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Analog Filters Using MATLAB

This document provides an overview and introduction to analog filter design using MATLAB. It discusses different types of analog filters and their applications. The document is divided into multiple chapters that cover topics such as: signal and system terminology; passive and active filter technologies; synthesis of Butterworth and Chebyshev filters; and realization of filters using lumped and distributed elements. MATLAB functions are provided to design advanced analog filters without requiring advanced mathematics. The intended audience is electrical engineers learning analog filter design.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
109 views

Analog Filters Using MATLAB

This document provides an overview and introduction to analog filter design using MATLAB. It discusses different types of analog filters and their applications. The document is divided into multiple chapters that cover topics such as: signal and system terminology; passive and active filter technologies; synthesis of Butterworth and Chebyshev filters; and realization of filters using lumped and distributed elements. MATLAB functions are provided to design advanced analog filters without requiring advanced mathematics. The intended audience is electrical engineers learning analog filter design.

Uploaded by

Thanhha Nguyen
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Analog Filters Using MATLAB

Lars Wanhammar

Analog Filters Using


MATLAB

13
Lars Wanhammar
Department of Electrical Engineering
Division of Electronics Systems
Linköping University
SE-581 83 Linköping
Sweden
[email protected]

ISBN 978-0-387-92766-4 e-ISBN 978-0-387-92767-1


DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-92767-1
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2008942084

# Springer ScienceþBusiness Media, LLC 2009


All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written
permission of the publisher (Springer ScienceþBusiness Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York,
NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in
connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer
software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they
are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are
subject to proprietary rights.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer ScienceþBusiness Media (www.springer.com)


Preface

This book was written for use in a course at Linköping University and to aid the
electrical engineer to understand and design analog filters. Most of the advanced
mathematics required for the synthesis of analog filters has been avoided by
providing a set of MATLAB functions that allows sophisticated filters to be
designed. Most of these functions can easily be converted to run under Octave as
well.
The first chapter gives an overview of filter technologies, terminology,
and basic concepts. Approximation of common frequency selective filters
and some more advanced approximations are discussed in Chapter 2. The
reader is recommended to compare the standard approximation with
respect to the group delay, e.g., Example 2.5, and learn to use the corre-
sponding MATLAB functions. Geometrically symmetric frequency trans-
formations are discussed as well as more general synthesis using MATLAB
functions.
Chapter 3 deals with passive LC filters with lumped elements. The
reader may believe that this is an outdated technology. However, it is
still being used and more importantly the theory behind all advanced filter
structures is based on passive LC filters. This is also the case for digital
and switched-capacitor filters. The reader is strongly recommended to
carefully study the principle of maximum power transfer, sensitivity to
element errors, and the implications of Equation (3.26). MATLAB func-
tions are used for the synthesis of ladder and lattice structures. Chapter 4
deals with passive filters with distributed elements. These are useful for
very high-frequency applications, but also in the design of corresponding
wave digital filters.
In Chapter 5, basic circuit elements and their description as one-, two-, and
three-ports are discussed.
Chapter 6 discusses first- and second-order sections using single and
multiple amplifiers. The reader is recommended to study the implication
of the gain-sensitivity product and the two-integrator loop. Chapter 7 dis-
cusses coupled forms and signal scaling, and Chapter 8 discusses various
methods for immitance simulation. Wave active filters are discussed in

v
vi Preface

Chapter 9 and leapfrog filters in Chapter 10. Finally, tuning techniques are
discussed in Chapter 11.
Text with a smaller font is either solved examples or material that the reader
may skip over without losing the main points.

