Understanding the Self (GEC101)

PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW OF SELF

Philosophy is about finding answer to serious questions about ourselves and about the world
we live in.
Philosophia – Philo means love, Sophia means wisdom. Love of wisdom.
SOCRATES “Know thyself”

 He suggests that man must live an examined life and a life of purpose and value.
 Dualistic – composed of body and soul. Self = soul.
 Two dichotomous realms: Physical Realm (changeable, imperfect) Ideal Realm
(unchangeable, perfect)
 Essence of the Self – Soul – Immortal entity.
 Reason – tool to achieve the exalted state of wisdom and perfection.
 Meaningful and happy life = knowledge and virtue.
 Introspection – examining one’s thought and emotion. Examining one’s self is our most
important task.
PLATO

 He elaborates on Socrates’ concept of self and introduces the idea of three-part soul.
 Three-part soul: Reason, Physical appetite, Spirit or passion.
 Reason – divine essence that enables us to think deeply.
 Physical appetite – basic biological needs (hunger, thirst, sexual desire)
 Spirit or Passion – basic emotions (love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness, empathy)
 In his Theory of Forms, he introduces the concept of the two worlds: the world of forms
(non-physical ideas) and the world of sense (reality).

ARISTOTLE The soul is the essence of self.

 3 kinds of Soul: Vegetative (physical body that grows), Sentient (sensual desires, feelings,
and emotions), Rational (intellect that allows to think and understand).
ST. AUGUSTINE The self has an immortal soul. Body as “spouse” of the soul.

 Confession – humankind is created in the image and likeness of God.

 Self-knowledge is a consequence of knowledge of God.
 He is convinced that the self is known only through knowing God.
 “Knowledge can only come by seeing the truth that dwells within us.” – refers to the truth of
knowing God.
RENE DESCARTES “Cogito, ergo sum” – “I think therefore I am”

 For him, the act of thinking about the self, of being self-conscious, is in itself proof that
there is a self.
 The self is a thinking entity distinct from the body.
 Two Dimensions of Human Self (Dualism): Self as a thinking entity (soul) – (non-material,
immortal, conscious being, and independent). Self as a physical body – (material, mortal,
non-thinking entity).
JOHN LOCKE “tabula rasa” or a blank state

 Personal identity is constructed primarily from sense experiences: what people see, hear,
smell, taste, and feel.
 Consciousness accompanies thinking and makes possible the concept people have of a self.
DAVID HUME There is no self.

 He believes that the self is nothing but a collection of interconnected and continually
changing perception.
GILBERT RYLE “I act therefore I am”

 The self is the same as bodily behavior.

IMMANUEL KANT We construct the self.

 Self constructs its own reality.

 The self is an organizing principle that makes a unified and intelligible experience possible.
SIGMUND FREUD The self is multilayered.

 Conscious Level (Ego) – mediating between id impulses and superego inhibitions; testing
reality; rational.
 Preconscious Level (Superego) – ideals and morals; striving for perfection. Moral judge of
one’s conduct.
 Unconscious Level (Id) – is the pleasure-seeking side, impulsive, childlike, and demands
instant gratification.
PAUL CHURCHLAND “The self is the Brain”

 The self is inseparable from the brain and the physiology of the body.
 If the brain is gone, there is no self.
 The physical brain and not the imaginary mind, gives the people sense of self.
 The mind does not really exist because it cannot be experienced by the senses.
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY The self is embodied subjectivity.

 Argues that all knowledge about the self is based on the phenomena of experience.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL VIEW OF SELF

Anthropology is the study of human societies and cultures and their development.

 Concerned with how cultural and biological processes interact to shape human experience.
Self as Embedded in Culture

 Self-concept refers to all understanding and knowledge of oneself.

 Culture is the set of unwritten norms of conduct that guide the behavior of a group.
 Edward Taylor – defined culture as a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, law, customs, an any other capabilities and habits acquired by man.
 Anthropologist have emphasized that culture is not behavior itself but the shared
understandings that guide behavior and are expressed in behavior. (Peacock, 1986).
 Martin Sokefeld (1999) – believes that the concept of self is a necessary supplement to the
concept of culture in anthropology and should be regarded as a human universal.

How does the Concept of Personhood vary from society to society?

 Egocentric View – the self is seen as an autonomous and distinct individual. Each person is
defined as a replica of all humanity but capable of acting independently from others.
 Sociocentric View – The self is dependent on a situation or social setting. This is a view of
the self that is context- dependent which emphasizes that there is no intrinsic self that can
possess enduring qualities.
Identity Toolbox – the features of a person’s identity that he or she chooses to emphasize in
constructing a social self.
Three-phased Rite of Passage (Arnold van Gennep)

 Separation Phase – in this phase, people detach from their former identity to another.
 Liminality Phase – in this phase, a person transitions from one identity to another.
 Incorporation Phase – in this phase, the change in one’s status is officially incorporated.
Identity struggles – A term coined by Wallace and Fogelson to characterize interaction in which
there is a discrepancy between the identity a person claims to possess, and the identity
attributed to that person by other.
Self Identification Golubovic (2011) – in order to attain this, individuals have to overcome
many obstacles.

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

Sociology is the study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society. It
generates new insights into the interconnectedness between the self and other people.
Theories how the Self emerges as a Product of Social Experience
1. Charles Horton Cooley (1902) LOOKING-GLASS SELF - The people whom a person interacts
with become a mirror in which he or she views himself/herself.
 We imagine how others see us.
 We imagine how others judge us.
 We develop our sense of self according to these perceptions.
2. George Herbet MEAD’S THEORY OF THE SOCIAL SELF

MEAD’S DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF

1. Preparatory Stage – 0-3 years old.

 Children imitate people around them especially family members with whom they
have daily interaction.
 Imitation without intention.
 Preparing for role-taking.
2. Play Stage – 3-5 years old.
 Children take role-taking bust not as much as expected.
 Self emerged as they pretend to take roles of certain people or significant others.
 Significant others pertain to the agents of socialization or the people helpful for self-
building.
3. Game Stage – early school years, 8-9 years old.
 Aware of their status.
 Concerns and taking accountability.
 Self is present.
The self is a product of Modern and Post-Modern Societies.

