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LabManual AnalogElectronics

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Lab Manual:

Analog Electronics
Using the TI Electronics Kit for NI ELVIS III
© 2018 National Instruments
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information. Neither the author nor the publisher assumes any responsibility or liability for any
errors or omissions of any kind, to update any information, or for any infringement of any patent
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Neither the author nor the publisher makes any warranties of any kind, including without
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limitation of incidental or consequential damages, so the above limitation or exclusion may not
apply to you.

2
Table of Contents

Introduction........................................................................................................................8
Learning Objectives...........................................................................................................8
Prerequisites..................................................................................................................8
Hardware, Software, and Tool Knowledge....................................................................9
Organization of the Lab Manual......................................................................................10
Lab Tools and Technology..............................................................................................11
Platform: NI ELVIS III...................................................................................................11
Hardware: TI Electronics Kit........................................................................................12
Software: Multisim Live................................................................................................13
Safety Precautions...........................................................................................................14
Lab 1: Diodes...................................................................................................................15
Learning Objectives.........................................................................................................15
Required Tools and Technology......................................................................................16
Expected Deliverables.....................................................................................................17
Section 1: Diodes.............................................................................................................18
1.1 Theory and Background.........................................................................................18
1.2 Simulate: Explore the Behavior of a Diode............................................................22
1.3 Implement: Observing Diode Behavior..................................................................23
1.4 Exercise: Diode Measurements.............................................................................26
Section 2: Diodes in a Half-Wave Rectifier.....................................................................37
2.1 Theory and Background.........................................................................................37
2.2 Exercise: Diodes in Half-Wave Rectifier................................................................39
2.3 Conclusion.............................................................................................................43
Lab 2: Diodes in a Rectifier.............................................................................................46
Learning Objectives.........................................................................................................46
Required Tools and Technology......................................................................................47
Expected Deliverables.....................................................................................................48
1.1 Theory and Background.........................................................................................49
1.2 Simulate: Full-wave Rectifier.................................................................................53
1.3 Implement: Full-wave Rectifier...............................................................................55
1.4 Exercise: Rectifier Filtering....................................................................................59
1.5 Conclusion.............................................................................................................64
Lab 3: Zener Diodes........................................................................................................67

3
Learning Objectives.........................................................................................................67
Required Tools and Technology......................................................................................68
Expected Deliverables.....................................................................................................69
1.1 Theory and Background.........................................................................................70
1.2 Simulate: Zener Diode Behavior............................................................................73
1.3 Implement: Observing Zener Diode Behavior.......................................................76
1.4 Exercise: Zener Diode in a Voltage Regulator......................................................79
1.5 Conclusion.............................................................................................................82
Lab 4: Bipolar Junction Transistors.................................................................................85
Learning Objectives.........................................................................................................85
Required Tools and Technology......................................................................................86
Expected Deliverables.....................................................................................................87
Section 1: Bipolar Junction Transistors...........................................................................88
1.1 Theory and Background.........................................................................................88
1.2 Simulate: Explore the Behavior of a Diode............................................................91
1.3 Implement: BJT Behavior.......................................................................................94
1.4 Exercise: BJT Measurements in the Active Region...............................................97
1.5 Analysis................................................................................................................101
Section 2: Bipolar Junction Transistor as a Switch.......................................................103
2.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................103
2.2 Exercise: BJT as a Switch...................................................................................105
2.3 Conclusion...........................................................................................................108
Lab 5: Transistor Amplifiers...........................................................................................111
Learning Objectives.......................................................................................................112
Required Tools and Technology....................................................................................113
Expected Deliverables...................................................................................................115
Section 1: Transistor Amplifiers.....................................................................................116
1.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................116
1.2 Simulate: Explore the Behavior of a Transistor Amplifier....................................124
1.3 Implement: Transistor Amplifiers.........................................................................126
1.4 Exercise: Frequency Response of the Amplifier..................................................129
1.5 Analysis................................................................................................................131
Section 2: Emitter Follower Amplifiers...........................................................................133
2.1 Simulate: Emitter Follower Amplifiers - Voltage Response.................................133
2.2 Conclusion...........................................................................................................136
Lab 6: MOSFETS..........................................................................................................138

4
Learning Objectives.......................................................................................................138
Required Tools and Technology....................................................................................139
Expected Deliverables...................................................................................................140
1.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................141
1.2 Simulate: DC Behavior of a MOSFET.................................................................144
1.3 Implement: Regions of Operation of a MOSFET.................................................147
1.4 Exercise: MOSFET as a Switch...........................................................................150
1.5 Conclusion...........................................................................................................151
Lab 7: Thyristors............................................................................................................154
Learning Objectives.......................................................................................................155
Required Tools and Technology....................................................................................156
Expected Deliverables...................................................................................................157
Section 1: Thyristors......................................................................................................158
1.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................158
1.2 Simulate: Explore the Behavior of a Thyristor.....................................................162
1.3 Exercise: Apply Thyristor Characteristics to Protect a Circuit.............................165
1.4 Analysis................................................................................................................169
Section 2: TRIACS.........................................................................................................171
2.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................171
2.2 Simulate: Observe the Behavior of a TRIAC.......................................................172
2.3 Conclusion...........................................................................................................174
Lab 8: Optocouplers and IGBTs....................................................................................176
Learning Objectives.......................................................................................................177
Required Tools and Technology....................................................................................178
Expected Deliverables...................................................................................................179
Section 1: Optocouplers................................................................................................180
1.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................180
1.2 Simulate: Explore the Behavior of an Optocoupler..............................................184
1.3 Exercise: Test the Behavior of an Optocoupler...................................................185
1.4 Analysis................................................................................................................189
Section 2: IGBTs............................................................................................................191
2.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................191
2.2 Simulate Observe the Behavior of an IGBT........................................................192
2.3 Conclusion...........................................................................................................194
Lab 9: Op-Amps.............................................................................................................198
Learning Objectives.......................................................................................................198

