MODULE 1

THE FIELD OF FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

What is Forensic Science?

Forensic Science
• is the application of scientific techniques and principles in order to provide evidence to legal
or related investigations and determinations.
• it can be defined as a science as it pertains to legal problems

Criminalistics
• application of forensic science to criminal matters
• in practice, criminalistics applies science to the solution of crimes through examination of
physical evidence in the field orthe crime laboratory.

What is Forensic Document Examination?

The American Board of Forensic Document Examiners defines forensic document examination as the
practice of the application of document examination tothe purposes of the law. This includes the
identification of handwriting, typewriting, the authenticity of signatures, alterations in documents,
the significance of inks and papers, photocopying processes, writing instruments, sequence of
writings and otherelements of a document in relation to its authenticity or spuriousness (Eckert,
1997).

Forensic document examination is also usually called questioned document examination or scientific
examination of questioned documents. In the Philippines crime laboratories and popular media
refer to it simply as “QD” as short for “questioned documents.” It is also known by other names such
as handwriting examination or handwriting analysis. It should, however, be distinguished from
graphology, which is the study of handwriting to identify the writer’s personality traits. Forensic
document examiners-do not engage in personality identification via a study of handwriting.

The terms forensic document examination and questioned document examination will be used
interchangeably in this textbook to refer to the task of answering questions about a disputed
document using a variety of scientific processesand methods.

These questions may include the following: Is the document authentic? Was anything added to or
removed from the document? Does the handwriting belong to the individual or the typescript to a
particular machine? What is the age of the document? If the document has been altered, can we
recover any of the original? Analyses are conducted in order to answer these questions and be able
to determinewho created or what device was used to create it, what changes have occurred since its
original production, and if it is as old as it purports to be.

Examinations include the following:

• Handwriting and signature comparisons
• Detection of alterations, deletions, and substitutions
• Mechanical and electronic impression comparisons
• Detection of counterfeits
• Decipherment of obliterated text
• Examination of water-soaked, charred, stained or torn documents
• Ink and paper comparison
• Determination of sequence of entry
• Detection and analysis of indented and other accidental writings
• Age of documents

A combination of examination techniques may be required depending on the questions raised about
the integrity and method of production of the questioned document. Example of questioned
documents submitted for such examination includethe following:

• Wills
• Checks
• Credit card receipts
• Business contracts
• Marriage contracts
• Birth certificates
• Mortgages, deeds of land, transfers, and leases
• Insurance applications
• Agreements
• Accounting ledgers and financial records
• Anonymous and threatening letters
• Suicide notes
• Tests and examinations
• Medical charts
• Diaries, agendas and appointment books
• Legal files

The PNP Questioned Document Examination Division

The Philippine National Police (PNP) Forensic Services Group includes the Questioned Document
Examination Division (QDED) which aims to provide scientific support in forms of document and
testimonial evidence. Their function to examine questioned documents specifically includes the
following:
1. Handwriting examination — including hand lettering (such as anonymous letters, ransom
notes and suicide notes) and Signatures (such as thoseappearing in deeds of absolute sale,
receipts, marriage contracts and land titles)

2. Imprint examination - including those produced by manual devices (rubber stamps, dater
stamps and some cancellation stamps), mechanical devices (typewriters and cheque writers),
and electronic: printing devices, (typewriters, computer printers, time clocks and cash
registers); also includes those produced by the manufacture ef counterfeits (currencies,
negotiable instruments, travel documents, licenses, and various personal credentials and
identification documents)

3. Writing media examination — including instruments, inks and papers

4. Dating examination — including absolute determinations {e.g., dates of introduction of

products) and relative determination (e.g., erasures or alterations), changes, insertions and
substitutions
5. Examination of falsification and alterations — including removals (e.g., erasures or
alterations), changes, insertions and substitutions

6. Examination of invisible, faded and obscured writings and impressions of writings

7. Examination of preternatural paper characteristics - including tears, fasteners (e.g.,

paper clips and staples), cuts and perforations

8. Miscellaneous examination — including envelope tampering, adhesives,

laminations, typist’s characteristics and linguistics

9. Conduct lectures to PNP, AFP and other government agencies

10. Conduct field laboratory works - questioned document examiners are sent to
agencies/offices to conduct examination and to photograph original documents that cannot
be submitted to the PNP Crime Laboratory

11. Attend court duties

Document examinations performed by the PNP-QDED are based on written requests from government
agencies, private investigating agencies, court orders, as well as private requesting parties. However,
documents previously examined by any competent government agency are not reexamined unless
ordered by the court of law. If the case is undergoing trial in court, disputed documents are examined
only upon order of the court having jurisdiction of the case.

The PNP Forensic Services Group provides frontline services for the examination of questioned
documents. Below is a table showing the requirements for the conduct of examination based on the
PNP Citizen’s - Charter (PNP, 2016).

PNP FORENSICSSERVICES DOCUMENTARY

FEES DURATION
REQUIREMENTS
• Four (4) copies of letter
Examination of altered or erased
P2,000.00 4 working days request
documents
• Original copy of
altered/erased document
• Four (4) copies of letter
Examination ofcounterfeit bills P2,000.00 3 working days request
• Original of the questioned
bills
• Four (4) copies of letter
request
HandwritingIdentification 10 working • Original copy of at least five
P3,500.00 days (5) pages extended
handwriting of similar
writing style of subject
individual
• Four (4) copies of letter
request
• Original of questioned
Signature Identification 10 working document
P2,000.00 days • Original copy of at least
eight (8) different
documents bearing similar
writing style and standard
signatures, executed five
years before and after the
execution of the
questioned signature
Fees and Duration Reflect Rates as of August 2016

The Forensic Document Examiner

Document Examiner
• One who studies scientifically the details and elements of documents in order to identify their
source or to discoverother facts concerning them.
• Are often referred to as handwriting identification experts, but today the work has outgrown
this latter titleand involves other problems than merely the examination of handwriting.

The profession of forensic document examination did not develop as an extension of other scientific
professions such as medicine, chemistry, or engineering, instead, it evolved within the legal system
due to the courts’ need for assistance in interpreting evidence relating to questioned documents.
(Kelly & Lindblom, 2006).

