIAL, ITS PRODUCT (BRUSHES) AND APPLICATION
Carbon, in various forms and in combination of other materials, is widely used in electrical
engineering. Electrical carbon materials are manufactured from graphite and other forms of
carbon.
Carbon is having following applications in Electrical Engineering-
 For making filament of incandescent lamp
 For making electrical contacts
 For making resistors
 For making brushes for electrical machines such as DC machines, alternators.
 For making battery cell elements
 For making carbon electrodes for electric furnaces
 Arc lighting and welding electrodes
 For making component for vacuum valves and tubes
 For makings parts for telecommunication equipment.
 Carbon Use for Making Filament of Incandescent lamp
Carbon is used with inert gas medium for making filament for incandescent lamp. Resistivity of
carbon is about 1000-7000 µΩ -cm and melting point is about 3500oC. Which make it suitable for
making filament for Incandescent lamp. Commercial efficiency of carbon filament lamp is 4.5
lumens per watts or 3.5 watts per candle power. Carbon is having blackening effect in
incandescent lamp. To prevent this blackening of bulb, the working temperature is limited up to
1800oC
Carbon Use for Making Electrical Contacts
Carbon is used as fiber formed from polymers by pyrolysis. Carbon fibers shows an unusual
mechanical strength under a tensile load. These carbon fibers are used to increase the mechanical
strength of electrical contacts which are subject to under compressive or tensile loads during
operation. These carbon fibers also reduce the wear and tear of electrical contacts. Moreover,
carbon being a conductor of electricity, contributes for carrying current passing through electrical
contact in terms it reduces the contact resistance.
Carbon Use for Making Resistors
High resistivity, high melting point and low temperature coefficient of resistance make the carbon
suitable for manufacturing resistors. Resistors made of carbon are widely used in electronic
circuits.
Carbon Use for Making Brushes for Electrical DC Machines and
Alternators
 Graphite Carbon is very much suitable for making brushes for large rating DC machines
and alternators. Brushes made graphite carbon are having following advantages –
 Graphite Carbon brushes are having high contact resistance. This high resistance of
graphite carbon brushes helps to improve commutation.
 High thermal stability – which make them suitable to withstands at high temperature
developed due friction during operation of rotating machine.
 Self-lubrication between stationary brushes and rotating commutator or slip rings. Which
reduces the wear and tear of commutator or slip rings.

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Carbon Use for Making Dry Cell Elements
Carbon is an important element of construction of dry cells. Carbon is used for making electrodes
for zinc-carbon batteries (Dry cells). Carbon electrode works as positive pole of battery. In dry
cells the carbon is an inert material as it does not take part in electro-chemical reaction occurring
in dry cells.
Carbon Electrodes Use for Electric Furnaces
Graphite carbon is widely used for manufacturing the electrodes for Electric Arc furnaces. In
Electric Arc furnaces used for steel production the operating temperature level is about 2760oC.
Graphite carbon is only commercial available material which has the high level of electrical
conductivity and ability to with stand with such high level of temperature. Which make it suitable
for making electrodes for electric arc furnaces.
Graphite Carbon use for Arc Lighting and Welding Electrodes
Graphite carbon is also widely used for manufacturing the electrodes for Arc lighting and welding.
As discussed above, graphite carbon has the high level of electrical conductivity and ability to with
stand at high level of temperature during Arc lighting and welding. Which make it suitable for
making electrodes for Arc lighting and welding.
Carbon use as Component of Vacuum Valves and Tubes
In vacuum valves and tubes, carbon is used for coating of cathode and grid to protect against
mechanical deformation produced at very high temperature produced during operation of
vacuum vales and tubes. In high power application, the anode used in vacuum valves and tube,
must be capable to withstand at high operating temperature and must be capable to dissipate the
heat produced. For this purpose carbon is very much suitable for making anodes for vacuum
valves and tubes.
Carbon use for Makings Parts for Telecommunication Equipment
Carbon is used for making transducers such as microphones which converts the sound to
electrical signal. Before development of vacuum tube based amplifiers, the carbon-microphones
were the only practical means for obtaining high level audio signals.

CORROSION OF SOME COMMONLY USED FERROUS MATERIALS

Corrosion is defined as the destructive and unintentional degradation of a material caused by its
environment. Unfortunately for metals almost all environments can cause corrosion to some
degree, since the corroded state is the more stable state.