Linköping
Sweden Lars Wanhammar
Contents

1 Introduction to Analog Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1


1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Signals and Signal Carriers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Analog Signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Continuous-Time Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3 Signal Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.4 Discrete-Time and Digital Signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Filter Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Filter Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Filter Realizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Examples of Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.1 Carrier Frequency Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.2 Anti-aliasing Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.3 Hard Disk Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Analog Filter Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.1 Passive Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.2 Active Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.3 Integrated Analog Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.4 Technologies for Very High Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.5 Frequency Ranges for Analog Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Discrete-Time Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.1 Switched Capacitor Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.2 Digital Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Analog Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7.1 Frequency Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7.2 Magnitude Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7.3 Attenuation Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7.4 Phase Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7.5 LP, HP, BP, BS, and AP Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7.6 Phase Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7.7 Group Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

vii
viii Contents

1.8 Transfer Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18


1.8.1 Poles and Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8.2 Minimum-Phase and Maximum-Phase Filters . . . . . . . . 20
1.9 Impulse Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.9.1 Impulse Response of an Ideal LP Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.10 Step Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.11 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Synthesis of Analog Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Filter Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.1 Magnitude Function Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.2 Attenuation Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.3 Group Delay Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Composite Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Standard LP Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.1 Butterworth Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.2 Poles and Zeros of Butterworth Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.3 Impulse and Step Response of Butterworth Filters . . . . 34
2.4.4 Chebyshev I Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.5 Poles and Zeros of Chebyshev I Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4.6 Reflection Zeros of Chebyshev I Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4.7 Impulse and Step Response of Chebyshev I Filters . . . . 40
2.4.8 Chebyshev II Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.9 Poles and Zeros of Chebyshev II Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.10 Impulse and Step Response of Chebyshev II Filters . . . . 46
2.4.11 Cauer Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4.12 Poles and Zeros of Cauer Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4.13 Impulse and Step Response of Cauer Filters . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4.14 Comparison of Standard Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.4.15 Design Margin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.4.16 Lowpass Filters with Piecewise-Constant
Stopband Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5 Miscellaneous Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.1 Filters with Diminishing Ripple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.2 Multiple Critical Poles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.3 Papoulis Monotonic L Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.4 Halpern Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.5 Parabolic Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.6 Linkwitz-Riley Crossover Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.7 Hilbert Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6 Delay Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6.1 Gauss Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6.2 Lerner Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6.3 Bessel Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6.4 Lowpass Filters with Equiripple Group Delay . . . . . . . . 60
2.6.5 Equiripple Group Delay Allpass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.7 Frequency Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Contents ix

2.8 LP-to-HP Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60


2.8.1 LP-to-HP Transformation of the Group Delay . . . . . . . 62
2.9 LP-to-BP Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.10 LP-to-BS Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.11 Piecewise-Constant Stopband Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.12 Equalizing the Group Delay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.13 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3 Passive Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2 Resonance Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2.1 Q Factor of Coils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2.2 Q Factor for Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.3 Doubly Terminated LC Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3.1 Maximum Power Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3.2 Insertion Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3.3 Doubly Resistively Terminated Lossless Networks . . . . 80
3.3.4 Broadband Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.3.5 Reflection Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.6 Characteristic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.7 Feldtkeller’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3.8 Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3.9 Element Errors in Doubly Terminated Filters . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.10 Design of Doubly Terminated Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.4 Lowpass Ladder Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.4.1 RCLM One-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4.2 Generic Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4.3 Lowpass Ladder Structures without Finite Zeros. . . . . . 91
3.4.4 Lowpass Ladder Structures with Finite Zeros . . . . . . . . 92
3.4.5 Design of Lowpass LC Ladder Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5 Frequency Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.5.1 Changing the Impedance Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.5.2 Changing the Frequency Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.5.3 LP-to-HP Transformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.5.4 Multiplexers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.5.5 LP-BP Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.5.6 LP-BS Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.6 Network Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.6.1 Dual Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.6.2 Symmetrical and Antimetrical Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.6.3 Reciprocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.6.4 Bartlett’s Bisection Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.6.5 Delta-Star Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.6.6 Norton Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.6.7 Impedance Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.6.8 Transformations to Absorb Parasitic Capacitance . . . . . 113
3.6.9 Minimum-Inductor Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.7 Lattice Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.7.1 Symmetrical Lattice Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
x Contents