Goal of the Forensic Document Examiner

The goal of a forensic document examiner is to study and investigate documents in order to
determine the facts about their preparation and history. The work usually involves the examination
of handwriting, but the forensic document examiner’s scope of expertise also includes the following:

- Recognizing genuineness
- Analyzing color tone of inks, papers and other substances that comprisedocuments
- Revealing additions and substitutions
- Restoring or deciphering erased and obliterated writing

Qualification of the PNP Questioned Document Examiners

✓ Licensed Criminologist
✓ Has specialized training of at least 6 months under the supervision of the PNPCrime
Laboratory
✓ 6 months of continuous and actual QDE under the supervision of a qualifiedforensic
document examiner of the PNP Crime Laboratory
Duties and Responsibilities of the Forensic Document Examiner
1. To examine, identify, compare, and analyze signatures, handwritings, initialsand typewriting
in questioned documents

2. To conduct examination, identification, comparison, and analysis of obliterations,

erasures and abrasions in checks, treasury notes and stamps
3. To conduct examination, comparison and analysis of interlineations, insertions,and distortions
in questioned documents

4. To take photographic reproductions of evidence that are examined, compared,analyzed, and

identified
5. To evaluate and prepare reports on documents examined

6. To conduct lectures regarding the different examinations on questioneddocuments, as well

as the functions and capabilities of the QDED

7. To appear as expert witness in civil and military courts regarding findings onQDs.
MODULE 2
HISTORY OF FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

HISTORY OF WRITING

Writings
• are letters or symbols that are written or imprinted on a surface torepresent the sounds or
words of a language.
• it consists of messages that convey ideas to others.
• Its evolution is based on man’s desire to communicate his thoughtswith others.

Early Writings
Cave Drawings are of course the most familiar of early writings. They are, in fact, the first record
of prehistoric people. Cave drawings are called petroglyphs orpetrograms and they developed
between 20,000 and 10,000 BC.

Hieroglyphics are paintings gradually developed into word pictures or ideographs which
were used by Sumerians, Chinese, Aztecs, Mayas and Egyptians.

Word pictures developed into symbols which were then used to represent sounds or syllables called
phonographs. This then developed into simplified phonetic symbols called phonetic alphabet, an
alphabet of characters intended to represent specific sounds of speech The Sumerians are credited
with the development of the first alphabet.

The Phoenician alphabet was used and spread by them throughout the worldwas between 1700 1500
BC. It consisted of 22 letters and was written right to left.

The Greek alphabet was derived from the Phoenician alphabet and has beenused by the Greeks
since the 8th Century BC. The word alphabet was derived from theGreek alphabet’s first 2 letters, alpha
and beta. Their alphabet consisted of 24 letters and included vowels The Greeks changed the writing
direction from left to right.

The Greek alphabet evolved into the Roman alphabet or the Latin alphabet,which initially consisted
of disconnected capital letters for several centuries Roman scribes invented the lowercase letters that
were patterned from the capital letters These letters simplified the forms and made it easier to copy
manuscripts.

HISTORY OF FORGERY

The crime of Forgery has been practiced since ancient times where writing existed. The following are
important events in the history of forgery

Romans prohibited the falsification of documents thattransferred land

80 BC
to heirs
Middle Ages Forgery became prevalent in Europe
England passed a statute prohibiting forgery publicly recorded
1562 and officially sealed documents, specifically those pertaining totitles for land
False endorsement on an unsealed private document became acrime punishable
1726 by pillory, fines, imprisonment, and even death

England issued one-pound bills inscribed on ordinary white paper with a simple
pen and ink, resulting in massive forgeriesand the arrest of 94,000 people, 7,700
1819
of which were sentenced
to death
The United States enacted the principal federal forgery statute that prohibited
1823 false making, forgery, or the alteration of any
writing for the purpose of obtaining financial gain
The American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code simplified anddefined the
1962 elements of forgery and became the standard for
defining the crime of forgery

EXPERT WITNESSES

In 539 AD in Rome, the Justinian Code permitted judges to appoint experts togive testimony in court
regarding the genuineness of a writing based on a comparisonwith other admitted genuine writings.
(Koppenhaver, 2007)

The United States of America based their laws on the English Common Law andpermitted comparisons
in court cases. Below are the important events in the history of document examination in the USA:

The earliest record of expert comparison testimony in America was in Sauve v.

Dawson, where a signature on a promissory note was proved genuine.
1812
However, handwriting identification
did not become popular until much later in the 19th century.
In Homer v. Wallis, 11 Mass. 309, the court permitted the
1814 submission of writings and the evidence of witnesses on thecomparison of a
disputed writing
Congress enacted the Statute of 1913, which accepted such comparisons to be
1914 used as competent evidence in court to prove or disprove the genuineness of a
person’s handwriting
The first significant forgery cased was tried in Massachusetts involving the
traced signatures of Sylvia Ann Howland of New Bedford. The most significant
testimony came from Dr. Benjamin Piece, a mathematician from Harvard who
testified on the mathematical probability of identical strokes being madein two
1867 different signatures. He claimed that the likelihood of 30strokes occurring in two
separate signatures could occur only
once in 931,000,000,000,000,000,000. His methodology was subsequently
proven to be inaccurate.

Handwriting identification became sufficiently well-known thattwo New York

experts published books on the subject: William
1894
E. Hagan published Disputed Handwriting and Persifor Fraserpublished A
Manual for the Study of Documents
Daniel Ames wrote Ames on Forgery, one of the first books on document
examination. Around this time, handwriting experts who were mostly
calligraphers began to testify in court as expert witnesses.

Roland B. Molineux was convicted for first degree murder. Molineux mailed a
1900 bottle labeled ‘Emerson’s Bromo-Seltzer’ buthas powder containing cyanide of
mercury. It was ingested by an innocent victim who died by poisoning. The
landmark case involved at least 17 handwriting experts, including Albert
Osborn, the father of document examination

Albert T. Patrick was convicted for conspiring to murder his millionaire client,
William Marsh Rice. The Rice Will case required handwriting testimony to prove
that Patrick forged Rice’s name on several checks and a will after he has
murderedRice. Albert Osborn testified in this case to the fact that the checks
1902
and will were traced forgeries. He was allowed to use photographs on
transparent paper to show that the four
questioned signatures were identical.

John H. Wigmore wrote The Law of Evidence whichrevolutionized

1904
the legal profession regarding expert testimony
Albert Osborn published his seminal book Questioned Documents, the first
1910 comprehensive book on the subject and considered as the “bible” of document
examination. The principles of handwriting identification that he described are
stillthe basis for the comparison of handwriting today
1930 The first scientific police laboratory was established

1932 The Federal Bureau of Investigation opened their laboratory with one
document examiner

HISTORICAL CASES OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Below are some historical cases that involved questioned documents and contributed to the
advancement of forensic document examination as a discipline in the 20th century.