5
Required Tools and Technology....................................................................................199
Expected Deliverables...................................................................................................200
1.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................201
1.2 Simulate: Open-Loop Behavior of an Op-Amp....................................................205
1.3 Implement: Open-Loop Behavior.........................................................................207
1.4 Exercise: Signal Clipping.....................................................................................210
1.5 Conclusion...........................................................................................................214
Lab 10: Op-Amp Amplifiers...........................................................................................217
Learning Objectives.......................................................................................................217
Required Tools and Technology....................................................................................218
Expected Deliverables...................................................................................................219
1.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................220
1.2 Simulate an Op-Amp Follower.............................................................................224
1.3 Simulate a Non-Inverting Amplifier......................................................................226
1.4 Exercise: Inverting Amplifier................................................................................228
1.5 Conclusion...........................................................................................................231
Lab 11: Instrumentation Amplifiers................................................................................234
Learning Objectives.......................................................................................................235
Required Tools and Technology....................................................................................236
Expected Deliverables...................................................................................................238
Section 1: Instrumentation Amplifiers............................................................................239
1.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................239
1.2 Simulate an Instrumentation Amplifier.................................................................243
1.3 Implement: Designing an Instrumentation Amplifier............................................248
1.4 Exercise: Integrated Circuit - Instrumentation Amplifier......................................251
Section 2: Source Signal Current Draw of In-Amps......................................................255
2.1 When Are Instrumentation Amplifiers Used?.......................................................255
2.2 Simulate: In-Amp Vs. Differential Amp Current Draw..........................................256
2.3 Implement: In-Amp Source Current.....................................................................258
2.4 Conclusion...........................................................................................................261
Lab 12: Project Lab – Power Supply.............................................................................264
Learning Objectives.......................................................................................................264
Required Tools and Technology....................................................................................265
Expected Deliverables...................................................................................................266
1.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................267
1.2 Implement: Rectifier.............................................................................................269

6
1.3 Implement: Filter..................................................................................................271
1.4 Implement: Regulator...........................................................................................273
1.5 Test: Varying Load...............................................................................................275
Lab 13: Project Lab – Voltage Level Indicator...............................................................277
Learning Objectives.......................................................................................................277
Required Tools and Technology....................................................................................278
Expected Deliverables...................................................................................................279
1.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................280
1.2 Simulate: Designing an Indicator.........................................................................286
1.3 Implement: Circuit................................................................................................291
1.4 Conclusion...........................................................................................................293
Lab 14: Project Lab – Building an ECG Circuit.............................................................296
Learning Objectives.......................................................................................................297
Required Tools and Technology....................................................................................297
Expected Deliverables...................................................................................................298
Section 1: Amplifiers......................................................................................................299
1.1 Real-World Scenario.......................................................................................299
1.2 Theory and Background.......................................................................................300
1.2 Implement: Designing an Amplifier.................................................................310
Section 2: Filters............................................................................................................314
2.1 Theory and Background.......................................................................................314
2.2 Implement: Designing A Filter..............................................................................326
Section 3: Putting It All Together...................................................................................328
3.1 Implement: Final Design......................................................................................328
3.2 Conclusion...........................................................................................................330

7
Introduction
This course focuses on silicon-based components, such as diodes and bipolar junction
transistors. This course also allows students to build electronic circuits to help them
better understand the different behaviors and functions of analog electronics. Students
will learn about each component with a Theory and Background section, then simulate
each of their behaviors using Multisim Live. Students will also build example circuits
using components that are breadboarded on the NI protoboard. Students will interact
with their circuits using NI ELVIS III instruments. At the end of each lab, there will be an
exercise and a conclusion that includes long answer questions to evaluate overall
understanding of the lab.

Learning Objectives

After completing the labs and projects in this manual, students will have the ability to
complete the following actions:

1. Explain the operation, characteristics, and applications, of diodes, transistors or

thyristors.
2. Analyze and validate a component’s behavior using simulation and
instrumentation.
3. Design an open loop, follower, non-inverting, inverting or instrumentation
amplifier to meet a given specification, and test its behavior using simulation and
instrumentation.
4. Discuss how common analog components can be applied given an analog circuit
application such as a DC power supply or a voltage level indicator.

Prerequisites

This lab manual is designed for students who have completed a first semester
electronics course, covering circuit fundamentals and basic circuit components.

8
Hardware, Software, and Tool Knowledge

Students should be able to:

1. Place and modify components, build a circuit, run a simulation, and measure
results in Multisim Live
2. Run and connect to the NI ELVIS III and NI Protoboard
3. Connect, configure, run, and read measurements from the NI ELVIS III
Instruments
4. Place and connect components on a breadboard
5. Utilize passive circuit components in more advanced circuits
6. Run a pre-built program or executable in LabVIEW

9
Organization of the Lab Manual

While it is encouraged for students to complete the labs in their presented order due to
the increase in complexity, they can choose to do them in a different order. If students
are inclined to skip certain topics, they may do so, as there are no strict dependencies
between each lab. That said, a few of the labs are conceptually dependent on others, as
shown in the image below:

Figure 0-1: Diagram of all 12 labs in Analog Electronics course

Each lab begins with an Overview describing what will be covered in the lab. Learning
objectives describe the expected outcomes of the lab. The Software and Hardware
section outlines the specific hardware and software required to complete the lab.
Deliverables are outlined to provide students with specific artifacts they will collect and
provide to their professor or lab manager upon completion of the lab. Learning
objectives describe the expected outcomes of the lab. The Software and Hardware
section outlines the specific hardware and software required to complete the lab.
Deliverables are outlined to provide students with specific artifacts they will collect and
provide to their professor or lab manager upon completion of the lab. The final
three labs in this course are project labs, meaning that they will be less guided than the
others. Students will be provided with background information, then asked to design and
test a circuit based on guidelines.

10
Lab Tools and Technology

Platform: NI ELVIS III

Figure 0-2: You will use the NI ELVIS III workstation

The NI Educational Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Suite (NI ELVIS) is an

engineering laboratory solution for project-based learning that combines instrumentation
and embedded design with a web-driven experience to create an active learning
environment in the lab and studio and flipped classrooms, delivering a greater
understanding of engineering fundamentals and system design. NI ELVIS addresses
engineering curriculum by integrating project-based learning, teamwork, and design with
course-specific application boards and labs developed by experts from education and
industry. NI ELVIS, as a programmable platform, gives educators the ability to scale to
future multidisciplinary applications driving student employability.

