Earth’s Internal Heat

Radiogenic heat
We are jolted and shaken by earthquakes. - Thermal energy released as a result of
volcanoes erupt, spewing ash and hot gases into spontaneous nuclear disintegration.
the atmosphere and dumping molten rock estimated 47 terawatts flow of heat from
across the landscape. Over millennia, great radiogenic heat, produced by radiogenic
mountain ranges gradually inch higher. decay of the isotopes in the mantle and
crust.
The geosphere of earth is continually moving
and changing. And the energy for all of that Radioactive decay
movement is provided by the earth's interior - the earth has been losing heat to space
heat. since its creation. radioactive elements
are elements that break down through a
What is earth's internal heat? process known as radioactive decay.
These radioactive decay in the earth's
The majority of our planet's interior heat is left crust and mantle constantly contributes
behind from when it originated 4.5 billion years heat and delays cooling.
ago. as numerous smaller particles crash and
clump together. Earth and the other planets in Frictional heat
the solar system began to take shape. The - caused by the frictional force that occurs
energy emitted by the server impacts was during subduction process
converted into heat energy. gravity began to drag
stuff toward the center of the early earth as it Sources of Heat Transfer:
became longer. internal heat was raised even 1. Conduction - process where heat energy
further by the tremendous compression of is transmitted through collisions between
material deep within the earth. neighboring atoms or molecules.
2. Convection - transfer of heat by the
When temperature reached a certain point, the movement of mass which is a more
element began to melt and sink toward the core, efficient means of heat transport on the
while less dense stuff rose to the surface. even earth.
more heat was created by the friction of the iron 3. Radiation - process of heat exchange
going down through the other substance. Layers between the sun and the earth. Emission
formed inside the earth as denser stuff sank. or transmission of energy in the form of
waves or particles.
Core - outer core, inner core
Mantle After 4.5 billion years, the interior of the earth is
Crust still incredibly hot. While the earth's interior heat
supplies energy for processes such as plate
Two sources of heat: tectonics and sections of the rock cycle, it barely
Primordial heat contributes a fraction of a percent to the average
- The energy in a planet's interior that is left atmospheric temperature.
over from the heating of the planet during
its formation. It is an internal heat that Magmatism
gradually gathers by means of dispersion Magma is composed of semi-liquid hot molten
in the planet during its few million years of rocks located beneath the Earth, specifically in
evolution. Deposited energy during the the melted mantle rock and oceanic plate. This
early formation of the planet.
molten state, when solidified, creates igneous rocks decrease. If a rock is already close to its
rocks found on the surface of the Earth. melting point, the effect of adding these volatiles
can be enough to trigger partial melting. It
The difference between magma and lava: occurs around subduction zones.
Magma and lava are both molten rocks.
However, they differ in location. Magma is found Folds, Faults and Rock Deformation
in the magma chamber of the volcano while lava
Rocks that were originally deposited in horizontal
is found on the surface of earth once the volcano
layers can subsequently deform by tectonic
erupts. Magmatism is a process under the
forces into folds and faults. Folds constitute the
earth’s crust where formation and movement of
twists and bends in rocks. Faults are planes of
magma occur. These happen in the lower part of
detachment resulting when rocks on either side
the Earth’s crust and in the upper portion of the
of the displacement slip past one another.
mantle, known as the asthenosphere.
How Rocks Become Deformed
The magma present in the lower crust and upper
mantle of the Earth is formed or generated Three Types of Tectonic Forces
through the process of partial melting. In this
1. There are basically 3 types of tectonic forces
process, different minerals in rock melt at
that can deform rocks. The type of strain
different temperatures and pressures. Another
(deformation) that develops in a rock depends
factor being considered in this process is the
on the tectonic force.
addition of volatile materials such as water and
carbon dioxide. This is a diagram showing how (a) Compressive forces squeeze and shorten a
minerals in rocks undergo partial melting. body.