The Dreyfus Affair in 1894

Handwriting identification played a major role in the Dreyfus Affair, a political scandal in France that
began in 1894. Captain Alfred Dreyfus French General Staff Officer, was accused of treason by court
martial and sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly communicating French military secrets to
Germans (Tilstone, Savage & Clark, 2006)

The questioned document was a one-page handwritten document listing secretFrench army documents
discovered by a French spy in the German embassy. The main evidence against him was the testimony
of highly esteemed Alphonse Bertillon who is recognized the father of forensic criminal identification
because of his researchin anthropometry. Bertillon has no training or true expertise in handwriting
identification, but his testimony that the incriminating document had been written by Dreyfus was
sufficient to result in a conviction.
The Bobby Franks kidnap and murder in 1924
Another case that advanced the discipline of questioned document examinationwas the kidnap and
murder of Bobby Franks in the affluent suburb of Kenwood, nearChicago in 1924. Booby Franks, the
son of a millionaire in Chicago, was picked up in a car on his way home from high school and
murdered on May 21, 1924. The family of Bobby received a phone call that Bobby had been kidnapped
and a typewritten note demanding ransom the next morning. They notified the police, but while
considering their response to the kidnappers’ demands, a dead body was found a little distance away.
(Tilstone, Savage & Clark, 2006)

Leopold and Loeb were tired and convicted for murder and kidnapping of BobbyFranks. The case is
significant in the field of forensic document examination because it established the acceptability of
typewriter examination as evidence, that by chance, police discovered that the suspect used the
typewriter of his study group in law school.Pages of notes used in this typewriter were compared to
the ransom demand and demonstrated to be identical.

The Lindbergh Kidnapping Trial in 1935

The case was considered by many to be the most significant case in the history of document
examination. The eight document examiners who testified for the state included Osborn; they
demonstrated that Bruno Richard Hauptmann was the author of the ransom note. (Koppenhaver,
2007)

Charles A. Lindbergh Jr., the 20-month-old son of famous aviator Charles Lindbergh, was kidnapped
from the family home in New Jersey on the evening of March 1, 1932. A handwritten ransom note
was found at the scene. The case becameone of murder when the child’s body was discovered two
months later.

After an investigation that lasted more than two years and a highly publicized trial in 1935, Bruno
Hauptmann, an illegal German immigrant, was found guilty of murder in the first degree and
sentenced to death. The handwriting on the ransom note was compared to samples from Hauptmann
by several document examiners who concluded that the note had been written by Hauptmann.
Document examination wasone of three items of evidence central to the case. The others were tracing
of specialbills used to pay the ransom and the physical nature of a ladder found at the scene. Tilstone,
Savage & Clark, 2006)

The Clifford Irving and the Howard Hughes Biography in 1972

Howard Hughes was an American business magnate, investor, aviator, aerospace engineer, film
maker and philanthropist. He was remembered as an eccentric and one of the wealthiest people in
the world, however, he did not make public appearances and preferred privacy and solitude.

In 1971, Clifford Irving convinced the publishers of McGraw-Hill that Howard Hughes authorized him
to write an autobiography. Irving forged letters from Hughes to support the claim that he was
requesting Irving’s assistance in writing hisautobiography. Irvin even fabricated a contract between
himself and Hughes to divide the money paid by McGraw-Hill for the book. Life magazine also
purchased the rightsto run excerpts of Hughes’ autobiography. (Koppenhaver, 2007)

Forensic document examiners then became involved, specifically the firm of Osborn, Osborn and
Osborn, Brothers Paul and Russell Osborn compared samples ofHughes’ known writing with the Irving
forgeries and declared that the letters were written by the same hand.
The Mormon Will in 1978
Howard Hughes died in 1976, apparently without leaving a will. Numerous documents purporting to be
the true will of Hughes surfaced, thus becoming the mostvaluable and challenged will-related case that
document examiners have testified on.The most notorious of these questioned wills include the “Mormon
Will”, a handwrittenwill discover at the headquarters of the Mormon Church in Salt Lake City, Utah. The
will left a huge sum to the Mormon Church, although Hughes only employed many LDS members
and was not a member of the church himself. (Tilstone, Savage & Clark,2006)

The will had many strange discrepancies, most glaring of which was that it leftone-sixteenth of the
estate to a Utah gas station operator named Melvin Dummar. The purported will was three pages
long, allowing ample volume of material for document examiners to study. Their unanimous conclusion
was it was not authentic.

The Hitler Diaries in 1983

In 1983, the world was stunned with the “discovery” of the Hitler diaries. Document examiners and
historians declared mixed reports regarding its authenticity. However, forensic laboratory testing
revealed that elements in the paper contained modern ink that was not manufactured until 1956. The
Hitler diaries were the most ambitious hoax of the century. (Koppenhaver, 2007)

Linguistic and historical experts initially vouched for the authenticity of the purported diaries.
Document examiners supported this claim because the diaries matched the samples from which they
compared Hitler’s handwriting. However, the handwriting experts were current in claiming that the
diaries and the samples were written by the same person. This is because the samples themselves were
forged. The forger was Konrad Kujau, a dealer in military memorabilia, who had forged Hitler’s
handwriting for many years even before fake diaries. The Hitler exemplars used by the examiners for
comparison were forged by Kujau. This was significant in the field of forensic document examination
because it highlighted the importance of selecting a competent examiner and ensuring adequate
control of samples for comparison. (Koppenhaver, 2007)
MODULE 3
DOCUMENT

GENERAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Document
• Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs either visible, partially visible that may
present or ultimately convey a meaning tosomeone, maybe in the form of pencil, ink writing,
typewriting, or printing on paper.
• The term “document” applies to writings; to words printed, lithographed, or photographed; to
maps or plans; to seals, plates or even stones on which inscriptions are cut or engraved. In
its plural form, “documents” may mean; deeds, agreements, title, letters, receipts, and other
instruments used to prove a fact.
• The term document came from Latin word “documentum”, whichmeans “lesson, or example
(in Medieval Latin “instruction, or official paper”). It may have been derived also from the
French word “docere” means to teach.

Questioned
• Any material which some issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.