 In modern societies, the attainment and stability of self-identity are freely chosen.
 Self is no longer restricted by customs and traditions.
 Jean Baudrillard exposes the negative consequences of post modernity.
1. Human consumption structures the postmodern society.
2. The postmodern individuals, achieve self-identity through prestige symbols that they
consume.
3. Prestige symbols are anything under the advertisement of influence or using mass media.
Human Behavior is influenced by group life.
For Sociologists like Mead and Cooley, the self does not depend on biological
predispositions; rather, it is a product of social interaction.
Jean Baudrillard: In the postmodern society, the self is found in the prestige symbols of
goods consumed by people.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

1. William James (The Me-Self and the I-Self)
Self-development is a continuous process throughout the life span.
The self is divided into two categories:
A. I-Self refers to the self that knows who or she is which is called the thinking self.
B. Me-Self is the empirical self which refers to the person’s personal experiences.
3 sub-categories of Me-Self:

 Material Self is the individual’s physical attributes and material possession that
contributes to one’s self-image.
 Social Self refers to who a person is and how he or she acts in social situations.
 Spiritual Self the most intimate and important part of the self that includes the person’s
purpose, core values, conscience, and moral behavior.

2. Carl Roger’s Self Theory (Real and Ideal Self)

Self-concept refers to the image of oneself.
Two components of self-concept:
A. Ideal Self is the person’s conception of what one should be or what one aspires to
be which includes one’s goal and ambitions in life.
B. Real Self is the awareness of what one is and what can do.
In Carl Roger's view, when the ideal self is closer to the real self, the person becomes unhappy
and dissatisfied. (FALSE)
3. Sigmund Freud’s (Construction of Self and Personality)

Freud’s assert that the human psyche (personality) is structured into three parts (tripartite).
A. Id refers to the component of the personality characterized by its need to satisfy
basic urges and desire.
B. Ego refers to the I and operates on the reality principle and controls the id.
C. Superego refers to the conscience and moral judge of one’s conduct. It strives for
perfection rather than pleasure.

4. Erik Erikson’s (Psychosocial stages of development)

 TRUST VS. MISTRUST (infant) – According to Erikson, the child will develop trust if
he or she is properly cared for. If the child is not well-cared for, mistrust is likely to
develop.
 AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT (toddler) – independence of thought and
confidence to think and act for oneself.
 INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (pre-schooler) - developing a sense of responsibility among
children lead to the development of initiative.
 INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY (school-ager) – children begin to develop a sense of
pride in their accomplishment and abilities.
 IDENTITY FORMATION VS. IDENTITY CONFUSION (adolescent) – face the task of
finding out who they are, what they are, and what they want in life. They are
confronted with roles and responsibilities.
 INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION (young adult) – people develop intimate relationships
with others. Stable and successful.
 GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION (middle age) – desire to contribute to the world.
 INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR (older adult) – reflect on the important events of their lives.

THE PHYSICAL SELF

Physical self refers to the body. Both physical extremities and internal organs work together for
the body to perform many of its functions such as breathing, walking, eating, and sleeping.
Physical efficiency the body’s ability to perform its functions gradually changes through an
individual’s aging. In general, the body performs less during infancy and old age.

Adolescence

 is the phase of life between childhood and adulthood, from ages 10 to 19.
 It begins with the onset or beginning of puberty.
 This stage is characterized by rapid physical changes that include maturation of the
reproductive system.

Life span

 Refers to the development from conception to death. Elizabeth B. Hurlock outlines

the stages in the life span.
THE STAGES OF LIFESPAN by ELIZABETH HURLOCKS

1. Parental – from conception to birth.

2. Infancy – from birth to 2 weeks.
3. Babyhood – from 2 weeks to 2 years.
4. Early Childhood – from 2 years to 6 years. (Preschool Age)
5. Late Childhood – from 6 years to 12 years. (Elementary Age)
6. Pre-Adolescence – from 12 years to 13 or 14 years. (Puberty)
7. Adolescence – from 14 to 18 years.
8. Early Adulthood – from 18 to 35 years.
9. Middle Adulthood – from 35 to 65 years.
10. Late Adulthood/Senescence – 65 years to death. (Old Age)

FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHYSICAL SELF

1. Heredity is the biological process of the inheritance of traits from parents to offspring.
 Sex and other physical traits are determined by the combination of chromosomes
and genes during fertilization when the egg and sperm unite.
 Chromosomes are thread like tissues that carries the genes and are usually found in
pairs.
 Humans have 22 pairs of numbered chromosomes (autosomes or trait chromosome)
and 1 pair of sex chromosome or gonosomes.
 Genes are the basic carriers of the hereditary traits. Genes can be classified as
dominant (strong genes) it is the expressed form of the trait when present, while
recessive (weak genes) is the trait not expressed when the dominant form of the trait
is present.
2. Environment – refers to factors an individual is exposed throughout life which includes
learning and experiences. Environmental factors such as diet, nutrition, and diseases play an
important role in an individual’s physical development.
 Body Image – refers to how individuals perceive, think, and feel about their body and
physical appearance.
 Appearance – refers everything about a person that others can observe such as
height, weight, skin color, clothes, and hairstyle. Through appearances, and individual
is able to show others the kind of person he or she is (DeLamater and Myers, 2012).
 Self-esteem – the person’s overall evaluation of his or her own worth.
Adolescent boys and girls tend to experience NEGATIVE SELF-IMAGE.
Girls are MORE CONCERNED than boys about their physical appearance and overall body image.