11
Learn more at: http://ni.com/en-us/support/model.ni-elvis-iii.html

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit

The TI Electronics Kit is a set of components for circuit and electronics education
provided by Texas Instruments which includes the building blocks of any Introductory
electronics laboratory with common passive components, various amplifiers,
comparators, regulators, digital logic gates, timers, temperature sensors, data
converters, wires, and more. The TI Electronics Kit is used to engage students
throughout engineering in projects from fundamentals through a student’s own design
which goes beyond the traditional classroom.

Components used in this course

Resistors:

 (1) 47 Ω
 (2) 100 Ω
 (1) 220 Ω
 (1) 560 Ω
 (5) 1 kΩ
 (1) 2 kΩ
 (1) 5 kΩ
 (1) 8.2 kΩ
 (2) 10 kΩ
 (1) 18 kΩ
 (2) 20 kΩ
 (1) 33 kΩ

Capacitors:

 (2) 1μF
 (1) 10μF
 (2) 22μF
 (1) 47μF

12
 (1) 100μF
 (1) 470μF

Diodes:

 (1) N4735 Zener Diode

 (4) 1N4001 Diodes
 (4) LEDs

Other components:

 (1) IRF510 MOSFET

 (1) Silicon-controlled rectifier (Thyristor), 10 VRM, 4A
 (1) Optocoupler
 (1) SPST Switch
 (1) INA217 Instrumentation Amplifier IC
 (1) TL074 Operational Amplifier IC

Software: Multisim Live

Multisim Live brings SPICE simulation to you anywhere, anytime with an interactive,
online, touch-optimized environment that works on any device. With a database of over
30,000 community circuits, engineers, students, and makers can immediately turn
inspiration into simulation.

Learn more at: https://www.multisim.com

13
Safety Precautions

Take note of the following precautions to ensure safety while completing this lab
manual.

● Always make sure that the breadboard is unplugged while changing the
components on the breadboard.
● Keep away any fluids when building your circuit.
● When disassembling a circuit, remove the source of power first.

14
Lab 1: Diodes
In this lab, you will examine a diode's main characteristics and functions, as well as
some of its notable uses in the real world.

First, you will look at the basic function of a diode and use simulation and circuit-building
to observe its current-limiting behavior. Then, you will explore how it can be used in a
clipper circuit.

In Section 2, you will learn about a diode's use in a half-wave rectifier and then you will
build one yourself.

Figure 1 Diodes

Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities:

1. Discuss the operation and application of a diode.

2. Determine the behavior of a diode using current-voltage curves first through
simulation and then validate it through instrumentation
3. Observe the behavior of a simple application circuit, such as a half-wave rectifier
or a clipping circuit, and discuss the role of diodes in it.

15
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/support/
 Instrument 1: IV Analyzer model.ni-elvis-iii.html
 Instrument 2: Digital Multimeter  View Tutorials:
 Instrument 3: Variable Power https://www.youtube.com/playlist?
Supply list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSxv0g
 Instrument 4: Oscilloscope wtshBA2dh_M
 Install Soft Front Panel support:
 Instrument 5: Function Generator
http://www.ni.com/documentation/
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and
en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
Accessories Kit (purchased separately)
installing-the-soft-front-panel/
is required for using the instruments.

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/54749/e
n

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

Section 1 Components:
 (1) 1N4001 diode
 (1) 47 Ω resistance
Section 2 Components:
 (1) 1 kΩ resistor
 (1) Red LED
 (1) 1N4001 diode

Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online http://multisim.com

● You will run a pre-built circuit  View Help http://multisim.com/help/
embedded in this web page with
Multisim Live in order to observe
the current-voltage behavior of a
diode.

16
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Calculations of voltage values

 Analysis questions
 Observations of the behavior of diodes

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

17
Section 1: Diodes

1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot. View the video here: youtu.be/Fj2sYterkZU

Video Summary

 A diode is a semiconducting device used to let current flow in one direction.

 A diode's main role is to convert alternate current to direct current in order for any
electronic device to receive power from plugs on the wall.
 When placed in a half-wave rectifier, a diode allows for only half of an AC
waveform to pass through to the load.

18
What Do Diodes Do?

A diode is a semiconducting device that allows current to flow in a single direction.

The behavior of a diode is defined by two modes:

• When the diode is in forward bias, current flows from the anode to the cathode.

• When the diode is in reverse bias, the current is blocked and there is no flow of
electricity through the circuit.

When current is flowing through a diode, the voltage on the positive leg is higher than
the voltage on the negative leg. This concept is called the diode’s forward voltage
drop. The severity of the voltage drop is a function of the diode’s semiconductor
material and changes depending on the material.

When the voltage across the diode is positive, a lot of current can flow once the voltage
becomes large enough. However, when the voltage across the diode is negative, no
current flows.

Why Are Diodes Important?

The power that comes into our homes uses Alternating Current (AC), but most
electronic devices operating within the home require Direct Current (DC) to
function. Diodes play a crucial role in the conversion of AC to DC, allowing electronic
devices to receive power from the plugs on the walls.

This blocking current function is not only used for converting from AC to DC, but also to
extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.

Diodes in a Half-Wave Rectifier

Rectifiers are devices that convert AC to DC. A half-wave rectifier uses a single diode to
allow half of an AC waveform to pass through to the load. Since only half of the input
reaches the output, the mean voltage is lower. Depending on the orientation of the
diode, the input is either positive or negative, and the output is unidirectional and
pulsating.

19
20
Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so
far. You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the
end of the lab.

1-1 What is a diode?

A. A semiconducting device that allows current to flow in multiple directions.

B. A semiconducting device that doesn't allow current to flow in any direction.
C. A semiconducting device that allows current to flow in one direction but not the
other.
D. A semiconducting device that allows current to flow in two opposite directions.