Questioned Document
• One in which the facts appearing therein may not be true, and are contested either in whole
or part with respect to itsauthenticity, identity, or origin. It may be a deed, contract, will,
election ballots, marriage contract, check, visas, application form, check writer, certificates,
etc.

Disputed Document
• A term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the document, and strictly
speaking this is true meaning. In this text, as well as through prior usage, however, “disputed
document” and “questioned document” are usedinterchangeably to signify a document that is
under special scrutiny.
• Document is questioned because its origins, its contents, or the circumstance and story
regarding its production arouse suspicion asto its genuineness or it may adversely scrutinize
simply because it displeases someone. Further, it is said to be questioned when it is disputed
or attacked, either in whole or in part as to its date or age,as to its source or origin, as to the
material used in their production,and as to its relation in some other document.

Standard Document
• Are condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which, if adequate and proper, should
contain a cross section of thematerial form a known source. They are used by the document
examiner as the basis for his identification or non-identification of the questioned document,
as for example the known handwriting which serves to establish who wrote the disputed letter.
• “Standard” in questioned documents investigation, we mean those things whose origins are
known and can be proven, and which can be legally used as examples to compare with other
matters in question. Usually, a standard consist of the known handwriting of a person such
case, “standard” has the same meaning as is understood by the word “specimen” of
handwriting.
Exemplar
• A term used by some document examiners and attorneys to characterize known material.
Standard is the older term.

Sample
• a selected representative portion of the whole is known as a sample In this text, the term
“sample” follows closely the statistical usage

Holographic document
• Any document completely written and signed by one person, also known as a holograph. In a
number of jurisdictions, a holographic will can be probated without anyone having witnessed
its execution.

Reference collection
• Material compiled and organized by the document examiner to assist him in answering
special questions. Reference collections of typewriting, check writing specimens, inks, pens,
pencils, and papers are frequently maintained.

LEGAL BASIS OF DOCUMENTS

1. In the case of People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119, a document is any writtendocument by
which a right is established, or an obligation is extinguished.

2. In the case of People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453, a document is every deed or instrument
executed by person by which some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.

3. In relation to Criminal Jurisprudence under the Best Evidence Rule, document is any physical
embodiment of information or ideas, e.g. a letter, a contract, areceipt, a book of account, a
blur print, or an X-ray plate (Black’s Law Dictionary)

KINDS OF DOCUMENTS

1. Public Document – any instrument notarized by a notary public or competentpublic official

with solemnities required by law. (Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phils. 742)

2. Official Document – any instrument issued by the government or its agents or its officers
having the authority to do so and the offices, which in accordancewith their creation, they are
authorized to issue and be issued in the performance of their duties.

3. Private Document – every deed or instrument executed by a private person without the
intervention of a notary public or of any person legally authorized,by which documents, some
disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced, or set forth (US vs. Orera, 11 Phil. 596)

4. Commercial Document – any instrument executed in accordance with the Code of

Commerce or any Mercantile Law, containing disposition of commercialrights or obligations.
Nota Bene (N.B.) – a private document may become a public or official document when it
partakes the nature of a public or official record. So, if the falsifications committed on such
document that is, when it is already a part of the public record, falsification of public or
official document is committed. However, if such private document is intended to become
a part of the public record, even though falsified prior thereto, falsification of a public

WRITINGS WHICH DO NOT CONSTITUTE DOCUMENTS – based on some Supreme Court

Rulings.
1. A draft of a Municipal payroll which is not yet approved by the proper authority(People vs.
Camacho, 44 Phil. 484).
2. Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces of which are not filled up(People vs.
Santiago, CA, 48 O.G. 4558).

3. Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any disposition or agreement arenot documents
but are mere merchandise (People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil. 945).

CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS:

1. Documents with questioned signatures

2. Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent alterations.

3. Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently altered or disputed

4. Questioned or disputed holographic wills

a. HOLOGRAPHIC WILL – will entirely written in the handwriting of the testator
b. NOTARIAL WILL – signed by the testator acknowledge before a notary publicwith 3
witnesses

5. Documents investigated on the question of typewriting

a. with a view of ascertaining their source
b. with a view of ascertaining their date
c. with a view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent alterationsor substituted
pages

6. Questioned documents on issues of their age or date

7. Questioned documents on issues of materials used in their production

8. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify somepersons

through handwriting
STANDARDS
There must be no doubt about the authenticity of the standards. The documentexaminer needs to be
able to rely on the standards, and the standards may need to be accepted as evidence in court.

Document examiners should automatically ask for original documents if they are not provided. In
most cases, original documents are the best evidence, both for standard and questioned documents
If the original is not available, an early generationphotocopy or a photograph of the original can be
sufficient for examination.
The best standards are those that most closely emulate the time frame, circumstances, materials,
and content of the questioned document Therefore, document examiners must look for collected
standards executed close in time to the questioned document This is especially critical in cases
involving illness, death, accident, mental imbalance, substance abuse, or anything likely to cause a
dramatic change in the subject’s behavior.

Standards, Exemplar, Sample

Standard
• They are known writings which indicate how a person writes A writermanifests fixed habits in
his writing that identify him This fact provides the basis for an opinion of conclusion regarding
any writingidentification problem

Exemplar
• specimen of the writing of suspects are commonly known as exemplars The term standards
is a general term referring to all authenticated writings of the suspects while exemplars refer
more especially to a specimens of standard writing offered in evidence or obtained or request
for comparison with the questioned writing

Sample
• a selected representative portion of the whole is known as a sample
• In this text, the term “sample” follows closely the statistical usage

Standards of Comparison
• Standards or exemplars are legally admissible, authentic samples of handwriting used for
comparison with questioned writing to determine the authenticity or spuriousness of the
questioned writing They are also called known samples Their genuineness must be clear and
undisputed. (Koppenhaver, 2007)

TYPES OF STANDARDS
1. Collected Standards documents previously written in the normal and day to day course of
business and known to be genuine may include bank records, letters, legal forms, etc are known
genuine handwriting of an individual such as signature and endorsement on canceled checks,
legal papers letters, commercial,official, public and private document and other handwriting such
as letters, memoranda, etc written in the course of daily life, both business and socials.

2. Requested Standards samples that the subject is requested to give in order tofacilitate the
document examination are signatures or other handwritings or hand printings written by an
individual upon request for the purpose of comparison withother handwriting or for specimen
purposes
3. Post Liten Motan exemplars writings produced by the subject after evidential writings have
come into dispute and solely for the purpose of establishing his contentions

LEGAL ASPECTS OF STANDARD WRITINGS

If the standard used by the document examiner in an identification of writingson which the document
examiner bases his conclusion cannot be introduced, then thedocument examiner may not be able to
provide convincing demonstration, or his testimony may be weakened.