3.7.2 Synthesis of Lattice Reactances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117


3.7.3 Element Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.7.4 Bartlett and Brune’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.7.5 Bridged-T Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.7.6 Half-Lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.7.7 Reactance One-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.8 Allpass Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.8.1 Constant-R Lattice Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.8.2 Constant-R Bridged-T Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.8.3 Constant-R Right-L and Left-L Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.8.4 Equalizing the Group Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.8.5 Attenuation Equalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.9 Electromechanical Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.9.1 Mechanical Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.9.2 Crystal Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.9.3 Ceramic Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.9.4 Surface Acoustic Wave Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.9.5 Bulk Acoustic Wave Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4 Filters with Distributed Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.2 Transmission Lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.2.1 Wave Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.2.2 Chain Matrix for Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.2.3 Lossless Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.2.4 Richards’ Variable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.2.5 Unit Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3 Microstrip and Striplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.3.1 Stripline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.3.2 Microstrip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.3.3 MIC and MMIC Microstrip Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.4 Commensurate-Length Transmission Line Filters. . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.4.1 Richards’ Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.5 Synthesis of Richards’ Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.5.1 Richards’ Filters with Maximally Flat
Passband . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.5.2 Richards’ Filters with Equiripple Passband . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.5.3 Implementation of Richards’ Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.6 Ladder Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.7 Ladder Filters with Inserted Unit Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.7.1 Kuroda-Levy Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.8 Coupled Resonators Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.8.1 Immitance Inverters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.8.2 BP Filters Using Capacitively Coupled
Resonators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.9 Coupled Line Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.9.1 Parallel-Coupled Line Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.9.2 Hairpin-Line Bandpass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Contents xi

4.9.3 Interdigital Bandpass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152


4.9.4 Combline Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5 Basic Circuit Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.2 Passive and Active n-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.3 Passive and Active One-Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.3.1 Passive One-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.3.2 Active One-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.4 Two-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.4.1 Chain Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.4.2 Impedance and Admittance Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.4.3 Passive Two-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.4.4 Active Two-Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.5 Three-Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.5.1 Passive Three-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.5.2 Active Three-Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.6 Operational Amplifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.6.1 Small-Signal Model of Operational Amplifiers. . . . . . . . 162
5.6.2 Implementation of an Operational Amplifier . . . . . . . . . 164
5.7 Transconductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.7.1 Transconductance Feedback Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.7.2 Small-Signal Model for Transconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.7.3 Implementation of a Transconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.8 Current Conveyors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.8.1 Current Conveyor I (CCI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.8.2 Current Conveyor II (CCII) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.8.3 Current Conveyor III (CCIII) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.8.4 Small-Signal Model for Current Conveyor II . . . . . . . . . 167
5.8.5 CMOS Implementation of a CCII– . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.9 Realization of Two-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.9.1 Realization of Controlled Sources: Amplifiers . . . . . . . . 168
5.9.2 Realization of Integrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.9.3 Realization of Immitance Inverters and Converters . . . . 175
5.10 Realization of One-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.10.1 Integrated Resistors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.10.2 Differential Miller Integrators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.10.3 Integrated Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.10.4 Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.10.5 FDNRs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.11 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6 First- and Second-Order Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.2 First-Order Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.2.1 First-Order LP Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.2.2 First-Order HP Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.2.3 First-Order AP Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.3 Realization of First-Order Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
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6.4 Second-Order Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190