CAUSES OF POOR BODY IMAGE

1. Sociocultural factors
2. Bullying and peer pressure
3. Media
EFFECTS OF POOR BODY IMAGE
1. Body dissatisfaction
2. Body modification
3. Depression
4. Low self-esteem
5. Eating disorder (anorexia and bulimia nervosa)

Cultural values have changed the standard of beauty overtime. All cultures have more or less
the same concept of what beauty is.
Beauty is important in all societies.
Attractive people have lots of advantages in life.

THE SEXUAL SELF

Sex Characteristics

 Primary sex characteristic – physical characteristics present at birth. These are the
characteristics that distinguish male from female.
 Secondary sex characteristics – distinguishes the sexes of a species, but which are not
directly part of a reproductive system.
 Women – enlargement of the breast, onset of the menstruation, widening of the
hips, etc.
 Male – testicular growth, sperm production, appearance of facial, pubic, and
other body hair.
Hormones

 are chemicals produced by glands in the endocrine system.

 travel through the tissue and organs, delivering messages that tell the organs what and
when to do it.
 are essential for regulating most major bodily processes.
Reproductive System – system of sex organs designed for reproduction and sexual function.

 Penis is the organ through which males urinate and deliver sperm during sexual intercourse.
 Testicles are responsible for production of the sperm cells and the male hormones.
 Epididymis is where sperm cell is stored.
 Vas deferens transports the sperm containing fluid called semen.
 Prostate glands produce semen and nourish the sperm cells.
 Vagina is the muscular tube that serves as the receptable for the penis and carrier of the
sperm to the uterus.
 Uterus is the hollow organ where the fertilized embryo grows to become fetus.
 Fallopian tubes carry the fertilized egg from the ovary to the uterus.
 Ovaries produce, store, and release the egg during ovulation.

Sexual Arousal and Erogenous Zone (What Turns People On)

 Erogenous Zone refers to the areas of the body which are highly sensitive and produce
sexual responses when stimulated.
 Sexual activities include masturbation or self-stimulation, intimate kissing, cuddling,
necking, petting, or touching the erogenous zones may be uniquely important to sexual
arousal.

The Stages of Love by Helen Fisher

1. Lust
 Is defined as having an intense sexual desire towards someone.
 Driven by the desire for sexual gratification.
2. Attraction
 Described as the lovestruck phase.
 This is the stage when a person loses sleep and appetite over someone and become
very excited to someone while daydreaming of this special person.
3. Attachment
 This is the primary factor in defining the success of long-term relationships.
 The attachment stage refers to a more meaningful bond developing between two
people, moving a romantic relationship to an advanced level of falling in love
wholeheartedly.
Sexual Orientation refers to a person’s sexual identity anchored on what gender they are
attracted to.
Sex refers to a person’s characterization as a female of male at birth.

Gender refers to social characteristics that may be or may not be aligned with a person’s sex
Sexually Transmitted Disease/Infection are contracted primarily through sexual contact.
(Vagina, oral, or anal sex).

 Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

(HIV/AIDS) – are caused by direct contact with body fluids such as blood transfusion,
breast feeding, and sexual intercourse. It attacks the immune system, and the
infected person eventually dies.
 Gonorrhea is caused by gonococcal bacteria which attack the lining of the mucus
membrane such as the mouth, throat, vagina, and urethra. Gonorrhea can be
treated by penicillin or other antibiotics.
 Syphilis infects the genital areas and other parts of the body including the brain and
can cause paralysis or even death when left untreated.
 Chlamydia is caused by the bacterium chlamydia trachomatis.
 Genital herpes can cause itching and tingling sensations, abscesses, blisters in the
genital area. There is no cure for herpes.
 Genital warts are caused by the human papillomavirus and women with human
papillomavirus are prone to cervical cancer. Though the warts can be removed, they
may recur.
Contraception refers to methods that are used to prevent pregnancy.

 Condoms is usually made of latex, a type of rubber.

 Intrauterine device or IUD a tiny device made of flexible plastic that is inserted in
the uterus to prevent pregnancy
 Birth control injectibles given every three months to women.
 Oral contraceptive pills taken every day.
 Withdrawal method the practice of withdrawing the penis from the vagina and
away from a woman's external genitals before ejaculation to prevent pregnancy.

MATERIAL SELF
Basic Components of the Material Self
1. Body is the innermost part of the material self in each of us.
2. Clothes represent the self. The style of the clothes we wear bring sensation to the body and
can affect our attitude and behavior.
3. Immediate Family these people are likely to shape and influence the development of our
self. Pets could also define a person’s identity.
4. Home are experiences inside the home were recorded and marked on particular marks and
things in our home.
The Role of Material Possessions on Sense of Self and Identity

 Material possession is symbolic of one’s status.

 The more expensive they are, the more people are impressed.
 Material possessions can be a reflection of hard work and success.
 Defining the self by material possessions can also contribute to a feeling of well-being,
including a sense of a personal growth and purpose or meaning in life.
 The greater the material possession, the more likely one will be accepted and regarded
well by other people.
Materialism refers to giving more importance to material possessions than intangible values.

Compulsive Buying Disorder (CBD) characterized by an obsession with shopping and buying
behaviors that can cause adverse consequences, like debts.
Readings in Philippine History (GEC102)
MODULE 2
Studying Philippine History in Different Levels of Education

 Elementary – basic historical facts (what, who, where, and when)

 High School – historical details (how)
 College – historical analysis (why)
HISTORY is the study of past, for us to understand the present and for us to anticipate the
future.
According to Dr. Zeus Salazar, “Ang kasaysayan ay mga salaysay ng mga pangyayaring may
saysay para s agrupo ng taong sinasalaysayan nito.”
TWO TYPES OF HISTORY:
1. Sanaysay – mga nakasulat na kasaysayan
2. Salaysay – oral history
NATURE OF HISTORY
1. History is interpretative. This invites us to debate multiple perspectives, offer their
opinions and educated interpretations, and challenge existing beliefs.
2. History is revisionist in scope. Constant process of reexamining the past. New
discoveries and perspective.
3. History is a constant process of questioning. Requires questioning the texts, examining
them with critical eye, and asking new questions.
4. History is integrative of many disciplines. Incorporates geography, literature, art,
sociology, economics, and political science.
5. History is inclusive. All of us are involve. All classes, regions and ethno-racial group, as
well as both male and female.
6. History incorporates Historiography. Includes many interpretations of historical events.
SOURCE OF HISTORY

1. Primary Sources it gives firsthand, original, and unfiltered information.

TYPES OF PRIMARY SOURCES

 Autobiographies an account of a person’s life written by that person.