Standard writing which is admissible for comparison purposes

1. Standard writing witnessed

a. The court accepts a sufficient proof that evidence in the form of uncontradictedtestimony of a
competent eyewitness to the execution of writing is sufficient topermit the use of such writings
as standard to test other writing

b. It is not necessary for the witness to actually have watched the pen of the writer as it passed
over the paper where it appeared that there was no other person present at the time but the
writer and the witnesses, that the writing was done in the witnesses presence and that the
writer then gave them the pen

c. Included in this class of admissible standards are writings voluntary prepared by a party in the
absence/presence of an investigator

2. Standard writings admitted if the party whom a handwriting standard is to beadmitted, the
genuineness of the standards, the court could hold that further proof of genuineness is
necessary.

3. Record maintained in regular course of business as standard writings Generally, the

context of records maintained in the regular course of business areadmissible as an exemption to
the hearsay rule, as proof of their contents

4. Government documents as standard writings signatures of government officials on

document treated as authentic and produced from official archives may be admitted as evidence
as standard of comparison

5. Ancient writings the courts have admitted writings on ancient document as standard of
comparison

6. Familiarity sometimes establishes standard writings testimony to the genuineness of a

collection of standards of writings by witnesses who are familiarwith a person’s handwriting

NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF DOCUMENTS

Questioned documents have a variety of classes, including those that are obliterations, additions, or
idented writings; charred documents and ink exams; orthose that involve comparisons, dating,
paper and pencil lead.
For distribution purposes, documents are classified in the following categories:

1. General – documents receiving full circulation. This classification is used on basicdocuments and
final meeting records, including agendas, studies and reports, communications from
Governments, resolutions, and other decisions of concerns.

2. Limited – documents for which wide circulation is unnecessary because of the temporary nature
of the documents, such as draft resolutions, amendments, draft reports and other action
documents. This “limited” classification is indicated by an“L” symbol. Some technical documents
which are issued for delegates are issuedas limited documents. These may contain important
information of interest to researchers calling upon the services of the library. Documents in the
limited category are generally available for a relatively short period of time. Therefore, it is
advantageous to request limited documents not received through regular distribution or
additional copies of limited documents soon after the original document is issued, whenever it is
possible.

3. Restricted – applies exclusively to documents whose content requires that theybe treated as
confidential or that they be withheld from public circulation. The designation “Restricted: is
indicated by a “R” symbol. In general, libraries do not receive any documents designated as
restricted, and researchers requesting themshould be informed that they are not available.

PROPER CARE AND HANDLING OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

When a questioned document is found at a crime scene, the document examiner is usually not among
the first responder to ensure its proper care and handling It is therefore important that first
responders to crime scenes are properly trained to do this.

The process of proper handling of document evidence begins when a documentis first recognized as
having some level of significance in a crime or other litigation or civil inquiry.

From the moment that the genuineness of a document is questioned, it shouldbe handled and cared
for in such manner as not to impair in the slightest degree its value as evidence

Precautions may seem unnecessary, but it frequently happens that through carelessness or
ignorance, the evidential value of an important document is seriously impaired, and the case becomes
jeopardized.

As early as practicable, the exact physical condition of every part of a suspecteddocument should be
carefully preserved It is usually of special interest to one of the parties to insist that the document
be properly protected and cared for.
Questioned Document Examination must take place first before subjecting the evidence to other
forensic disciplines or processes such as taking latent prints, and thin layer chromatography These
processes may contaminate and destroy the evidence Therefore, the forensic document examiner
has to have first priority in examining the evidence in order to ensure a comprehensive document
examination.
Recommendations to retain a Questioned Document’s evidentiary value (Kelly & Lindblom, 2006):
DO’s DON’Ts
1. Use envelopes for storage and transportation 1. Use staples, pins, or clips
The enveloped shouldbe large enough to hold 2. Make perforations
the document without folding If the document 3. Create new folds
is to be examined for fingerprints or indented 4. Write on or otherwise mark the
writing, weargloves or hold it tightly between documents If labeling and initialing is
the sides of the fingers, but only long enough necessary, then makeidentification marks
to place it in the evidence envelope Be sure to in blank spaces
label theenvelope for fingerprinting 5. Write on the evidence envelope if it
2. Photocopy, photograph, or scan the documents contains the document
as required the process will not damage them 6. Touch the document with a pencil,pen, or
in any way Donot use the auto feed option on other pointed instrument\
a photocopier 7. Glue the pieces of a torn or fragmented
3. Protect documents from excessiveheat, light, or document onto a background Submit
dampness them “as is” ina sealed evidence package
4. Prepare a complete history of each document 8. Make erasures
showing date, place, and from whom it was 9. Make any tracings
obtained 10. Cut or tear the document Also, do not
5. Handle documents as little as possible attempt to repair the cut
6. Remember The document evidence must be 11. Underscore, highlight, or circlewords
examined first before it is subjected to 12. Carry disputed documents loosely in
additional forensic examinations Be sure to pockets
state in the evidence package or in the request 13. Allow other people to handle or tamper
tothe examiner that additional forensictesting is with questioned writings
desired 14. Allow the suspect to handle or seethe
disputed document
15. Allow anyone other than a properly
trained forensic scientist to make
chemical or other tests
MODULE 4
FORGERY

FORGERY

Forgery
• Is a purposeful attempt to make a fraudulent copy of something,whether it is a signature,
money, or a piece of art
• Documents that have been established as not genuine and thatactual fraud has been
determined
• Legally, forgery requires the element of intent to defraud. Not allnon-authentic signatures
are signed with the intent to defraud
• Is a legal term which involves not only a non-genuine documentbut also an intent to fraud
However, it is also used synonymouslywith fraudulent signature or spurious document

Fraudulent
• the origin is not what it is presented to be

INDICATION OF GENUINENESS
1. To identify a signature as genuine or imitation, known genuine signatures of theperson whose
signature is in question is needed
2. To identify an unknown writer, the examiner needs known writing sample ofsuspects