1-2 Which one of the following statements is true about the normal operation of a
diode?

A. When the voltage across the diode is positive, current can flow once the voltage
has become large enough. When the voltage is negative, there is no flow of
current.
B. When the voltage across the diode is negative, current can flow. When the
voltage across the diode is positive, there is no flow of current.
C. There is no flow of current regardless of the voltage of the diode whether it is
positive or negative.

21
1.2 Simulate: Explore the Behavior of a Diode

Now, you will use Multisim Live to measure voltage and current of a diode.

Note: Multisim Live includes a tool called DC Sweep Analysis, which sweeps through
voltage values and measures output parameters.
 This DC Sweep has been configured to change the voltage supplied by the DC
voltage source, V1.
 Values start 0 V and end at 1.2 V, with 0.1 V increments.
 Current through the circuit is graphed vs. the source voltage.

1. Click the link below to open the circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/ftGYw2D2jXU6HWtagxMPMD/diodes-lab-
circuit/
3. Examine the simple Diode circuit, simulated with Multisim Live.
4. Click Run to run the DC Sweep simulation.
5. When the simulation is complete, take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a
sketch of the graph of supply voltage vs. diode current. Include the image in your
lab report.

1-3 At what approximate voltage value does the diode begin allowing current to flow?

_____________________________________________________________________

22
1.3 Implement: Observing Diode Behavior

As you have already learned, a diode is an electronic component that conducts current
primarily in one direction. It is a two-terminal component and has low resistance in one
direction and high resistance in the other.

Instructions:

1. Turn on the NI ELVIS III and from the Instruments tab of Measurements Live
open the following instruments:

 IV Analyzer

Note: For more information about accessing Measurements Live and launching
instruments, visit http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
launching-soft-front-panels/.

2. Place the diode with the correct polarity between the DUT+ and DUT- terminals
in NI ELVIS III.

 Place the Anode in the DUT+ terminal.

 Place the Cathode in the DUT- terminal.

Figure 1-2

23
Generate the Current vs. Voltage Graph

1. Set the IV Analyzer by following the instructions in the table below:

Table 1-1 IV Analyzer Settings

Analyzer mode Diode

Voltage Sweep

Start 0.00 V

Step 0.05 V

Stop 0.75 V

Current range

Negative -30.00 mA

Positive +30.00 mA

Table 1-2

Graph Settings

Autoscale On

 Ensure the instrument is set to the NI ELVIS III.

2. Click Run to start measuring. The instrument will provide voltage (x) and then
measure current (y). It will increase the voltage and repeat the procedure until it
reaches the user-defined voltage limit. The graph clearly displays how the current
rises when it reaches a given voltage value.

3. Repeat the previous step, starting the measurement at -10 V (inverse voltage), in
0.1 V steps. Keep the stop value as 0.75 V.

24
4. Take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a sketch of your graph and include it
with your lab report.

25
1.4 Exercise: Diode Measurements

Build a Circuit and Measure the Current Flow Through a Diode

The next part of the exercise demonstrates how to generate the curve manually using
the power supply and the multimeter.

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to set up the following circuit:

Warning: Do not force the DMM probes into the breadboard holes. Instead, create a
measurement point by plugging in one end of a wire or a header pin into the breadboard
hole.

Figure 1-3 Circuit set-up (voltage measurement)

26
2. Open the following instruments from Measurements Live:

• Digital Multimeter (DMM)

• Variable Power Supply 1-15 V DC (VPS)

27
Instructions:

1. Use the VPS to apply 1 V.

2. Measure the voltage output from the wiper of the potentiometer. You can
measure from the exposed metal leads or create a measurement point using a
wire or header pin.

3. Spin the potentiometer until 0.1 V is measured.

4. Measure the total current in the circuit using the DMM.

5. Repeat this in 0.1 V increments until you reach a 1 V supply voltage.

Figure 1-4 Circuit set-up (current measurement).

28
1-4 Record your results in the table below:

Table 1-3

Source Voltage (VS) Total Current I (mA) Diode Voltage (V)

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

6. Graph a plot of Source Voltage (VS) vs. Total Current (I). Source Voltage
should appear in the x-axis. Current and diode voltage should appear in the y-axis.

29
1-5 Compare the current vs. supply voltage curve with the one obtained from the IV
Analyzer. Are they different? If so, why?

_____________________________________________________________________

6. Compare the graph you created to the graph you generated earlier with the
Multisim simulation circuit and answer the following questions:

1-6 Do they have the same general shape?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-7 Is the slope similar when the diode begins conducting current? Why or why not?

_____________________________________________________________________

30
Reverse the Polarity of the Diode

1. Change the resistance of the resistor in the circuit below to 1 MΩ.

2. Invert the diode’s polarity as shown in the illustration.
3. Use the VPS to apply 10 V to the circuit.

Figure 1-5 Circuit set-up (reversed polarity)

1-8 What is the diode’s current?

_____________________________________________________________________

31
1-9 What is the diode’s voltage drop?

_____________________________________________________________________

32
1.5 Simulate: Diodes in a Clipper Circuit

Now, you will look at an application of diodes. This is a circuit that uses the voltage-
limiting behavior of a diode.

1. Click the link to open and then examine the Multisim Live Diode Clipper Circuit:
2. https://www.multisim.com/content/onwjkUgd7XfxwwW46MHHg5/diode-clipper-
circuit/
3. Note its use of an AC voltage source.
4. Run the simulation to populate the graph of measured voltage.

1-10 What happens to the 5 V sine wave?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-11 Change the value of the V2 DC supply from 2 V to 3 V and run the simulation.
What happens to the clipped signal?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-12 Change the value of the V2 DC supply from 3 V to 0 V and run the simulation.
What happens to the clipped signal?

_____________________________________________________________________

33
1-13 Notice that the clipped signal, even with 0 V supplied, clips at 0.7 V. What does the
0.7 V correspond to?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-14 Delete the D1 diode. What happens to the signal? Why?

_____________________________________________________________________

34
1.6 Analysis

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this section
of the lab.