A common type of corrosion is rust, which is found on iron and steel structures. In this type of
corrosion, the iron is reacting with oxygen to form iron oxide compounds.
Corrosion can lead to failures in plant infrastructure and machines which are usually costly to
repair, costly in terms of lost or contaminated product, in terms of environmental damage, and
possibly costly in terms of human safety.
The chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a metal, and its environment
that produces a deterioration of the material and its properties is called corrosion.

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Categories of Corrosion
1) Dry corrosion
 Dry corrosion or oxidation occurs when oxygen in the air reacts with metal without the
presence of a liquid.
 Dry corrosion is surely the most visible of all corrosion processes, e.g. rusty bridges, flag
poles, buildings and outdoor monuments.
 Typically, dry corrosion is not as detrimental as wet corrosion, but it is very sensitive to
temperature. If you hold a piece of clean iron in a flame, you will soon see the formation of
an oxide layer!
 The differences in the rate of dry corrosion vary from metal to metal as a result of the
mechanisms involved.

 The difference in oxidation rates depends on the conductivity of the oxides because the
ions have to move through the oxide layer.

 Oxidation occurs much more rapidly as temperature increases because the mobility of ions
within the oxide layer increases.
 In some cases, dry corrosion is actually encouraged. The formation of an oxide layer on the
surface of a metal will, in some instances, lead to a reduction in the rate of corrosion.
 When a metal oxidises and forms an outer layer, this layer can remain on the surface of the
metal and limit further corrosion by inhibiting the ability of oxygen or other corrodents to
reach the metal surface. This is known as passivation.

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 Passivation
Passivation of a metal surface through the formation of an oxide layer is found in many
common metals and alloys. Aluminium naturally forms a protective oxide layer (or scale)
which slows down further oxidation and corrosion. Stainless steel has chromium added to
it, which forms a very protective oxide layer that prevents further corrosion.

 Dry Corrosion Reactions

The basic reaction involved in dry corrosion is:

Where M is a metal element.

The metal loses electrons to form an ion and some free electrons. The ionic metal can then
react with oxygen to form a metal oxide. In dry corrosion, the oxygen comes from the air,
in wet corrosion, the oxygen is supplied by aerated water.

2) Wet Corrosion
Wet Corrosion is the most common form of corrosion. It will occur if an “electrochemical cell” is
produced. An electrochemical cell consists of an Anode, a Cathode, a Connection, and an
Electrolyte.
 The anode is the metal that corrodes. It undergoes oxidation and therefore loses electrons.
 The cathode can be a metal or any other conducting material. It undergoes reduction and
therefore gains electrons. The reaction that occurs at the cathode is not necessarily related
to the material that it is made from.
 The connection is necessary for the electrons to travel between the anode and cathode and
can be either physical direct contact or some form of wire.
 An electrolyte must also be present to allow for migration of ions between the cathode and
anode and participate in the formation of corrosion products.

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Types of corrosion
General Attack Corrosion:
Also known as uniform attack corrosion, general attack corrosion is the most common type of
corrosion and is caused by a chemical or electrochemical reaction that results in the deterioration
of the entire exposed surface of a metal.
Ultimately, the metal deteriorates to the point of failure.
General attack corrosion accounts for the greatest amount of metal destruction by corrosion but
is considered as a safe form of corrosion, due to the fact that it is predictable, manageable and
often preventable.

Galvanic corrosion
A common type of corrosion is known as galvanic corrosion.
 Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals are connected in an electrolyte and
one metal corrodes in protection of the other.
 One metal is corroding in the same manner as we saw in wet corrosion (M —» Mn++ ne-)
while the other metal is reacting (Mn++ ne- —» M).
 From these two reactions we can see that the anodic electrode corrodes and the cathodic
electrode is protected. The corroded metal is called the sacrificial anode.

 Galvanic corrosion can cause unwanted accelerated corrosion when it is not considered
during design or construction, however it can also be used to advantage.
 When considering which metal will corrode we can look at the galvanic series. Metals
closer to one another generally do not have a strong effect on each other, but the further
apart two metals are, the stronger the corroding effect on the one higher in the list.
 Anodes and cathodes arise in many ways. As well as connection between two different
metals, a plain metal surface can have anodic and cathodic areas. For example:
- Grain boundaries can be anodic with respect to grain interiors.
- Cold worked regions are anodic to regions not cold worked.