3. These known samples establish a writer’s unique identifying characteristics andvariations

These are called exemplars/standards

Features of genuine writing

1. Smooth, rapid, nonstop, and free flowing pen movement
2. Sweeping and unbroken starting and ending strokes in rounded forms
3. Sweeping, misplaced, and misshapen i-dots and t-crosses
4. Joining of initials or words
5. Wide writing and spacing
6. Simplification of forms, such as capitals
7. Letters tapered illegibly toward the end of words
8. Marked difference in pressure on upstrokes and down strokes
9. Delicate pressure at beginning and ending strokes to letters
10. Absence of carefully made repair and correcting strokes
11. Letter formations and pen movements that show close similarity to the exemplars ‘letter formations
and pen movements
12. Flying start and flying finishes or flourishing strokes
13. Vanishing terminal stroke
14. Hiatus
15. Broken and unfinished signature
16. Careless correction or careless retouching

Generally speaking, the more rapidly the writing is made, the more natural it is. The absence of
approach strokes to certain letters could also be indications of naturalness when found in larger bodies
of writing.
Although the genuine writing of aged, ill, or unskilled writers can be slow, tremulous, and laboriously
written, it will usually show a naturalness and consistency that can be recognized by the experienced
examiner.

INDICATIONS OF FORGERY
1. To identify a signature as genuine or imitation, known genuine signatures of theperson whose
signature is in question is needed

2. To identify an unknown writer, the examiner needs known writing sample ofsuspects

3. These known samples establish a writer’s unique identifying characteristics andvariations

These are called exemplars/standards

General Indications of Non-Genuineness

1. Hesitation
2. Pen stop at unusual places
3. Abrupt change in the direction of stroke
4. Non-continuous of stroke
5. Tremors or tremolos movement
6. Lack of variation of pen pressure
7. Blunt initial and terminal stroke
8. Unnatural pen stop and open lift
9. Careful retouching
10. Concealed junction connection
11. Defective line quality
12. Presence of indentation and traces of carbon (in case of traced forgery)
13. Presence of intercalation/interlineation

KINDS AND METHODS OF FORGING

1. Simple Forgery makes no attempt to imitate a genuine signature It is the easiest type of
forgery to identify because it does not resemble a known signature.

2. Simulated Forgery the forger attempts to copy a known signature The knownsignature can
be copied freehand, or it may be traced from a model This is the most difficult of all methods
to create and the most difficult to detect.

Types of Traced Forgery

1. Indentation Process the outline of the writing underneath will then appear sufficiently plain
to enable it to be traced with pen or pencil, so as to produce avery accurate copy upon the
superimposed paper If the outline is with a pencil,it is afterward marked over with ink

2. Transmitted Process It may be done by placing the writing to be forged upona transparency
over a strong light, and then superimposing the paper upon which the forgery is to be made

3. Carbon Process This is done with the aid of carbon paper interleave between a blank paper,
used with apparent force of writing, then afterwards marked overwith ink
TECHNIQUES OF THE FORGERY
• A clever forger needs considerable knowledge and skills and uses a variety ofmechanical
devices when attempting to make fraudulent copies of documents
• They may have knowledge of papers, inks, and computer technology
• They may be skilled in printing, engraving, or penmanship
• They may even have access to secured forms, check writers and rubber stamps
• They also sometimes use modern technology to duplicate forms, checks, andgift certificates
• Some forgers attempt to imitate handwriting or signatures
• Some forgers disguise their own handwriting to prevent others from identifyingit as theirs
• Some alter documents by changing dates or raising amounts of money, or the whole document
MODULE 5
TOOLS, TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES

Solving document problems depends on the quality of evidence as well as the skill, training,
experience, and tools of the forensic document examiner.

Forensic document examiners are able to solve document problems by having suitable skills, training
and experience and laboratory tools. They also depend on the quality of physical evidence submitted.
They cannot use hearsay evidence, police reports, eyewitness statements, confessions and
admissions, knowledge of other examiners’ opinions, signed statements or even notary affidavits as
elements for forming conclusions.

William G. Eckert (1997) enumerates the following questions that examiners use to solve document
problems. Although these questions do not reflect all the waysthat the problem might be solved, they
are thorough enough to understand how a forensic document examiner’s mind works.
1. Is the signature on this document genuine or is it an imitation (forgery)?
2. Was the document signed or prepared on the document’s date?
3. What make of typewriter was used to produce this document?
4. Was the typewriter in existence on the document’s date?
5. Was this document prepared on the suspect’s typewriter?
6. Were all the entries on this document typed during the same typing interval orwere some entries
added at a later time?
7. Was this document produced on this specific printer?
8. Have pages been substituted in this multi-page document?
9. Have pen entries been added at a later time to this document?
10. Does this questioned document show indented replicas (impressions) ofwritings that were
written on another document while it was lying on the questioned document?
11. Can you restore or decipher the text of the original entries that have been erased, eradicated,
or obliterated on this document?
12. Have the original ink entries on this document been altered by the addition of new ink entries?
13. Can you decipher the entries on these burned documents?
14. Can faint handwriting, writings that have been overlaid with rubber stamps andother writings,
partially erased writings and entries, and other barely discernible features of a document be
made visible for identification?
15. Can out-of-focus features in a document’s photograph be rendered identifiable?
16. Can these water-soaked documents recovered from fires, floods, etc. be driedwithout damage
to the documents?

Techniques Used in the Examination of Questioned Documents

The following are techniques employed by the PNP-QDED in examiningquestioned documents:

1. Microscopic Examination – stereoscopic examination in low and high-powerobjectives is used

to detect retouching, patching and unnatural pen lifts in signature analysis, with proper angle
and intensity of illumination, it aids in thedecipherment of erasures and minute manipulations
not perfectly pictured to the sequence of entries done by a different instrument.
2. Transmitted Light Examination – documents are subjected to this type of examination to
determine the presence of erasures, matching of serration andsome other types of alteration.

3. Oblique Light Examination – documents are subjected to this type of examination for the
decipherment of faded handwriting, determination of outlines in traced forgery and embossed
impression.

4. Photographic Examination – this type of examination is essential in every document

examination. Actual observations are recorded in the photograph.

5. Ultraviolet Examination – this type is done in the darkroom after the lamp has been warmed
up in order to allow maximum output from the ultraviolet light. Exposure to the ultraviolet light
should be at the minimum duration in order to prevent the writing ink and the typewriter ribbon
from fading. The exposure of a document to ultraviolet light is useful when it consists of several
pages and substitution is being suspected. The color and intensity of fluorescence reaction is
very apparent in case of a substituted page. Mechanicaland chemical erasures will certainly
change the reflectivity and fluorescence ofthe area affected.