Melting in the mantle requires one of three (b) Tensional forces stretch a body and pulls it
possible events to occur: apart

1. An increase in temperature: Conduction in (c) Shearing forces push different parts of a

mantle happens when heat is transferred from body in opposite directions
hotter molten rocks to the Earth’s cold crust.
This process is known as heat transfer. As 2. The type of deformation experienced by a
magma rises, it is often hot enough to melt the rock body depends largely on the type of force
rock it touches. It happens at convergent exerted.
boundaries, where tectonic plates are crashing
together. (a) Compressive forces generate folding and
faulting as a consequence of shortening.
2. Decrease of pressure: Mantle rocks remain Compressive forces are common along
solid when exposed to high pressure. However, convergent plate boundaries resulting in
during convection, these rocks tend to go mountain ranges.
upward (shallower level) and the pressure is
reduced. This triggers the melting of magma. (b) Tensional forces cause stretching and
This is known as decompression melting. This thinning of the rocks, usually accompanied by
process occurs at the Mid-Ocean Ridge, an tensional faults. Tensional forces common along
underwater mountain system. extensional plate boundaries such as mid-ocean
ridges.
3. Addition of volatiles: When water or carbon
dioxide is added to hot rocks, flux melting (c) Shearing forces cause rocks to slide
occurs. The melting points of minerals within the horizontally past one another such as along
transform plate boundaries to produce extensive 3. In ductile deformation, a gradually increasing
fault systems. force will cause the rock to undergo smooth and
continuous plastic deformation. The rock will
What Determines Whether a Rock Bends or contort and change shape without fracturing.
Breaks?
4. The type of rock also determines the type of
1. Another factor that determines how a rock deformation. Under similar confining pressures,
deforms is confining pressure, which is like the halite (rock salt) is more susceptible to ductile
pressure you feel when you dive deep deformation than is granite, which will more likely
underwater. Under confining pressure, forces fracture.
push against a body in all directions. In effect,
the body is squeezed into itself. 5. Igneous and metamorphic rocks tend to be
stronger and thus resist deformation to a greater
2. Confining pressures within the earth are extent than sedimentary rocks.
caused by the weight of the overlying rock
pushing downward and from all sides. Drillers Measuring Strike and Dip
experience great problems with confining
pressure. Holes drilled within the earth’s crust 1. The orientations of rock layers, folds, fractures
tend to remain open at shallow depths, but at and faults can all be measured in three
greater depths holes tend to squeeze shut due to dimensional space using strike and dip.
the increase in confining pressure.
2. The strike of a surface is the direction of a line
3. When an external force is applied to buried formed by the intersection of a rock layer with a
rocks under low confining pressure, such as near horizontal surface. The strike is described in
the surface of the earth, the rock typically terms of direction such as N 10o W.
deforms by simple fracturing. This is known as
3. The dip is measured at right angles to the
brittle deformation.
strike and is a measure of the angle at which the
4. At higher confining pressures, a similarly surface tilts relative to a horizontal surface. The
directed external force will cause the deeply dip is indicated in terms of angle and direction
buried rock to actually flow and deform without (e.g. 35o E).
fracturing. This is known as ductile deformation
Folds
and the rock is said to behave plastically.
Types of Folds
5. Rocks under low confining pressures near the
earth’s surface therefore generally deform 1. Figure 10.9: Folds are a result of ductile
through fracturing and faulting. Rocks deep deformation of rocks in response to external
within the crust under high confining pressures forces.
deform by folding.
2. Layered rocks folded into arches are called
Brittleness and Ductility anticlines whereas troughs are referred to as
synclines.
1. Rocks are defined as brittle or ductile on the
basis of the way they are deformed by forces. 3. The two sides of a fold are referred to as
limbs. The two limbs come together to form an
2. In brittle deformation, a continuous force is
imaginary line called the fold axis. The direction
applied to a rock. As the force is gradually
in which the fold axis points indicates the strike
increased, little change occurs in the rock until
of the fold.
suddenly it fractures.
4. A dome is an anticlinal structure where the (a) Symmetrical Folds: Axial plane is vertical
flanking beds encircle a central point and dip and beds dip at approximately the same angle,
radially away from it. but in opposite directions, on either side of the
plane.
5. A basin is a synclinal structure appearing as a
bowl-shaped depression where rock layers dip (b) Asymmetrical Folds: Axial planes are
radially towards a central point. inclined and one limb of the fold dips more
steeply than the opposite limb, but still in
6. The eroded surface of a fold appears as a opposite directions.
series of bands of different rocks. Rock bands
appearing on one side of the fold axis are (c) Overturned Folds: Axial plane is inclined and
duplicated on the other side. For basins and both limbs of the fold dip in the same direction.
domes, strata exposed at the surface form
concentric circles around a central point. 5. In general, the greater asymmetry in the fold,
the more intense the deformation.
7. For anticlines, the surface rock exposures
become progressively older towards the fold 6. When folds plunge into the earth, they
axis. essentially disappear from the surface. The
curved strata comprising a plunging fold form a
8. Synclines show the opposite trend. Rock horseshoe or hairpin pattern on the surface
exposures become progressively younger where they plunge into the earth.
towards the axis of synclines.
7. For anticlines, the horseshoe or hairpin shape
9. Rock layers dip away from the fold axis in closes in the direction that the anticline plunges.
anticlines, but dip toward the fold axis in
synclines. 8. For synclines, the horseshoe or hairpin-shape
opens in the direction that the syncline plunges.
Plunging Folds
9. In the field, a geologist can reconstruct the
1. A fold can be divided by an imaginary surface geometry of folds by:
called the axial plane. The axial plane divides a
fold as symmetrically as possible. The line (a) measuring the strike and dip of various strata
formed by the intersection of the axial plane with exposed in outcrops
the beds defines the fold axis.
(b) noting which direction the beds become
2. The axis of a fold can be horizontal. If the axis younger
is not horizontal, the structure is said to be a
(c) measuring any structural deformations within
plunging fold.
the rocks.
3. The plunge of a fold can be described as the
(d) Once this information is obtained, the
angle a fold axis makes with a horizontal
geologist can employ the principles of geometry
surface. The axis of a plunging fold can therefore
and trigonometry to determine the orientation of
be described as having a certain strike (e.g. N
the axial plane and also whether the fold
10o W) and plunge (e.g. 20o NW). Unlike dipping
plunges. If the fold plunges, then the plunge of
beds, the plunge of a fold axis is in the same
the fold axis can also be determined using
direction as the strike of the axial plane.
geometry, trigonometry and field measurements.
4. Folds can be classified by their geometry with
respect to their axial plane.
Joints and Faults 5. Normal faults result from tensional forces and
typically form rift valleys. The down-faulted
Rocks that undergo brittle deformation tend to block in a rift valley is called a graben while the
fracture into joints and faults. uplifted block is referred to as a horst.