6.4.1 Second-Order LP Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.4.2 Second-Order HP Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.4.3 Second-Order LP-Notch Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.4.4 Second-Order HP-Notch Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.4.5 Second-Order BP Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.4.6 Element Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.4.7 Gain-Sensitivity Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.4.8 Amplifiers with Finite Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.4.9 Comparison of Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.5 Single-Amplifier Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.5.1 RC Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.5.2 Gain-Sensitivity Product for SAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.5.3 Sections with Negative Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.5.4 NF2 AP Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.5.5 Sections with Positive Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.5.6 ENF Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.5.7 Complementary Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.6 Transconductor-Based Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.7 GIC-Based Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.7.1 GIC LP Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.7.2 GIC LP-Notch Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.7.3 GIC HP Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.7.4 GIC HP-Notch Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.7.5 GIC BP Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.7.6 GIC AP Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.8 Two-Integrator Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.8.1 Two-Integrator Loops with Lossless Integrators . . . . . . 215
6.8.2 Kerwin-Huelsman-Newcomb Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.8.3 Transposed Two-Integrator Loop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.8.4 Two-Integrator Loops with Lossy Integrators . . . . . . . . 218
6.8.5 Tow-Thomas Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.8.6 Åkerberg-Mossberg Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.9 Amplifiers with Low GB Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.9.1 Differential Two-Integrator Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.9.2 Transconductor Based on Two-Integrator Loops . . . . . 222
6.9.3 Current Conveyors-Based Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.10 Sections with Finite Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.10.1 Summing of Node Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.10.2 Injection of the Input Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.11 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7 Coupled Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.2 Taxonomy for Analog Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.2.1 Coupled Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.2.2 Simulation of Ladder Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.3 Cascade Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.3.1 Optimization of Dynamic Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
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7.3.2 Thermal Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236


7.3.3 Noise in Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.3.4 Noise in Passive and Active Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.3.5 Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.3.6 Pairing of Poles and Zeros. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.3.7 Ordering of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.3.8 Optimizing the Section Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.3.9 Scaling of Internal Nodes in Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
7.3.10 LTC1562 and LTC1560. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.4 Parallel Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
7.5 Multiple-Feedback Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
7.5.1 Follow-the-Leader-Feedback Form(FLF) . . . . . . . . . . . 246
7.5.2 Inverse Follow-the-Leader-Feedback Form . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.5.3 Minimum Sensitivity Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.6 Transconductor-Based Coupled Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.6.1 Inverse Follow-the-Leader-Feedback Form . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.6.2 Finite Transmission Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
7.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8 Immitance Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
8.2 PIC-Based Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
8.3 Gyrator-Based Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
8.3.1 Transconductor-Based Gyrator-C Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
8.3.2 CCII-Based Gyrator-C Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
8.4 Gorski-Popiel’S Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.5 Bruton’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
9 Wave Active Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
9.2 Generalized Wave Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
9.2.1 Wave Transmission Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
9.2.2 Chain Scattering Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
9.2.3 Generalized Scattering Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
9.2.4 Voltage Scattering Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
9.3 Interconnection of Wave Two-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
9.4 Elementary Wave Two-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
9.5 Higher-Order Wave One-Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.6 Circulator-Tree Wave Active Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
9.7 Realization of Wave Two-Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
9.7.1 Realization of a Generic Wave Two-Port . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
9.7.2 Differential Wave Two-Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
9.8 Realization of Wave Active Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
9.9 Power Complementarity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
9.10 Alternative Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
9.11 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
10 Topological Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
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10.2 LP Filters Without Finite Zeros. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277


10.2.1 Lowpass Leapfrog Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
10.2.2 Realization of the Signal-Flow Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
10.2.3 Scaling of Signal Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
10.3 Geometrically Symmetric BP Leapfrog Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
10.4 Lowpass Filters Realized with Transconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
10.5 LP Filters with Finite Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
10.5.1 Odd-Order Lowpass Filters with Finite Zeros . . . . . . . 285
10.5.2 Even-Order Lowpass Filters with Finite Zeros . . . . . . . 287
10.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
11 Tuning Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
11.2 Component Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
11.2.1 Absolute Component Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
11.2.2 Ratio Errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
11.2.3 Dummy Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
11.3 Trimming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
11.3.1 Trimming of Second-Order Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
11.3.2 LC Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
11.4 On-Line Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
11.4.1 Pseudo-on-Line Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
11.4.2 Master-Slave Frequency Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
11.4.3 Master-Slave Q Factor Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
11.5 Off-Line Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
11.5.1 Tuning of Composite Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
11.5.2 Parasitic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
11.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Toolbox for Analog Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Note to Instructors

The solutions manual for the book can be found on the author’s webpage at
http://www.es.isy.liu.se/publications/books/Analog Filters Using MATLAB/.
Supplementary information can also be found on the author’s webpage.

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