1-15 Using the data in the Table 1-3, what is the maximum power dissipated by the
diode?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-16 How did the diode behave when its polarity was reversed?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-17 Compare the procedures from “Simulate the Behavior of a Diode”, “Diode
Behavior” and “Diode Measurements” Sections and complete Table 1-4 below.

Table 1-4

Advantages Disadvantages

Simulate the Behavior

of a Diode

Diode Behavior

Diode Measurements

35
1-18 Which procedure was easiest to implement and why?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-19 What were some of the challenges you encountered in real-world implementation

that you did not encounter in simulation? What strategies did you use to overcome
those challenges?

_____________________________________________________________________

36
Section 2: Diodes in a Half-Wave Rectifier

2.1 Theory and Background

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts AC to DC. A half-wave rectifier only

allows one half of a sine wave to pass through.

The primary application of a rectifier is to obtain DC power from an AC source. The

electricity coming from the wall is AC, but many electronic devices require DC.
Therefore, these devices typically have their own power supply which uses a rectifier to
convert from AC to DC.

Diodes are used in a half-wave rectifier to block current from flowing in the negative
direction. Rectifiers are often used in power supplies and other applications where the
phase of a signal needs to be filtered.

In this section of the lab, you will observe what a half-wave rectifier does to a sine wave
signal.

37
Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so
far. You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the
end of the lab.

2-1 What is the difference between a rectifier and a half-wave rectifier?

A. A rectifier allows a complete, unaltered sine wave to pass through. A half-wave

rectifier converts alternating current to direct current.
B. A rectifier is an electrical device used to convert alternating current to direct
current. A half-wave rectifier only allows half of a sine wave to pass through.
C. A rectifier is an electrical device that converts direct current to alternating current.
A half-wave rectifier only allows half of a sine wave to pass through.
D. A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current to direct current.
A half-wave rectifier allows a complete sine wave to pass through.

38
2.2 Exercise: Diodes in Half-Wave Rectifier

Instructions:

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to set up the following circuit:

Figure 2-1 Circuit Set-up

2. Open the following instruments from Measurements Live:

 Function Generator (FGen-Arb)

 Oscilloscope

39
3. Configure the Function Generator according to the settings in the table below:

Table 2-1 Function Generator Settings

Frequency 0.5 Hz

Amplitude 10 Vpp

4. Run the Function Generator and observe the LED.

2-2 Knowing how a diode (such as an LED) behaves with a negative voltage,
hypothesize what is happening through each cycle of the sine wave.

_____________________________________________________________________

5. When you are finished, click Stop on the Function Generator.

40
Replace the LED with a Normal Diode

Instructions:

1. Next, you will measure the behavior of a diode in a circuit. Replace the LED with
a 1N4001 diode:

Figure 2-2 Circuit Set-up

41
Configure the Oscilloscope

Table 2-2 Oscilloscope Settings

Trigger

Type Analog Edge

Channels

Channel 2 Active

1. Run the Oscilloscope and Function Generator

2. Observe the graph of the Oscilloscope

3. Take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a sketch to record your results.

Include your image with your lab report.

42
2.3 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

2-3 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

2-4 In your own words, describe a diode’s operation and application.

_____________________________________________________________________

43
2-5 Explain the behavior of the diode you have identified using the Current-Voltage
curves through simulation and instrumentation. Did the diode behave the same way in
both settings?

_____________________________________________________________________

2-6 In your own words, describe the role of the diode in a half-wave rectifier circuit.

_____________________________________________________________________

44
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 C
1-2 A
2-1 B

45
Lab 2: Diodes in a Rectifier
In this lab, you will explore the applications of diodes in rectifiers and examine the
components and operation of a full-wave rectifier.
First, through simulation and circuit-building, you will learn about a diode's role in a full-
wave rectifier and observe the circuit's outputs. Then, you will explore the use of filter
circuits in rectifiers. Finally, you will examine their effects on the output of your built
circuit.

Figure 1 Diode in a rectifier

Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities.

1. Discuss the operation and application of rectifiers.

2. Identify the pathway of current through a rectifier and describe how diodes
control this current flow.
3. Implement a full-wave rectifier with filtering to convert an AC signal to DC.

46
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/support/mo
 Instrument 1: Function del.ni-elvis-iii.html
Generator  View Tutorials:
 Instrument 2: Oscilloscope https://www.youtube.com/playlist?
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSxv0gwts
Accessories Kit (purchased separately) hBA2dh_M
is required for using the instruments.  Install Soft Front Panel support:
http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/
ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
installing-the-soft-front-panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/54749/en

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

 (4) 1N4001 diodes
 (1) 1 kΩ resistance
 (1) 10 kΩ resistor
 (1) 10 μF capacitor
 (1) 47 μF capacitor
(1) 470 μF capacitor

Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online at: http://multisim.com

• You will run a pre-built circuit  View Multisim Help:
with Multisim Live circuits in https://www.multisim.com/help/
order to understand the behavior
of diode rectifiers.

47
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Calculations of ripple voltage

 Observations of LED patterns, voltages, and current
 Hypotheses about sine waves
 Analysis questions
 Conclusion questions

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

48
1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot. View the video here: youtu.be/P0jyvqT9kXo

Video Summary

 A rectifier’s essential role is to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current

(DC)
 With only half of the input reaching the output, the mean voltage is lower.
 To achieve steady DC from an AC supply, the circuit requires a smoothing filter,
such as a reservoir capacitor, a simple form of filtering placed at the DC output of
the rectifier.

49
What Do Diodes in a Rectifier Do?

Rectifiers convert Alternating Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC) using a component
that allows electrons to flow in one direction. The component that allows electrons to
flow in one direction is a diode. In the previous lab, you explored half-wave rectifiers.
This type of rectifier uses a single diode and, as the name suggests, only allows half of
an AC waveform to pass through. Since only one half of the input is reaching the output,
the voltage is lower. While the output is unidirectional, it is pulsating. To establish a
useful DC current with a half-wave rectifier requires much more filtering than a full-wave
rectifier.