 Memoirs a history or record composed from personal observation and experience.
 Diaries a form of autobiographical writing which is regularly kept.
 Personal Letters a type of informal composition that usually concerns personal matters
and is sent from one individual to another.
 Correspondences a body letters or communications.
 Interviews a conversation where questions are asked, and answers are given.
 Surveys a list of questions aimed at extracting specific data.
 Fieldworks/Field Researches the collection of information outside a laboratory, library,
or workplace setting.
 Photographs and Posters often considered primary source because they can illustrate
past events.
 Works of Art and Literature includes paintings and drawings.
 Speeches and Oral Histories
2. Secondary Sources created by someone who was not a direct to witness to an event, but
who obtained descriptions of an event from someone else.
TYPES OF SECONDARY SOURCES

 Bibliographies organized list of sources.

 Biographical Works a description of a real person’s life, including factual details, as well
as stories from the person’s life.
 Periodicals newspapers, magazines, and journals.
 Literature Reviews and Reviews Article examples are film reviews and book reviews.
In general, can we trust all historical sources? Every source is biased in some way. As a result,
historians must read sources skeptically and critically.
RULES ON HOW TO VERIFY HISTORICAL SOURCES:

 Rule No. 1 TIME AND PLACE – the closer in the time and place a source and its creator
were to an event in the past, the better the source will be.
 Rule No. 2 BIAS – every source is biased in some way. Compare and analyze sources.
THEORIES OF HISTORY

1. Cyclical View of History – history undergoes recurring cycles (Ex. Rise and Fall of
Civilizations)
2. Linear View of History – history is progressive and moving forward.
3. Great God View of History – history is based on theological theories that God shapes
our history.
4. Great Man View of History – dominant personalities determine the course of history.
5. Best People View of History – only the best race, the elites, and the ruling class make
history.
6. Ideas of Great Mind View of History – the driving force f history is the people’s ideas.
7. Human Nature View of History – history is determined by the qualities of human
nature, good or bad.
8. Economic View of History – economic factors are the determinant of history. (Karl
Marx)
9. Gender History – looks from the past on the perspective of gender.
10. Post-Modern View of History – it views history as “what we make of it”
11. Other Views of History – other theories that attempts to explain history includes the
following: geographic factors, wards, religion, race, and climate.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH the techniques and guidelines by which historians use sources and
evidences, to research and then to write histories in form of accounts of the past.
PURPOSE OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH to describe and examine events of the past to understand
the present and anticipate potential future effects.
STEPS IN CONDUCTING HISTORICAL RESEARCH:
1. Identify a topic or subject and define the problem or hypothesis to be investigated.
2. Searching for sources of data and other relevant source materials.
3. Summarizing and evaluating the sources.
4. Analyzing, synthesizing, and interpreting the evidence obtained and to draw conclusions
about the hypothesis.
MODULE 3
TIMELINE a list of important events arranged in the order in which they happened.
Parts of Timeline:

 Date (most important)

 Visual
 Header
 Description (most important)
BC means Before Christ (una ang taon) 2022 BC
AD means Anno Domini (Year of Our Lord) (huli ang taon) AD 2022
BCE – before common era.

CE – common era.
Trivia: Jesus’ age as of the moment is 2022. Mother Mary ages as of the moment is 2036.
3 MAIN PERIODS OF PHILIPPINE HISTORY

 Pre-Colonial (Before)
 Colonial Period
 Post-Colonial Period
Spanish, American, Japanese all colonized the Philippines.
1946 – Post Colonial Period.

June 12, 1898 – another year when post-colonial started.

panTAYOng pananaw – Dr. Zeus Salazar.
TIMELINE OF PHILIPPINE HISTORY (SIR ARLIE)

 Panahong Malaya
 Panahong Hindi Malaya
 Panahong Mapagpalaya
How should we view Philippine History?

 1941 Historical Marker “Ferdinand Magellan’s Death”

 1951 Historical Marker “Victory of Lapu-Lapu”
Eurocentric/Western Centric – Colonial
Filipino centric/Makabayan – Malaya

MODULE 4
Source Analysis = Data Analysis (lahat ng source analysis ay may author.)
Three Important Things to Consider in Source Analysis
1. Text – visible and readable. (What information is provided by the source?)
Video can be considered as text because we can get information on it.
Painting and Picture also considered as text.
2. Context – background information of the text such as time and place.
3. Subtext – what is between the lines? Ask the questions about the following:
 Author: Who created the source, and what do we know about that person.
 Audience: For whom was the source created?
 Reason: Why was this source produced?
Steps in Doing Source Analysis
A. External Criticism (NAKASARADONG LIBRO) - refers to the genuineness or authenticity
of the documents a researcher uses in a historical study.
B. Internal Criticism (NAKABUKAS NA LIBRO) - refers to the accuracy of the contents of a
document. It is concern
with what the document says.
Methods of Data Analysis Under INTERNAL Criticism
A. Content Analysis - a method for studying documents and communication artifacts,
which can be texts of various formats, pictures, audio, or video.
Types of Content Analysis
1. Conceptual Analysis - this can be thought of as establishing the existence and
frequency of concepts in a text.
2. Relational Analysis - builds on conceptual analysis by examining the relationships
among concepts in a text.
B. Contextual Analysis (TIME AND PLACE) - an analysis of a text that helps us to assess
that text within the context of its historical and cultural setting.