6. Electrostatic Detection – the electrostatic detection apparatus (ESDA) detects indented

writings and records transparencies of any indentions.

7. Video Spectral Comparator (VSC) – this is used in the examination of masked or obliterated
text, watermarks, visible fluorescence, paper fluorescence and oblique illumination of indented
writing and embossing. It detects variation if the infrared characteristics of inks and reveals
alteration byeliminating interfering background luminescence.

8. Preparation of Court Exhibits – after the document examiner has completedhis examination
and the laboratory report has been submitted, he prepares thephotographic exhibits for court
demonstration and illustration.

Procedure in Examining Questioned Documents

The following steps should be performed, noted and recorded when applicable:

1. Determine whether the examination is a comparison of questioned handwriting to known

writing or a comparison of questioned writing to questioned writing.
2. Determine whether the questioned writing is original writing.
3. Determine whether or not the questioned writing appears to be distorted.
4. Determine whether or not the known writing is original writing
5. Determine whether or not the known writing appears to be distorted.
6. Determine if there is sufficient quality of writing (questioned writing or known writing or both).
If writing (questioned writing or known writing or both) is notsufficient in quantity for an
elimination or an identification, continue the comparison to the extent possible. When
appropriate, request more known writing. If more known writing is made available, determine
whether or not theknown writing is original writing.
7. Evaluate the known writing for the following:
• Type of Writing – if there is more than one type of writing within the known writing,
separate the known writing into subsets of single type of writing

• Internal consistency – if there are unsolved inconsistencies within any of the subsets
created above (e.g. when it is suggestive of multiple writers), contact the contributor for
authentication. If the inconsistency remains unsolved, discontinue the procedure for the
affected subsets and report accordingly.

Range of variations of the writing for each subset of the questioned and standard writing created in
the type of writing and internal consistency.

8. Evaluate the comparability of the bodies of writing – if questioned and standardwriting are not
comparable, and if comparable known or standard writing is notavailable and it is not original,
the findings is only an indication, or the examiner may discontinue the procedure of
examination.
9. Conduct a side-by-side comparison of comparable portions of the bodies of writing (questioned
writing and known writing or exclusively questioned writing) using appropriate scientific
instruments.
10. Determine whether or not there are dissimilarities, absent characteristics and similarities.
11. Evaluate the significance individually and in combination.
12. After examining the original documents, they are photographed for preservation and further
examination on the enlarged photograph. These enlarged photographs will be used for court
presentation.
13. Reach a conclusion.

For a comparison of questioned writing to known writing, the documentexaminer can reach a
conclusion according to the following criteria:

1. Written by one and the same person:

• The range of variations exhibited in the questioned writing and in the known writing contain
substantial significant similarities
• There are no significant dissimilarities
• No limitation assisted with absent characteristics, dissimilarities or quantities of writing are
present

2. Indications that they were written by one and the same person:
• The range of variations exhibited in the questioned writing and in the known writing contain
few significant similarities
• There are no significant dissimilarities
• Limitations assisted with absent characteristics, dissimilarities or individualizing characteristics
or quality of writing may be present

3. No conclusion
• The range of variations exhibited in the questioned writing and in the known writing and in the
known writing contain insufficient significant similarities and insufficient significant
dissimilarities
• Limitations assisted with absent characteristics, individualizing characteristics or quality of
writing may be present
• There may be similarities, dissimilarities or both
• Specimen submitted are photocopies

4. Not written by one and the same person

• The range of variations exhibited in the questioned writing and in the known writing contain
substantial significant dissimilarities
• Limitations associated with absent characters, individualizing characteristics or quantity of
writing are present

5. Indications that they were not written by one and the same person
• The range of variations exhibited in the questioned writing and in the known writing contain
few significant dissimilarities
• Limitations associated with absent characteristics individualizing characteristics or quality of
writing may be present
• There may be dissimilarities
Instruments and Equipment in Forensic Document Examination

Forensic document examiners need certain instruments and scientific equipment in examining
documents and determining facts that may not be visible to the naked eye. Below are some of the
instruments and equipment used by forensic document examiners at the PNP Forensic Group.

1. Optical Aids

A microscope is an optical instrument that consists of a

combination of lenses thatallows the user to view a magnified
image of a small object (Brenner, 2004)

A stereo or stereoscopic microscope is an instrument for

blending into one image two pictures of an object from slightly
different points of view so as to produce upon the eye the
impression of relief and solidity and a three-dimensional
viewing (Brenner, 2004)

The stereoscopic microscope is the most important and the

commonly used equipment in forensic document examination.
Stereoscopic microscopes offer between 10 and 50 power that
includes both incident and transmitted illumination. Power
refers to the amount ofmagnification the microscope provides
(2 power = 200% enlargement). This type of microscope
provides a magnified three- dimensional image that assists the
viewer inthe study of pressure patterns, crossed lines, erasures,
indentations, writing over folds and similar problems
(Koppenhaver, 2007)
The magnifying glass or hand lens is the simplest
microscope. Light from theobject is bent, or refracted, as it
passes through the curved lens and into the eye, where it forms
a magnified virtual image. The lens is usually mounted in a
frame witha handle. Their magnification limit is about five to
ten times the true size of the object (Tilstone, Savage, & Clark,
2006)

2. Measuring Devices
Rulers, gauges, grids and other accurate measuring devices
are important for document examiners to obtain precise
measurements.

The typewriting test plate is used to detect any abnormal

horizontal or vertical alignment of typewritten characters. Ten
characters per inch (cpi) is called pica and twelve cpi are known
as elite. Placed over thetypewritten page, these gauges need to
be accurate to ensure a more comprehensiveanalysis of a variety
of situations. The printedimage is on the bottom of the clear
plastic plate, which eliminates shadows and allows for direct
photography.

The protractor measures angles and is also called a handwriting

slope instrument. Other test plates include the letter slant or
handwriting comparison test plate and the type of angle
measurement.

3. Duplicating Devices
Forensic document examiners need camera equipment for clear close-up photographs of original
documents. These photographs are useful in studying documents in place of the original and in
enabling a jury to see the characteristics of writing and the reasons for conclusions more clearly than
by looking at the original documents.

4. Proper Lighting
In addition to daylight, various types and intensity of lighting fixtures is crucialfor critical examinations
in a document laboratory. Different types of lights can reveal subtle details essential for revealing
flaws and stains on documents. Some examinations also require special lighting effects.