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 One way in which engineers have used galvanic corrosion to their advantage is in
galvanised iron or steel. Here the iron or steel is coated in zinc. If you look at the galvanic
series, zinc is higher in the series than iron, so the zinc will corrode and protect the iron.
 Even if large portions of the zinc have corroded, it will still act to protect the iron or steel.

Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion is another form of corrosion that is important to many fields including civil
structures.
Stress-corrosion occurs when a material exists in a relatively inert environment but corrodes due
to an applied stress. The stress may be externally applied or residual.
This form of corrosion is particularly dangerous because it may not occur under a particular set
of conditions until there is an applied stress. The corrosion is not clearly visible prior to fracture
and can result in catastrophic failure.

Many alloys can experience stress corrosion, and the applied stress may also be due to a residual
stress in the material. An example of a residual stress could be a stress remaining in a material
after forming, or a stress due to welding.
Stress corrosion cracking will usually cause the material to fail in a brittle manner, which can have
grave consequences as there is usually little or no warning before the failure occurs.

Stress corrosion is a form of galvanic corrosion, where stressed areas of the material are anodic
to the unstressed areas of the material.
Practically the best way to control stress corrosion cracking is to limit or reduce the stresses a
material is under while it is in a corrosive atmosphere.

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Localized Corrosion:
Unlike general attack corrosion, localized corrosion specifically targets one area of the metal
structure. Localized corrosion is classified as one of three types:
 Pitting: Pitting results when a small hole, or cavity, forms in the metal, usually as a result
of de-passivation of a small area. This area becomes anodic, while part of the remaining
metal becomes cathodic, producing a localized galvanic reaction. The deterioration of this
small area penetrates the metal and can lead to failure. This form of corrosion is often
difficult to detect due to the fact that it is usually relatively small and may be covered and
hidden by corrosion-produced compounds
 Crevice corrosion: Similar to pitting, crevice corrosion occurs at a specific location. This
type of corrosion is often associated with a stagnant micro-environment, like those found
under gaskets and washers and clamps. Acidic conditions or a depletion of oxygen in a
crevice can lead to crevice corrosion.

 Filiform corrosion: Occurring under painted or plated surfaces when water breaches the
coating, filiform corrosion begins at small defects in the coating and spreads to cause
structural weakness.

Intergranular Corrosion

Intergranular corrosion occurs when the grain boundaries in a metal form an anode and the
interior of the grain acts as a cathode. In serious cases this can lead to the grains falling apart.
This type of corrosion is a particular problem in stainless steels, however it can also occur in other
metals.
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Corrosion prevention techniques
Corrosion prevention techniques can be generally classified into 6 groups:
1. Environmental Modifications
2. Metal Selection and Surface Conditions
3. Cathodic Protection
4. Corrosion Inhibitors
5. Coating
6. Plating
Environmental Modification
Corrosion is caused by chemical interactions between metal and gasses in the surrounding
environment. By removing the metal from, or changing, the type of environment, metal
deterioration can be immediately reduced.
This may be as simple as limiting contact with rain or seawater by storing metal materials
indoors or could be in the form of direct manipulation of the environmental affecting the metal.
Methods to reduce the sulfur, chloride or oxygen content in the surrounding environment can
limit the speed of metal corrosion.
For example, feed water for water boilers can be treated with softeners or other chemical media to
adjust the hardness, alkalinity or oxygen content in order to reduce corrosion on the interior of
the unit.
Metal Selection and Surface Conditions
No metal is immune to corrosion in all environments, but through monitoring and understanding
the environmental conditions that are the cause of corrosion, changes to the type of metal being
used can also lead to significant reductions in corrosion.
Metal corrosion resistance data can be used in combination with information on the
environmental conditions to make decisions regarding the suitability of each metal.
The development of new alloys, designed to protect against corrosion in specific environments, is
constantly under production.

Monitoring of surface conditions is also critical in protecting against metal deterioration from
corrosion. Cracks, gaps or as porous surfaces, whether a result of operational requirements, wear
and tear, or manufacturing flaws, all can result in greater rates of corrosion.
Proper monitoring and the elimination of unnecessarily vulnerable surface conditions, along with
taking steps to ensure that systems are designed to avoid reactive metal combinations and that
corrosive agents are not used in the cleaning or maintenance of metal parts are all also part of
effective corrosion reduction program.