Criteria on Assessing the Historical Significance of Sources

A. Relevance is it important/ relevant to people living at the time? is something still relevant to
our present lives even if it had only a passing importance?
B. Resonance who were/ have been affected by the event? Why was it important to them?
C. Remarkable was the event remarked on by people at the time or since?
D. Remembered
-Was the event/ development important at some stage within the collective memory of a group
or groups?
E. Revealing does it reveal some other aspects of the past?

F. Resulting in Change does it have consequences for the future?

G. Durability for how long have people’s lives been affected? A day, a week, a year, or all their
lives?
H. Quantity how many people were affected? Did the event affect many, everyone or just a
few? A whole barrio, a town, or a country?
I. Profundity was the event superficial or deeply affecting? How deeply people’s lives were
affected? How were people’s lives affected?
First Voyage Around the World
Overview:
Antonio Pigafetta was a key player on one of the most amazing world exploration trips. He was
born in Vicenza in 1492, and he was an Italian seafarer and geographer. The relevance of his
own venture fundamentally lies on the fact that he took part on the first circumnavigation of
the world between 1519 and 1522. He was able to accomplish it after the murder of Ferdinand
Magellan, leaving a detailed description of the journey in the report of the first trip around the
world. The lost manuscript was rescued later, in 1797, and today is considered one of the most
important documentary evidences relating the geographical discoveries of the Sixteenth
Century. These notes were deemed valuable to other future historians, cartographers,
explorers, and others because of its detailed data.
The Contemporary World (GEC103)
LESSON 2 – DEFINING AND CONFRONTING GLOBALIZATION
GLOBALIZATION

 describe the growing interdependence of the world's economies, cultures, and populations,
brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of
investment, people, and information
 is a catchphrase familiar to anyone tuned into social media.
 Without globalization, we are nothing.
 Globalization is about the liberalization and global integration of markets.
 Nobody is in charge of globalization.
 Globalization benefits everyone in the long run.
 Globalization requires a global war on terror.
SHALMALI GUTTAL (2007)

 defined globalization as the process of interaction and integration among people,

companies, and government worldwide.
 as a complex and multifaceted phenomenon.
 globalization is considered by some as a form of capitalist expansion which entails the
integration of local and national economies into a global, unregulated market economy.

ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT

 the geographic dispersion of industrial and service activities, for example research and
development, sourcing of inputs, production and distribution, the cross-border networking
of companies.
THOMAS FRIEDMAN

 theincreased interconnectedness and interdependence of peoples and countries, is

generally understood to include two inter-related elements: the opening of international
borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, the increased interconnectedness and
interdependence of peoples and countries.
ROBERT J. CARBAUGH

 the process of greater interdependence among countries and their citizens. It consists of
increased integration of product and resource markets across nations via trade,
immigration, and foreign investment – that is, via international flows of goods and services,
of people, and of investment such as culture and the environment. Simply put, globalization
is political, technological, and cultural, as well as economic.

PETER JAY

 the ability to produce any good or service anywhere in the world, using raw materials,
components, capital, and technology from anywhere, sell the resulting output anywhere
and place the profits anywhere.
RUDD LUBBERS

 networks of relations and dependencies, therefore, become potentially border-crossing and

worldwide. This potential internationalization of relations and dependencies causes fear,
resistance, actions, and reactions.
ANTHONY GIDDENS

 intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that
local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice-versa.
ADVOCATES AND CRITICS OF GLOBALIZATION
 Globalization is one of the most controversial issues of our times. Supporters generally
believe that it brings in greater economic efficiency that will eventually result in bring
prosperity for the entire world. Critics think that it will largely benefit those who are already
rich, leaving most the world poorer than before.
GLOBALIZATION AS PROCESS

 A set of social processes that generate and increase worldwide social interdependencies
and exchanges while at the same time fostering in a people growing awareness of
deepening connections between the local and the distant.
GLOBALIZATION AS AN IDEOLOGY

 Globalization is, in this context, a political belief system that benefits a certain class.
GLOBALIZATION AS A CONDITION

 In this context, globalization is also referred to as globality— characterized by thick

economic, political, and cultural interconnections and global flows that render political
borders and economic barriers irrelevant.
FACTORS THAT HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO GLOBALIZATION

 The price of transporting goods has fallen significantly, enabling good to be imported and
exported more cheaply due to containerization and bulk shipping.
 TNC (Transnational Corporation) have taken advantage of the reduction or lowering of
trade barriers.

LESSON 3 – HISTORY OF GLOBALIZATION

Globalization is not a new phenomenon because there have been many instances in the periods
in history when there were contacts between diverse individuals and countries.
Below is the timeline of the historical development of Globalization:
PAX ROMANA (17 B.C. – 180 A.D.)

 The Pax Romana (Latin for “Roman Peace”) was a period of relative peace and stability
throughout the Roman Empire that lasted more than 200 years, beginning with the reign of
Augustus (27 BCE – 14CE).
THE FOUNDING OF CHRISTIANITY (1ST CENTURY CE)

 Christianity began in the first century CE. Jerusalem as a Jewish sect, but rapidly spread
throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. (New World Encyclopedia, “History of
Christianity”, 2019).
THE SILK ROAD (130 BCE – 1453 CE)

 The silk road was an ancient network of trade routes, formally established during the Han
Dynasty of China, which linked the regions of the ancient world in commerce between 130
BCE – 1453 CE.

THE ISLAMIC GOLDEN AGE (8TH – 13TH CENTURY)

 Refers to a period in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the 8th century to the
13th century, during which much of the historically Islamic world was ruled by various
caliphates and science, economic development, and cultural works flourished.

THE GUTENBERG PRESS (C. 1440)

 Johannes Gutenberg, a German goldsmith, inventor, printer, and publisher, invented the
printing press in circa 1440 which started the Printing Revolution.
THE RENAISSANCE (14TH – 17TH CENTURY)

 The Renaissance, considered the bridge between the Middle Ages and Modern History, was
an era from the 14th to the 17th century.