Joints 6. Shear forces typically produce strike-slip

faults where one block slips horizontally past the
1. A joint is a crack in a rock along which no
another. In other words, slippage is parallel to
appreciable movement has occurred. Strata on
the strike of the fault.
one side of the joint align with strata on the other
side. 7. Compressional forces typically push the
hanging wall upward relative to the footwall,
2. Joints can form as a result of expansion and
producing a reverse fault.
contraction of rocks. Expansion can occur if
erosion strips away the overlying rocks to 8. A reverse fault in which the dip of the fault
exhume once deeply buried rocks. Release of plane is so small as to be almost horizontal is
confining pressure causes the exhumed rock to called a thrust fault. In thrust faults, the hanging
expand and fracture, thereby producing joints. wall moves almost horizontally over the footwall.

3. Joints aid in weathering by providing channels 9. Oblique faults occur where there is both a
where water and air can reach deep into the strike-slip and dip-slip component to the fault.
formation.

Faults

1. A fault is a plane of dislocation where rocks

on one side of the fault have moved relative to
rocks on the other side. Strata on one side of the
fault plane are typically offset from strata on the
opposite side.

2. Faults can form in response to any one of the

three types of forces: compression, tension and
shear: The type of fault produced, however,
depends on the type of force exerted.

3. A fault plane divides a rock unit into two

blocks. One block is referred to as the hanging
wall, the other as the footwall.

(a) The hanging wall is the block of rock above

an inclined fault plane.

(b) The block of rock below an inclined fault

plane constitutes the footwall.

4. If the hanging wall slips downward relative to

the footwall, the fault is defined as a normal
fault.