A full-wave rectifier converts all of its inputs to one polarity (negative or positive) at its
output. Therefore, with both polarities of input converted, a higher average voltage will
be output. This creates a pulsed, unidirectional DC output that is smoother than that of
the half-wave rectifier. It is important to note however that neither rectifier can produce a
constant voltage. In order to achieve steady DC from a rectified AC supply, there needs
to be a smoother circuit or filter. This filtering can be easily done through a reservoir
capacitor or smoothing capacitor placed at the DC output of the rectifier.

Why are Diodes in a Rectifier Important?

Without a rectifier, none of your day-to-day electronics would function and you would
need to generate and distribute DC power to your devices. In the past, dynamos were
used to generate DC power directly. Dynamos were eventually replaced with cheaper
alternators that produced power that was easier to distribute. In part, it was the
invention of rectifiers that led to the proliferation of the electrical distribution system we
all enjoy today.

Prior to the early 1900s power conversion devices were electromechanical in design.
This was when tube type rectifiers were developed, and the semi-conductor diode was
invented. These early systems used a form of rotary or resonant vibration and were
magnetically driven to reverse the current. They were noisy and inconvenient, requiring
constant maintenance.

50
How Can We Use Diodes in a Rectifier?

The main use of rectifiers is to turn AC power into DC power. Since most electronics
devices require DC power to operate, it is logical to assume that there is a rectifier in the
device’s electronic components.

Converting DC power from one voltage to a different voltage is more complicated. A

common method is to first convert DC power to AC power but at a frequency much
higher than the 60 Hz distribution power. This higher frequency, usually tens of
kilohertz, requires a smaller transformer and if the frequency is high enough, it will
operate silently to most human ears. A transformer is then used to alter the voltage of
this high frequency AC signal. Finally, another rectifier converts this new voltage back to
DC. This very common type of power supply is known as a “switching” supply and is
found in most modern electronic components. Rectifiers are used to supply the direct
current required by electric welders to detect amplitude modulated or AM radio signals.

51
Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so
far. You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the
end of the lab.

1-1 What is the main purpose of a rectifier?

A. To convert DC power to AC power.

B. To convert AC power to DC power.
C. To deliver DC power only.
D. To deliver AC power only.

1-2 What is the role of a diode in a half-wave rectifier?

1. A diode in a half-wave rectifier allows for only half of an AC waveform to pass

through.
2. A diode in a half-wave rectifier allows for only half of a DC waveform to pass
through.
3. A diode in a half-wave rectifier allows for a full AC waveform to pass through.
4. A diode in a half-wave rectifier blocks both halves of an AC waveform from
passing through.

52
1.2 Simulate: Full-wave Rectifier

In this activity, you will simulate the behavior of a full-wave rectifier in Multisim Live.
During the lab procedure, you will compare measured results with the simulated results
to get an idea of the behavior of the real circuit compared to a simulated circuit.

1. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/PxWFZubYPw354S96TYYvDX/diodes-in-a-
rectifier/
3. Examine the circuit, simulated with Multisim Live.
4. Click Run to run the Interactive simulation.
5. Observe the blinking pattern of the LEDs.

1-3 Hypothesize the pathway of current for the negative half of the sine wave and the
positive half of the sine wave.

_____________________________________________________________________

53
Observe the Graph to Confirm Hypothesis

1. Switch the Multisim environment from Schematic to Split mode.

2. Run the simulation and observe the measured voltages.
 The source sine wave is graphed in green
 The signal through the resistor is graphed in blue
Note: The resistor’s voltage is measured from the right to the left of the resistor.

1-4 Does the signal measured through the resistor confirm your hypothesis about the
path of the current for both phases of the sine wave? Explain how the diodes are routing
the AC current through the resistor.

_____________________________________________________________________

54
1.3 Implement: Full-wave Rectifier

You will now use the NI ELVIS III to implement the full-wave rectifier with
breadboarding.

1. Turn on the NI ELVIS III and from the Instruments tab of Measurements Live,
open the following instruments:

 Function Generator (FGen-Arb)

 Oscilloscope

Note: For more information about accessing Measurements Live and launching
instruments, visit http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
launching-soft-front-panels/.

2. Build the following circuit:

 Connect the Channel 1 probes across the resistor, as shown.

 Connect the Channel 2 probes to the Function Generator and ground, as
shown:

Figure 1-2 Circuit Set-up

55
Start the Function Generator and the Oscilloscope

1. Configure the Function Generator by following the instructions in the table below:

Table 1-1 Function Generator Settings

Frequency 60 Hz

Amplitude 10 Vpp

DC Offset 0V

2. Run the Function Generator

3. Configure the Oscilloscope by following the instructions in the table below:

Table 1-2 Oscilloscope Settings

Trigger

Type Analog Edge

Channels

Channel 1 Active

Channel 2 Active

4. Run the Oscilloscope.

56
Configure and Analyze the Graph

1. Configure the Volts per division and Time/Div so that 2 or 3 cycles of the sine
wave are visible on the graph.
2. Take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a sketch and observe the graph that is
generated.

1-5 Does the graph match the one in the simulation section of the lab?
A- Yes
B- No

Explain your answer.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-6 Is the amplitude of voltage across the resistor higher or lower than in the
simulation?
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-7 Why might the voltage be different? (Hint: Consider the difference between the
circuits)
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

57
3. Click Stop in the Oscilloscope and Function Generator windows when you are
done.

58
1.4 Exercise: Rectifier Filtering

The full-wave rectifier outputs voltage in just one direction, which results in a pulsating
voltage. In this section, we will use a capacitor to smooth the output of the rectifier.