COLUMBUS EXPEDITION TO AMERICA (1492 – 1502)

 Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer and navigator, came across the Americas, paving
the way for European exploration and colonization of the Americas.

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION (1517 – 1648)

 The Protestant Reformation was a religious, political, intellectual, and cultural upheaval of
the 16th century that divided Catholic Europe.

BIRTH OF THE WESTPHALIAN STATE SYSTEM (1648)

 The Westphalian state system is the system of international relations, established in Europe
in connection with the Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648 after the Thirty Years' War.
(Valdai, 2016).
THE TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE (16TH – 19TH CENTURIES)

 The transatlantic slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of enslaved
Africans, mainly to colonies in North America, South America, and the West Indies.
THE CREATION OF DUTCH UNITED EAST INDIA COMPANY (1692)

 The Dutch East India Company was a megacorporation founded in the early 17th century by
a government-led amalgamation of several competing Dutch trading firms.
U.S. AND FRENCH REVOLUTIONS (1776 – 1799)

 The American Revolution was a revolutionary war beginning in 1776 and ending in 1783,
during which colonists in the Thirteen American Colonies resisted British rule and
hegemony, gaining independence from Great Britain, and forming the United States of
America. Meanwhile, the French Revolution was a period of political unrest in France and its
colonies that took place between 1789 and 1799 which overthrew the monarchy and
formed the French Republic.

SLAVERY ABOLITION ACT (1833)

 The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 had abolished slavery in parts of the British Empire.
THE FOUNDING OF THE RED CROSS (1863)

 The Red Cross, an international humanitarian network, was founded in Switzerland in 1863.
FIRST MODERN OLYMPIC LEAGUE (1896)

 The Summer Olympic Games in Athens in 1896 (April 6-15) marked the birth of the Modern
Olympics.

WORLD WAR 1 (1914 – 1918)

 World War I was a global war that lasted from July 28, 1914, to November 11, 1918.
THE FOUNDING OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS (1919 – 1946)

 The League of Nations, an international organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, was

created after the First World War in 1919.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF TV (1927)

 Herbert E. Ives and Frank Gray developed the television on April 7, 1927.
THE GREAT DEPRESSION (1929)

 The Great Depression was a severe global economic depression that began in 1929 and
lasted until the late 1930s.
THE INVENTION OF THE COMPUTER (1941)

 Konrad Zuse completed the Z3 in Berlin, the first fully functional (programmable and
automatic) digital computer on May 12, 1941.
WORLD WAR 2 (1939 – 1945)

 The Second World War was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945.
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUN (IMF) (1944)

 The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was established at the Bretton Woods Conference
in 1944.
THE FOUNDATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS (UN) (1945)

 The United Nations is an international organization established in 1945 after the Second
World War.

START OF COLD WAR (1945)

 The Cold War began after Nazi Germany surrendered in 1945.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF NATO (1949)

 The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was established in 1949 by the United States,
Canada, and a number of Western European countries to provide collective security against
the Soviet Union.
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF TE FIRST MCDONALD’S (1955)

 The first McDonald's restaurant opened on April 15, 1955.

1966 MOON LANDING

 On July 20, 1969, American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin became the
first man ever to land on the moon.
THE TERM “GLOBAL VILLAGE” WAS COINED (1967)

 Marshall McLuhan coined the term “global village” in 1967.

THE BIRTH OF NASDAQ (1971)

 NASDAQ was created in 1971, a US-based stock exchange.

CHINA’S POLICY OF OPENING UP TO THE OUTSIDE WORLD (1978)

 China opened its doors to the outside world in 1978.

THE STOCK MARKET CRASH OF 1987

 The US stock market crashed in 1987 which impacted every other major stock market in the
world.

THE FALL OF BERLIN WALL (1989)

 The Berlin Wall was torn down on November 9, 1989, which marked the beginning of the
fall of communism in Eastern and Central Europe.

THE CREATION OF EUROPEAN UNION (EU) (1992)

 On 1 November 1993, the Treaty of Maastricht became effective under the Third Delors
Commission, creating the European Union.
THE WORLD CONFERENCE ON HUMAN RIGHTS (1993)

 The World Conference on Human Rights was held in Vienna, Austria, from June 14 to 25
1993.

THE CREATION OF WORLD OF TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO)

 The World Trade Organization (WTO), an intergovernmental organization, was created on

January 1, 1995.

1999 SEATTLE WTO PROTESTS

 The WTO protests in 1999 closed down Seattle and brought new attention to the issues of
global trade.

U.S. “WAR ON TERROR” (2001)

 The US-led global counter-terrorism campaign launched in response to the attacks of

September 11, 2001.
INTERNET ENABLED PHONES (2001)

 Smartphones were able to use and connect to the Internet.

2008 MARKET CRASH

 The US stock market crash on September 29, 2008.

COVID-19 PANDEMIC (2020)

 The COVID 19 pandemic is an ongoing global pandemic which started in Wuhan, China.

LESSON 4 – ECONOMY AND MARKET INTEGRATION

 Markets are said to be integrated if they are connected by a process of arbitrage. A well-
integrated market system is central to a well-functioning market economy. The economic
proposition of integration is that an element of efficiency is attainable in the unified
operation than in independent actions.
 According to McDonald (1953), “the integrated economy is one in which various economic
processes are so functionally related to every other process that the totality of separate
operation forms a single unit of production with characteristics of its own.
 Market integration is the phenomenon by which price interdependence takes place.
 Faminow and Benson (1990) stated that integrated markets are those where prices are
determined interdependently, which is assumed to mean that price change in one market
affects the prices in other markets.
 Goodwin and Schroeder (1991) described that markets that are not integrated may convey
inaccurate price information which might distort producer marketing decisions and
contribute to inefficient product movements
What market integration delivers to the economy will be clear from the following views