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Cathodic Protection
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals are situated together in a corrosive
electrolyte.
This a common problem for metals submerged together in seawater, but can also occur when two
dissimilar metals are immersed in close proximity in moist soils. For these reasons, galvanic
corrosion often attacks ship hulls, offshore rigs, and oil and gas pipelines.
Cathodic protection works by converting unwanted anodic (active) regions on a metal's surface
to cathodic (passive) regions through the application of an opposing current. This opposing
current supplies free electrons and force local anodes to be polarized to the potential of the local
cathodes.
Cathodic protection can take two forms:
 The first is the introduction of galvanic anodes. The negative terminal of the current source
is connected to the metal, while the positive terminal is attached to an auxiliary anode,
which is added to complete the electrical circuit. This method, known as a sacrificial
system, uses metal anodes, introduced to the electrolytic environment, to sacrifice
themselves (corrode) in order to protect the cathode. In a sacrificial system, metallic ions
move from the anode to the cathode, which leads the anode to corrode more quickly than
it otherwise would. As a result, the anode must regularly be replaced.
 The second method of cathodic protection is referred to as impressed current protection. In
an impressed current protection system, the auxiliary anode is not sacrificed. This method,
which is often used to protect buried pipelines and ship hulls, requires an alternative
source of direct electrical current to be supplied to the electrolyte.
Corrosion Inhibitors
Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that react with the metal's surface or the environmental gasses
causing corrosion, thereby, interrupting the chemical reaction that causes corrosion.
Inhibitors can work by adsorbing themselves on the metal's surface and forming a protective film.
These chemicals can be applied as a solution or as a protective coating via dispersion techniques.
The inhibitors process of slowing corrosion depends upon:
 Changing the anodic or cathodic polarization behavior
 Decreasing the diffusion of ions to the metal's surface
 Increasing the electrical resistance of the metal's surface
Major end-use industries for corrosion inhibitors are petroleum refining, oil and gas exploration,
chemical production and water treatment facilities. The benefit of corrosion inhibitors is that they
can be applied to metals as a corrective action to counter unexpected corrosion.
Coatings
Paints and other organic coatings are used to protect metals from the degradative effect of
environmental gasses. Coatings are grouped by the type of polymer employed. Common organic
coatings include:
 Alkyd and epoxy ester coatings that, when air dried, promote cross-link oxidation
 Water-soluble coatings
 High-solid coatings
 Powder coatings
 Two-part urethane coatings
 Both acrylic and epoxy polymer radiation curable coatings
 Vinyl, acrylic or styrene polymer combination latex coatings

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Plating
Metallic coatings, or plating, can be applied to inhibit corrosion as well as provide aesthetic,
decorative finishes. There are four common types of metallic coatings:
1. Electroplating: A thin layer of metal - often nickel, tin, or chromium - is deposited on the
substrate metal (generally steel) in an electrolytic bath. The electrolyte usually consists of
a water solution containing salts of the metal to be deposited.
2. Mechanical plating: Metal powder can be cold welded to a substrate metal by dipping the
part, along with the powder and glass beads, in a treated aqueous solution. Mechanical
plating is often used to apply zinc or cadmium to small metal parts.
3. Electroless plating : A coating metal, such as cobalt or nickel, is deposited on the substrate
metal using a chemical reaction in this non-electric plating method.
4. Hot dipping: When immersed in a molten bath of the protective, coating metal a thin layer
adheres to the substrate metal.

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UNIT 3. DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
3.1 Definition of dielectric, macroscopic approach
A dielectric (or dielectric material) is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied
electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges slightly shift from
their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization. Because of dielectric
polarization, positive charges are displaced in the direction of the field and negative charges shift

Basic Definitions in Dielectrics

Electric Field
The region around the charge within which its effect is felt or experienced is known as electric
field.
The electric field is assumed to consist of imaginary electric lines of force. These lines of force
originate from the positive charges and terminate to the negative charges in the opposite
direction.

Electric field strength or electric field intensity (E)

Electric field strength at any point is defined as the force experienced by an unit positive charge
placed at the point. It is denoted by ‘E’.
‘q’ - magnitude of the charge in coulombs
‘f’ - force experienced by that charge in Newton,
electric field strength (E)
Its unit is Newton / Coulomb (or) volt / metre.