1. From Measurements Live, open the Function Generator and Oscilloscope, if

they’re not already open.
2. Add a 10 μF capacitor in parallel to the resistor in the previous circuit. The
resulting circuit should look like the figure below:

Figure 1-3 Circuit Set-up

59
Start the Function Generator and the Oscilloscope

1. Configure the Function Generator by following the instructions in the table below:

Table 1-3 Function Generator Settings

Frequency 60 Hz

Amplitude 10 Vpp

2. Run the Function Generator

3. Configure the Oscilloscope according to the settings in the table below:

Table 1-4 Oscilloscope Settings

Trigger

Type Analog Edge

Channels

Channel1 Active

Channel 2 Active

4. Run the Oscilloscope.

5. Configure the Volts per division and Time/Div so that 2 or 3 cycles of the sine
wave are visible on the graph.

60
Observe the Generated Graph

1. Notice that the capacitor is maintaining a charge and causing the voltage across
the resistor to never reach 0.
 The resulting signal is closer to a steady DC voltage, but there is still
an AC “ripple” voltage component.
2. Measure the amplitude of the ripple voltage using the Vpp from CH 1 in the
Oscilloscope window.
3. Record the ripple voltage in Table 1-5 below.
4. When you are done, Stop the Function Generator and Oscilloscope.

61
Measure the Ripple Voltage with 47 μF and 470 μF capacitor

1. Replace the 10 μF capacitor with a 47 μF capacitor.

2. Run the Function Generator and Oscilloscope again.
3. Observe the signal and record the ripple voltage with this capacitor in the table
below.
4. Stop the Function Generator and Oscilloscope.
5. Replace the 47 μF capacitor with a 470 μF capacitor.
6. Run the Function Generator and Oscilloscope again.
7. Observe the signal and record the ripple voltage with this capacitor in Table 1-5
below.
8. Stop the Function Generator and Oscilloscope.

1-8 Complete the following table based on your ripple voltage measurements:

Table 1-5

1 kΩ resistor 10 μF 47 μF 470 μF

Ripple Voltage

1-9 How did the voltage change with an increase in the capacitance?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-10 Replace the 1 kΩ resistor with a 10 kΩ resistor and replicate the voltage
measurements.

Table 1-6

10 kΩ resistor 10 μF 47 μF 470 μF

Ripple Voltage

62
1-11 How did the voltage change with an increase in the resistance?
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

63
1.5 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

1-12 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-13 In your own words, discuss the operation and application of rectifiers.
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

64
1-14 In your own words, identify the pathway of current through a rectifier and describe
how diodes control current flow.
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-15 Explain how you converted an AC signal to DC using a full-wave rectifier with
filtering.
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

65
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 B
1-2 A
1-5 B

66
Lab 3: Zener Diodes
In this lab, you will learn about Zener diodes. You will explore the difference between
Zener diodes and regular diodes and learn about some of their applications and uses,
such as the Zener regulator.

First, you will look at the specific functions of a Zener diode in simulation and using the
protoboard. Then, you will build a circuit that demonstrates the real-world application of
Zener diodes as voltage regulators.

Figure 1 Zener Diodes

Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities:

1. Discuss the operation and application of Zener diodes.

2. Discuss the potential uses of a Zener diode towards applications such as voltage
regulation.
3. Build and implement a voltage regulating circuit using a Zener diode.

67
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/support/m
 Instrument 1: IV Analyzer odel.ni-elvis-iii.html
 Instrument 2: Digital Multimeter  View Tutorials:
 Instrument 3: Variable Power https://www.youtube.com/playlist?
Supply list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSxv0gw
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and tshBA2dh_M
Accessories Kit (purchased separately)  Install Soft Front Panel support:
is required for using the instruments. http://www.ni.com/documentation/e
n/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
installing-the-soft-front-panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/54749/en

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

 (1) 1 kΩ resistor
 10 kΩ potentiometer (on
Protoboard)
 1 1N4735 Zener diode

Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online at:

• You will modify and run a pre-built http://multisim.com
circuit with Multisim Live where  View Multisim
you will simulate the behavior of a Help: https://www.multisim.com/hel
Zener diode used as a voltage p/
regulator.

68
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Calculations of voltage values

 Analysis questions
 Observations about Zener diode behavior

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

69
1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-2 Video Screenshot. View the video here: youtu.be/bJ8egCJB-yw

Video Summary

 A Zener diode can conduct in forward or reverse depending on the voltage

conditions present.
 Zener diodes are designed to have controlled breakdowns which keeps voltage
stable and prevents damage to the diode.
 Zener diodes are used in many circuits such as: signal clipping circuits, voltage
shifter circuits, and voltage regulators.

70
What Are Zener Diodes?

A conventional diode will allow current to flow if it is reverse-biased above its reverse
breakdown voltage. When this happens, a conventional diode is subject to high current.
Unless protected by other circuitry, it can overheat and be permanently damaged when
operating this way.

A Zener diode is specifically designed to have a lower breakdown voltage than a

conventional diode. This allows the Zener diode to have a controlled breakdown, which
in turn keeps the voltage across the Zener diode close to the breakdown voltage.

Why Are Zener Diodes Important?

A Zener diode is an important component in Intrinsically Safe (IS) circuits. One of the
most common methods of protection is to limit electrical current with multiple resistors in
series and limit electrical voltage with multiple Zener devices to ground.

Equipment and instrumentation designed for use in hazardous areas usually operates

with low voltage and current. In addition to protection from over voltage, Zener diodes
are used to regulate the operational voltages of these devices.

How Can We Use Zener Diodes?

There are different ways in which Zener diodes are frequently used:

 When two Zener diodes are connected at the cathodes, they will clip both halves
of an input signal. These types of circuits can reshape signals and prevent
voltage spikes.

 A Zener diode can be incorporated into a circuit with a resistor to work as a

voltage shifter. The input voltage will be lowered by the circuit to an amount
equal to the Zener's breakdown voltage.

 A Zener diode can also be used to regulate the voltage applied to a load. A
common configuration is the simple Zener regulator. A "shunt regulator" operates
by using the Zener diode's action of maintaining a constant voltage drop when
the current is sufficient to cause Zener breakdown. It is often used in low current
applications as either a voltage reference or a voltage source.

71
Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so
far. You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the
end of the lab.

1-1 Is a Zener diode similar to a normal diode and why?

A. A Zener diode is similar to a normal diode because they look exactly the same.
B. A Zener diode is similar to a normal diode because it allows current to flow in a
forward direction.
C. A Zener diode is not similar to a normal diode, because it allows current to flow in
a forward direction.
D. A Zener diode is similar to a normal diode because they are both designed to
allow a controlled flow of current in the reverse direction.