Transmitted light is light that is passed through a transparent or

translucent medium (Brenner, 2004). It is used in the examination of
documents to determine the presence of erasures, matching of
serration, and some other types of alteration.
5. Specialized Equipment
Forensic document examiners use additional equipment based on specialized needs and interests
crucial to solving certain cases.

When documents are illuminated byultraviolet light, certain inks

and papers will glow, making them visible to the naked eye inan
otherwise darkened room. The ultravioletlight machine is used
to detect mechanical and chemical erasures, which certainly
change the reflectivity and fluorescence of theaffected area. The
exposure of the document to ultraviolet light is useful when it
consists of several pages and substitution is suspected. This
machine is also used in the examination of counterfeit bills.
Genuine bills have distinctfeatures like the serial number, security
fibers,fluorescent printing, special paper and other features that
react and flourish when subjected to ultraviolet light.

A comparator is a device for comparing a measurable property or

thing with a reference or standard. A video spectral
comparator consists of a camera, a video monitor, various light
sources and filters for exciting radiation and reflected or
fluorescent light, an image integrator and comparator, and a
video recorder. It uses a variety of lighting conditions to
differentiate inks and paper on adocument placed in the cabinet.
(Koppenhaver, 2007).

Video spectral comparators include the VSC-1, VSC-2CX and VSC-

4CX, which are designed to detect the different opticalproperties
of document materials. They are used in the examination of
masked or obliterated text and watermark. They can alsobe used
in exposed oblique illumination of indented writing, dry stamps,
embossed features and intaglio script. They can alsobe an incident
visible and infrared light source with variable intensity controls for
ink reflectance.

VSC testing is non-destructive and does not alter the appearance or condition of a document. This is
particularly effective in detecting alterations to documents; restoring erased entries; revealing
original writing that has been obliterated, obscured or overwritten; and differentiating inks that
cannot otherwise be distinguished by the naked eye.

The VSC-1 and VSC-2CX can easily detect when inks from different writing instruments are used in a
document because the inks react differently when illuminated with ultraviolet and infrared light. The
VSC-4CX is a portable instrumentthat can be taken outside the laboratory to examine documents in
law offices, court rooms or other off-site locations.

The Electrostatic Detection Apparatus or ESDA is used to

detect indented impressions left from writing on an overlying
page. When a document is placed on a vacuum plate that is
covered with thin polymer film stretched over it, the film is
positively charged by passing a high-voltage corona wire close to
its surface. Glass beads containing negatively charged photocopy
toner are cascaded over the film, makingindented writing appear
in gray to black tones. The resulting visual image can be
photographed, and the film can be covered with a transparent
sheet to preserve the findings (Koppenhaver, 2007).

The ESDA provides the documentexaminer with a non-destructive

technique for detecting impressions in paper that are invisible to
the naked eye. It can also revealthe relative sequence of entries
in ledgers, journals or medical records. Specialists use this
instrument to restore handwritten impressions on anonymous
letters anddetect documents that have been fraudulently altered
or backdated. Restored impressions are preserved using
adhesive-coated acetate sheets.

A microfiche is a flat piece of microfilm on which many pages of

printed material have been photographed for storage in
miniaturized form. The microfiche id placed under the lens of a
micro fiche machine or microfiche machine to enlarge the
images from 24 to 48times. Signatures and handwritings can also
be photographed for larger and clearer images.

6. Portable Equipment
Document examiners also need portable equipment such as a transportable microscopeor the portable
VSC-4CX because some documents cannot be released for examination and must be examined at their
location. For example, they can be taken to courthouses to view wills or police stations to look at
documents they do not wantto release. A portable luggage carrier also enables a document examiner
to carry all equipment easily (Koppenhaver, 2007).

7. Protective Equipment
Forensic document examiners also use protective equipment like cotton gloves to handle original
documents in cases in which fingerprints may be an issue. A fireproof safe or file box is also useful to
store and protect original documents fromharm.

Photography in Forensic Document Examination

Albert Osborn, the father of questioned documents, highlights the value of reproducing questioned
documents because it provides unlimited opportunity for study, comparison and investigation by any
number of examiners, which would not be possible by using the original document alone.
“Photographs often make clear what otherwise may be hidden or indistinct, and this fact alone is
sufficient reason for theiruse (Osborn, 1929).

In this context, photography serves three main functions in forensic documentexamination (Ellen,
2006)

1. To make a permanent record of the document before it is damaged

Forensic document examiners make sure to avoid damage to any document. However, some
techniques to gather information may result changes document. For example, tests for inks and other
materials that appear on a document may require a small quantity to be removed from the paper.
Another example is the fingerprint detection that could stain or even damage the whole document.
By taking a record photograph, most of the information visible on the originaldocument can be used
later as a substitute for it in court.

2. To detect certain features that are not visible and for which other methods are
unavailable

A photograph also provides a recording of what the eye cannot detect in the original document. By
subjecting the document to ultraviolet and infrared radiationas well as to X-rays, the photographed
record of the document can provide a differentiation between inks or reveal erasures or watermarks.
Using transmitted light photography is also helpful to achieve great color saturation, show internal
structure and get a distinctive look in a photograph. In addition, a photomicrographcan provide proper
magnification to a document so that certain microscopicconditions can be clearly seen. They can be
compared closely to view whether elements are alike or different.

Photographs can also be cut apart so that various parts can be classified for comparison. Oftentimes,
handwriting characteristics can be more clearlyunderstood when parts to be compared are classified
and all brought within the angle of vision.

3. To prepare material for demonstration in courts

While photographs for record purposes require that every detail of the document is reproduced,
photographs for court demonstration removes extraneousfeatures that have no bearing on what is to
be demonstrated. For example, appropriate filters can be used to remove the colored security
background on checksor the marks made by a bank cashier across the signature.

Photographs of writing in maximum resolution and a magnification of between 1.5 and 2 times the
original demonstration the similarities and differences apparentbetween the known and questioned
writings. When large writing has to becompared with small, photographs enable them to be shown in
similar sizes so thatthe more important similarities or differences in detail are more clearly appreciated.

Photographs can demonstrate finding through “before and after” comparisons of questioned
documents examined by electronic methods. Normal-light photographs can be shown together with
prints that show differences in inks or restored obliterations or erasures detected by photography of
infrared radiation orfluorescence excited by ultraviolet rays.