Electric flux
It is defined as the total number of electric lines of force passing through a given area in
the electric field. (Emanated from the positive charge). Unit: Coulomb

Electric flux density or electric displacement vector (D)

It is defined as the number of electric lines of force passing normally through an unit area
of cross section in the field.
Its unit is Coulomb / m2

Permittivity ()
Permittivity is defined as the ratio of electric displacement vector (D) in a dielectric
medium to the applied electric field strength (E). The permittivity indicates the degree to which
the medium can resist the flow of electric charge and is always greater than unity.
Mathematically the permittivity is,
=D/E
Its unit is Farad /metre

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3.2 Polarization, Dielectric constant, Electric Dipole moment,
Electronic polarization, Ionic polarization
Polarization
Dielectric polarization is the term given to describe the behavior of a dielectric material when an
external electric field is applied on it. A simple picture can be made using a capacitor as an
example. The figure below shows an example of a dielectric material in between two conducting
parallel plates. The charges in the material will have a response to the electric field caused by the
plates.

Figure 1: The bound charges are the charges that are touching the capacitor plates, while the free
charges usually float around in the material, but for this case, they are aligned with the bound
charges.
When a current interacts with a dielectric (insulating) material, the dielectric material will
respond with a shift in charge distribution with the positive charges aligning with the electric field
and the negative charges aligning against it. By taking advantage of this response, important
circuit elements such as capacitors can be made.

Dielectric constant (the relative permittivity)

Using the capacitor model, it is possible to define the relative permittivity as the dielectric
constant of the material by setting its relative permittivity equivalent to the ratio of the measured
capacitance and the capacitance of a test capacitor, which is also equal to the absolute permittivity
of the material divided by the permittivity of vacuum.

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Electric dipole moment (p)
The electric dipole moment is a measure of the separation of positive and negative electrical
charges within a system, that is, a measure of the system's overall polarity.
The electric-field strength of the dipole is proportional to the magnitude of dipole moment. The SI
units for electric dipole moment are coulomb-meter (C·m); however, the most common unit is
the debye (D).

Two point charges, one with charge +q and the other one with charge –q separated by a distance d,
constitute an electric dipole (a special case of an electric multipole). For this case, the electric
dipole moment has a magnitude

And is directed from the negative charge to the positive one.

Total dipole moment per unit volume is defined as Polarization, P i.e.
P=𝚺p/V
Unit of Polarization, P is C.m-2 i.e. charge per unit area.

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Electronic Polarization

Consider an atom. We know that it is electrically neutral. Furthermore, the centre of the negative
charge of the electrons coincides with the positive nuclear charge, which means that the atom has
no net dipole moment.
When a dielectric material is placed inside an electric field, such dipoles are created in all the
atoms inside. This phenomena is known as electronic polarization.
However, when this atom is placed in an external electric field, the centre of the positive charge is
displaced along the field direction while the centre of the negative charge is displaced in the
opposite direction.
 It increases with increase of volume of the atom.
 This kind of polarization is mostly exhibited in Monatomic gases.
 It occurs only at optical frequencies (1015Hz).
 It is independent of temperature.
 electronic Polarisability is directly proportional to cube of the radius of the atom.
∴ α =4 π€R3

Ionic polarization
When an electric field is applied to an ionic material then cations and anions get displaced in
opposite directions giving rise to a net dipole moment.
Example: NaCl (Salt)
In absence of electric field E, the distance between the ions is d but in presence of electric field,
distance between the ions increases.

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Thus ionic polarization is given as
Pi =n αiE
where
n is the number of molecules per unit volume,
αi is constant of proportionality known as ionic polarizability constant.
And E is external electric field applied
This polarization is independent of temperature.

3.3 Dielectric breakdown

Electrical breakdown or dielectric breakdown is when current flows through an electrical
insulator when the voltage applied across it exceeds the breakdown voltage. This results in the
insulator becoming electrically conductive.

Dielectric breakdown in gases

Electrical breakdown occurs within a gas when the dielectric strength of the gas is exceeded.
Regions of intense voltage gradients can cause nearby gas to partially ionize and begin conducting.

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This is done deliberately in low pressure discharges such as in fluorescent lights. The voltage that
leads to electrical breakdown of a gas is approximated by Paschen's Law.
Partial discharge in air causes the "fresh air" smell of ozone during thunderstorms or around
high-voltage equipment. Although air is normally an excellent insulator, when stressed by a
sufficiently high voltage (an electric field strength of about 3 x 106 V/m or 3 kV/mm, air can
begin to break down, becoming partially conductive. Across relatively small gaps, breakdown
voltage in air is a function of gap length times pressure. If the voltage is sufficiently high, complete
electrical breakdown of the air will culminate in an electrical spark or an electric arc that bridges
the entire gap.