 Information on market integration presents specific pieces of evidence as to the

competitiveness of the market, the effectiveness of arbitrage (Carter and Hamilton, 1989)
and the efficiency of pricing (Buccola, 1983). Monke and Petzel (1984) defined, “integrated
market in which prices of differentiated products do not perform independently.
 Spatial market integration refers to a situation in which prices of a commodity in spatially
separated markets move together and price signals and information are transmitted
smoothly across the markets. Spatial market performance can be evaluated by the knowing
relationship between the prices of spatially separated markets and spatial price behavior in
regional markets may be used as a measure of overall market performance (Ghosh, 2000)”.
TYPES OF MARKET INTEGRATION

 Backward vertical integration. This involves acquiring a business operating earlier in the
supply chain – e.g., a retailer buys a wholesaler, a brewer buys a hop farm.
 Conglomerate integration. This involves the combination of firms that are involved in
unrelated business activities.
 Forward vertical integration. This involves acquiring a business further up in the supply
chain – e.g., a vehicle manufacturer buys a car parts distributor.
 Horizontal integration. Here, businesses in the same industry and which operate at the
same stage of the production process are combined. (Riley 2018).
GLOBAL CORPORATIONS

 A global company is generally referred to as a multinational corporation (MNC).

 An MNC is a company that operates in two or more countries, leveraging the global
environment to approach varying markets in attaining revenue generation.
 These international operations are pursued as a result of the strategic potential provided
by technological developments, making new markets a more convenient and profitable
pursuit both in sourcing production and pursuing growth.
 International operations are therefore a direct result of either achieving higher levels of
revenue or a lower cost structure within the operations or value-chain.
 MNC operations often attain economies of scale, through mass producing in external
markets at substantially cheaper costs, or economies of scope, through horizontal
expansion into new geographic markets.
 As gross domestic product (GDP) growth migrates from mature economies to developing
economies, it becomes highly relevant to capture growth in higher growth markets.
However, despite the general opportunities a global market provides, there are significant
challenges MNCs face in penetrating these markets. These challenges can loosely be defined
through four factors:

 Public Relations: Public image and branding are critical components of most businesses.
Building this public relations potential in a new geographic region is an enormous challenge,
both in effectively localizing the message and in the capital expenditures necessary to
create momentum.
 Ethics: Arguably the most substantial of the challenges faced by MNCs, ethics have
historically played a dramatic role in the success or failure of global players.
 Organizational Structure: Another significant hurdle is the ability to incorporate new
regions efficiently and effectively within the value chain and corporate structure.
 International expansion requires enormous capital investments in many cases, along with
the development of a specific strategic business unit (SBU) in order to manage these
accounts and operations.
 Leadership: The final factor worth noting is attaining effective leaders with the appropriate
knowledge base to approach a given geographic market.
Through effectively maintaining ethics and a strong public image, companies should create
strategic business units with strong international leadership in order to capture value in a
constantly expanding global market. (Lumen Learning “Global Corporation,” 2019).
LESSON 5 – GLOBAL GOVERNANCE AND INTERSTATE SYSTEM
[An international system] are “groups of independent states held together by a web of
economic and strategic interests and pressures so that they are forced to take account of each
other and those which make a conscious social contract by instituting rules and machinery to
make their relations more orderly and predictable and to further certain shared principles and
values.” – Hedley Ball and Adam Watson – The Expansion of International Society
THE CONCEPT OF SYSTEM
In studies of international politics, the conception of “system” has been used mainly in two
ways, international system, and world system(s).

 First, the term “international system” is a concept for analysis or description of

international politics or relations, but therein lies a sense of prescription for diplomatic or
military action too. Used as an analytical term, it is predicated upon a definite notion of
system. But it is not necessarily so when it is used to describe situations of international
relations at a given time.
 Second, the term “world system(s)” is a concept with which to analyze or describe mainly
politico-economic global situations, while its implications for political action are derived but
only indirectly.
 Third, “international system” came to be accepted as an academic term in the late 1950s,
soon becoming fashionable, but more or less obsolete in the late 1990s.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines “system” to be (a) a set or assemblage of things
connected, associated, or interdependent, so as to form a complex unity, or (b) a whole
composed of parts in an orderly arrangement according to some scheme or plan.
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM AND SOCIETY

 Hedley Bull defines: a system of states (or international system) is formed when two or
more states have sufficient contact between them, and have sufficient impact on one
another’s decisions, to cause them to behave—at least in some measure—as parts of a
whole.
The system has a number of informal rules about how things should be done, but these rules
are not binding.
THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA (1648)

 In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years’ War between Catholic
states and Protestant states in western and central Europe, established our modern
international system.
 It declared that the sovereign leader of each nation-state could do as she or he wished
within its borders and established the state as the main actor in global politics.
 From that point forward, the international system has consisted primarily of relations
among nation-states.

SHIFTING BALANCES OF POWER (1600 – 1800)

 In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the nation-state emerged as the dominant
political unit of the international system.
 A series of powerful states dominated Europe, with the great powers rising and falling.
 Some nations—notably France and England—were powerful through most of the modern
age, but some—such as Spain and the Ottoman Empire—shrank in power over time.
EMERGENCE OF NATIONALISM (1800 – 1945)

 The nineteenth century brought two major changes to the international system:
 Nationalism emerged as a strong force, allowing nation-states to grow even more powerful.
 Italy and Germany became unified countries, which altered the balance of military and
economic power in Europe.
 The major powers of Europe had suffered greatly, whereas the United States began to come
out of its isolation and transform into a global power
 At the same time, the end of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires created a series
of new nations, and the rise of communism in Russia presented problems for other nations.
 These factors contributed to the Treaty of Versailles, the rise of Nazism and communism,
and World War II (1939–1945).
NEW WORLD ORDERS (1945 – PRESENT)