The color of the spark depends upon the gases that make up the gaseous media. While the small
sparks generated by static electricity may barely be audible, larger sparks are often accompanied
by a loud snap or bang. Lightning is an example of an immense spark that can be many miles long.

Dielectric breakdown in liquids

Possible mechanisms for breakdown in liquids include bubbles, small impurities, and electrical
super-heating. The process of breakdown in liquids is complicated by hydrodynamic effects, since
additional pressure is exerted on the fluid by the non-linear electrical field strength in the gap
between the electrodes.
In liquefied gases used as coolants for superconductivity – such as Helium at 4.2 K or Nitrogen at
77 K – bubbles can induce breakdown.
In oil-cooled and oil-insulated transformers the field strength for breakdown is about 20 kV/mm
(as compared to 3 kV/mm for dry air). Despite the purified oils used, small particle contaminants
are blamed.

Dielectric breakdown in solids

In solid materials (such as in power cables) a long-time partial discharge typically precedes
breakdown, degrading the insulators and metals nearest the voltage gap. Ultimately the partial
discharge creates through a channel of carbonized material that conducts current across the gap.

3.4 Piezo-electricity
The term "piezoelectricity: refers to electricity generated using pressure. In other words,
Piezoelectricity is the electric charge which accumulates in the certain solid materials when
mechanical stress is being applied. The materials include crystals, ceramics and biological matters
e.g. DNA, bone etc. The effect of compression is shown in the figure-1.

Properties
Piezoelectricity is electric charge that accumulates in response to applied mechanical stress in
materials that have non-symmetric crystal structures.

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Naturally occurring crystals: Berlinite (AlPO4), cane sugar, Quartz, Rochelle salt, Topaz,
Tourmaline Group Minerals, and dry bone (apatite crystals)

Uses
Quartz
 Most abundant and widely used.
 Non- ferroelectric.
 Alternating field applied to the crystal-it vibrates with a characteristic frequency which
depends on the crystal geometry.
 Used as a dielectric-excellent frequency standard.
 Hexagonal structure.
 E.g crystal oscillators are used as frequency standards in watches, electronic clocks,
computer clocks.
 Piezoelectric elements can be used in laser mirror alignment, where their ability to move a
large mass (the mirror mount) over microscopic distances is exploited. By electronically
vibrating the mirror it gives the light reflected off it a Doppler shift to fine tune the laser's
frequency.
 The piezo motor is viewed as a high precision replacement for the stepper motor.
 Traveling-wave motors used for auto-focus in cameras.
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3.5 Ferro electricity
The term "Ferroelectricity" is the property of certain non-conducting crystals or dielectrics which
exhibit spontaneous electric polarization. This polarization can be reversed by applying
appropriate electric field. This is shown in the figure below.

Fig: Dielectric polarization Paraelectric polarization , Ferroelectric polarization

Ferroelectricity is a characteristic of certain materials that have a spontaneous electric
polarization that can be reversed by the application of an external electric field.

Properties
 Spontaneous polarization in the absence applied electrical field.
 Extremely high dielectric constant (~500-15,000).
 Strong non-linear dielectric response to an applied electrical field.
 High strain response to applied electrical field = piezoelectricity
 Strong variation in polarization with temperature = pyroelectricity

Ferroelectric materials and piezoelectric materials can be compared with the help of following
points :
a) In piezoelectricity, the crystal is polarized by the application of an external stress, whereas in
ferroelectricity the source of polarization is the dipole interaction energy (dipole moment ) itself.
b) Both the phenomena occur in non-symmetrical crystals which are 20 in number.
Piezoelectricity occurs in all the 20 crystals, whereas ferroelectricity only in 10.
c) All ferroelectrics are therefore piezoelectric, but all piezoelectrics are not ferroelectric. For
example: tourmaline is piezoelectric, but not ferroelectric.