 The end of World War II marked a decisive shift in the global system. After the war, only
two great world powers remained: The United States and the Soviet Union.
 Although some other important states existed, almost all states were understood within the
context of their relations with the two superpowers. This global system was called Bipolar
because the system centered on two great powers.
 Since the end of the Cold War and the fall of the Soviet Union, the nature of the world has
changed again. Only one superpower remains, leading some scholars to label the new
international system Unipolar.
 Others point to the increasing economic power of some European and Asian states and
label the new system Multipolar.
 The United States has the world’s most powerful military, which supports the unipolar view,
but the U.S. economy is not as powerful, relative to the rest of the world, lending credence
to the multipolar view.
A PLETHORA OF POLITICS

 Political scientists usually use the terms international politics and global politics
synonymously, but technically the terms have different meanings.
 International Politics, strictly speaking, refers to relationships between states.
 Global Politics, in contrast, refers to relationships among states and other interest groups,
such as global institutions, corporations, and political activists.
 Comparative Politics seeks to understand how states work by comparing them to one
another.
 While international relations studies how states relate to one another, comparative
politics compare the internal workings of a state, its political institutions, its political
culture, and the political behavior of its citizens.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

 International Governmental Organizations (IGOs); IGOs are formed when governments

make an agreement or band together.
 International Nongovernmental Organizations (INGOs or, more commonly, NGOs). INGOs
are made up of individuals and are not affiliated with governments.
TYPES OF NGOs
Below is a variety of acronyms to define specific types of Non-Government Organizations
(NGOs):

 INGO: international non-governmental organization

 BINGO: business-oriented non-governmental organization
 RINGO: religious-oriented non-governmental organization
 ENGO: environmental nongovernmental organization
 GONGO: government-operated non-governmental organization
 QUANGO: quasi-autonomous non-governmental organization
GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

 The World Health Organization defines global governance as “…the way in which global
affairs are managed. As there is no global government, global governance typically involves
a range of actors including states, as well as regional and international organizations.
 However, a single organization may nominally be given the lead role on an issue, for
example the World Trade Organization in world trade affairs.
WHAT IS A GLOBAL GOVERNANCE?

 Global governance brings together diverse actors to coordinate collective action at the level
of the planet.
The leading institution in charge of global governance today is the United Nations.
• It was founded in 1945, in the wake of the Second World War, as a way to prevent future
conflicts on that scale.
• The United Nations does not directly bring together the people of the world, but sovereign
nation states, and currently counts 193 members who make recommendations through the
UN General Assembly.
• The UN’s main mandate is to preserve global security, which it does particularly through
the Security Council.
• In addition, the UN can settle international legal issues through the International Court of
Justice, and implements its key decisions through the Secretariat, led by the Secretary
General.
CORE PRINCIPLES OF GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

Five principles are critical to guiding the reforms of global governance and global rules
according to the United Nations’ Committee for Development Policy to wit:

1) Common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capacities

2) Subsidiarity
3) Inclusiveness, transparency, accountability
4) Coherence
5) Responsible sovereignty

Joseph Stiglitz, formerly chief economist of the World Bank and Nobel Prize winner for
economics in 2001, has characterized the globalization of international finance as suffering
from “global governance without global government.”

LESSON 6 – GLOBAL DIVIDES AND STRATIFICATION

GLOBAL DIVIDE In the contemporary world, the buzz word used to pertain to these
stratifications among nations is the term GLOBAL DIVIDE. Started during the COLD WAR (1945-
1990)
WHAT IS COLD WAR?

 Period of conflict and tension that began after WWII but was not an actual war
 Battle of ideologies (capitalism vs communism)
WHAT IS THE NORTH-SOUTH DIVIDE? BY BENJAMIN ELISHA SAWE

 The North-South Divide is a socio-economic and political categorization of countries.

 The Cold-War-era generalization places countries in two distinct groups; The North and the
South.
 The North is comprised of all First World countries and most Second World countries
 The South is comprised of Third World countries.
 This categorization ignores the geographic position of countries with some countries in the
southern hemisphere such as Australia and New Zealand being labeled as part of the North.
 The poor countries were eventually labeled as Third World countries.
 This categorization was later abandoned after the Second World countries joined the First
World countries.
 New criteria were established to categorize countries which was named the North-South
Divide where First World countries were known as the North while Third World countries
comprised the South.
GLOBAL NORTH

 The Global North (comprises one quarter of the world population) refers to the developed
societies of Europe and North America, which are characterized by established democracy,
wealth, technological advancement, political stability, aging population, population growth
and dominance of the world trade and politics.
GLOBAL SOUTH

 The Global South (are the developing countries) (comprises three quarters of the world
population) represents mainly agrarian economies in Africa, India, China, Latin America, and
others that are not as economically sound and politically stable as their North counterparts
and tend to be characterized by turmoil, war, conflict, poverty, and tyranny (Odeh, 2010).

• The terms, THE NORTH and THE SOUTH, when used in a global context are alternative
designations for the “developed” and “developing” countries.

• The NORTH-SOUTH divide is broadly considered a socio-economic and political divide.

• The Global North – first and second world countries
• The Global South – third world countries
CRITICISM
• The North-South Divide is criticized for being a way of segregating people along economic
lines and is seen as a factor of the widening gap between developed and developing
economies.
• However, several measures have been put in place to contract the North-South Divide
including the lobbying for international free trade and globalization.
• The United Nations has been at the forefront in diminishing the North-South Divide through
policies highlighted in its Millennium Development Goals. (Sawe 2017)

ACRONYMS AND MEANINGS

BAPA - Buenos Aires Plan of Action
JICA - Japan International Cooperation Agency
UN - United Nations
MDG - Millennium Development Goals
Additional Information:
1. NORTH - Comprised of countries which have developed economies and account for over
90% of all manufacturing industries in the world.
2. SOUTH - Comprised of countries with developing economies which were initially referred to
as Third World countries during the Cold War.
3. RUSSIAN EAST AND THE AMERICAN WEST - During the Cold War of the mid-20th century
countries were primarily categorized according to their alignment
4. SOVIET UNION AND CHINA - Countries in the East classified as Second World countries.
5. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - In the west and labelled as First World countries