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3.5 Properties of some dielectric materials
SN Materials Dielectric Strength Relative
(kV/mm) permittivity
1. Air 3 1
2. Bakelite 20 to 25 5.6
3. Glass 5 to 12 3.3
4. Mica 40 to 150 3.8
5. Paper 4.8 to 9 2 to 2.5
6. Procelein 9 to 20 4 to 7
7. Transformer oil 25 to 30 2.0
8. Rubber 12 to 28 2.3 to 9.5

3.6 Dielectric loss (Loss Tangent)

When an AC voltage is applied to a dielectric material, some amount of electrical energy is
absorbed by the dielectric material and is wasted in the form of heat. This loss is known as
dielectric loss.
When dielectric material is placed between two conducting plates and potential is applied, then
stress is developed. When potential is reversed, stress also reversed. That causes molecular
rearrangement and energy loss in each arrangement.
For discrete electrical circuit components, a capacitor is typically made of a dielectric placed
between conductors. The lumped element model of a capacitor includes a lossless ideal capacitor
in parallel with a resistor R, as shown in the figure below:

When AC voltage V is applied across dielectric material, it will draw certain current I. there is no
power loss in ideal capcitor, it is due to resistance contained inside dielectric.
a) In an ideal dielectric, the current Ic leads the voltage V by an angle of 90 degree.
b) But in the case of a commercial dielectric, the current does not exactly leads the voltage by 90
degree. It leads by some other angle δ less than 90 degree.this angle is called loss angle.
Current Ic always leads the supply AC voltage V. so, in Phasor diagram, it is represented as follows:

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Ic I

δ
Ф Ir
V
Where,
Ic= current flowing through ideal capacitor in consideration as a pure dielectric.
Ir=current through a resistnce component of a dielectric.
Ф =phase angle between current I and Voltage V. (in AC circuit)
The electrical power is given by:
P= VI cos Ф in watts…………………….. (1)
From diagram,
Ф=90- δ…………………………..(2)
And, from above diagram,
cos δ= Ic/I
Or, I= Ic / cos δ……………………..(3)
Thus, from (1), (2) and (3)
P= VI cos Ф
= VI cos (90- δ )
= VI sin(δ )
= V. (Ic / cos δ ) . sin(δ )
P=V.Ic. Tan δ
But, for a capacitor,
Ic= Voltage/Reactance = V/Xc = V/(1/ѡC)= V ѡC
Where, Xc =1/ѡC and ѡ= 2𝝅𝒇
Hence,
P= V.Ic. Tan δ
= V. (V ѡC). Tan δ
P= V2 2𝝅𝒇 C Tan δ in watts
The dielectric power loss can be parameterized in terms of either the loss angle δ or the
corresponding loss tangent tan δ.
Conclusions:
 Dielectric loss is proportional to frequency f and square of supply voltage.

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 Dielectric loss increases with increase of temperature too.

3.7 Insulating materials

Introduction
The materials which have very high resistivity i.e. offers a very high resistance to the flow of
electric current. Insulating materials plays an important part in various electrical and electronic
circuits. In domestic wiring insulating material protect us from shock and also prevent leakage
current. So insulating material offers a wide range of uses in engineering applications.
A perfect insulator does not exist, because even insulators contain small numbers of mobile
charges (charge carriers) which can carry current. In addition, all insulators become electrically
conductive when a sufficiently large voltage is applied that the electric field tears electrons away
from the atoms. This is known as the breakdown voltage of an insulator. Some materials such
as glass, paper and Teflon, which have high resistivity, are very good electrical insulators. A much
larger class of materials, even though they may have lower bulk resistivity, are still good enough
to prevent significant current from flowing at normally used voltages, and thus are employed as
insulation for electrical wiring and cables. Examples include rubber-like polymers and
most plastics.

Factors affecting selection of an insulating material

1. Operating condition : Before selecting an insulating material for a particular application the
selection should be made on the basis of operating temperature, pressure and magnitude of
voltage and current.
2. Easy in shaping : Shape and size is also important affect.
3. Availability of material : The material is easily available.
4. Cost : Cost is also a important factor.

Identification of insulating materials in general uses and their characteristics

Knowledge of various type of insulating materials is the most powerful tool in selection of right
insulating material for proper use .
The properties can be classified as

Electrical properties:

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Thermal properties.
Chemical properties.
Physical/Mechanical properties.
Electrical characteristics of some insulating materials
plastics,
resign,
porcelain,
glass,
fiber glass,
mica,
oil,
insulating varnishes,
gases (SF6)

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UNIT 4. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
4.1. Definition, elements of semi-conductor materials, electrical
nature.
4.2. Band structure of Group IV materials, energy gap.
4.3. Atomic structure of silicon, germanium
4.4. Formation of electron and hole
4.5. Electrical conduction in semi-conductors
4.6. Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductor, concept of doping
4.7. N type semiconductor
4.8. P type semiconductor

UNIT 5. OLD QUESTIONS

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