1-2 What is the difference between a conventional diode and a Zener diode?

5. A conventional diode is subject to high current in its breakdown region, while a

Zener diode has a controlled breakdown at a low breakdown voltage.
6. A conventional diode is specifically designed to have a lower breakdown voltage
than a Zener diode.
7. A Zener diode will be damaged if it is operating above its reverse breakdown
voltage.
8. A conventional diode conducts current while in forward bias, while a Zener diode
can only conduct while in reverse bias.

72
1.2 Simulate: Zener Diode Behavior

Note: In this activity, you will use Multisim Live to simulate the behavior of a Zener
diode used as a voltage regulator. As you’ll see, a Zener regulator can be used to
maintain a voltage across a load for fluctuating source voltage or fluctuating load
resistance.
Multisim Live includes a tool called DC Sweep Analysis which sweeps through voltage
values and measures output parameters.

1. You will now use Multisim Live to measure voltage and current in a diode.
2. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live circuit.
3. https://www.multisim.com/content/KXP9LbiDStxth6CbdMEskU/zener-diodes-
lab/open
4. This DC Sweep has been configured to change the voltage supplied by the DC
voltage source V1.
5. Values start at 0 V and end at 12 V, with 0.1 V increments.
6. Voltage at the load R2, along with the diode D1, is graphed vs. supply voltage.

 Examine the Zener diode circuit, simulated in Multisim Live.

 Click Run to simulate the DC sweep and observe the graph of R2 voltage vs.
source voltage.

 When the simulation is complete, take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a

sketch of the graph.

 Include the image with your lab report.

1-3 At what approximate voltage value across the load/diode (along the y-axis) does the
graph level out? You can use the cursors to measure the values more closely.

_____________________________________________________________________

73
1-4 What physical property of the circuit does the value calculated above correspond
to?
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-5 Consider that R1 forms a voltage divider with the parallel combination of D1 and the
potentiometer. What must happen to the voltage drop across R1 once the voltage
across D1/R2 levels out?
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Note: There are two regions to this graph.

 In the region where both voltages are increasing, the Zener diode is not
conducting current and therefore the voltage drop is across the load.

 In the region where the load voltage has become stable, the Zener diode begins
conducting current. The current is divided between the loads in such a way that
the same voltage drop is maintained across the load.

74
Modifying Load Resistance

1. Using the same circuit, you will now investigate how a Zener diode can be used
to regulate voltage given a changing load resistance.
2. Click the link below to open the circuit.
3. https://www.multisim.com/content/y2ttBHm7XkToqrAk4ptQnM/int-zener-diodes-
lab/open
4. Run the simulation.
5. Modify the resistance of the potentiometer load resistor R2.
6. Click on the percentage value and move the slider between 15% and 100%.
7. Observe that the voltage across the load stays relatively constant.
8. When you are finished, click Stop.

Note: If the resistance goes too low, the load voltage will decrease because the 1
kΩ resistor and the Potentiometer form a voltage divider, and, at smaller loads, the
voltage divider favors the 1 kΩ resistor.

75
1.3 Implement: Observing Zener Diode Behavior

As you have already investigated, a Zener diode is an electronic component that

conducts current in both forward and reverse directions. It is a two-terminal component
and is used to regulate voltage.

Instructions:

1. From the Instruments tab of Measurements Live, open the following instruments:

 IV Analyzer

Note: For more information about accessing Measurements Live and launching
instruments, visit http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
launching-soft-front-panels/.

2. Place the Zener diode in the DUT+ and DUT- terminals in NI ELVIS III.

Note: The cathode should be placed in the DUT+ line and the anode should be placed
in the DUT- line.

Figure 1-3 IV Analyzer

76
Use the IV Analyzer

1. In the IV Analyzer window, set the following settings:

Table 1-1 IV Analyzer settings

Voltage Sweep

Start -7.00 V

Step 0.25 V

Stop 1V

Current Limits

Negative -30.00 mA

Positive +30.00 mA

Table 1-2

Graph Settings

Auto Scale On

 Ensure that the instrument is set to the NI ELVIS III.

2. Click Run to run the analysis.

3. Analyze the results.

Note 1: If the IV Analyzer gives a warning for:

4. “Negative current limit exceeded”- increase the Start voltage.

5. “Positive current limit exceeded”- decrease the Stop voltage.

77
Note 2: At a certain negative voltage, negative current is allowed to flow. This is the
breakdown voltage of the Zener diode. With positive voltage applied, the Zener diode
behaves similarly to the diodes you’ve seen before.

78
1.4 Exercise: Zener Diode in a Voltage Regulator

You will now build a circuit and measure the current flow through a diode.

The next part of the exercise is to generate the curve manually using the power supply
and the digital Multimeter.

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to set up the following circuit:

Figure 1-4 Circuit set-up

2. Open the following instruments from Measurements Live:

 Digital Multimeter (DMM)

 Variable Power Supply 1-15 V DC (VPS)

79
Apply Voltage to the Load

Instructions:

1. Set the DMM’s Measurement mode to read DC Voltage. You can measure from
the exposed metal leads or create a measurement point using a wire or header
pin.
2. Click Run.

You’ll use the Variable Power Supply to apply an increasing voltage.

1. Run the Variable Power Supply.

2. Observe the voltage across the potentiometer as the supply voltage changes.
3. Increase the Supply + voltage until the voltage measured on the DMM stops
increasing.

1-6 At what voltage does the measured voltage level off?

_____________________________________________________________________

4. Confirm that this voltage corresponds to the breakdown voltage of the Zener
diode, if possible.

Change Load Resistance and Observe the Voltage

1. Set the Supply+ voltage to 15 V.

2. Modify the resistance of the potentiometer, making sure to stay above the lower
20% of the range. In that range, the voltage divider becomes in favor of the static
1k resistor.

80
3. Confirm that the voltage across the potentiometer stays fairly the same as the
resistance is changing.

81
1.5 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

1-7 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-8 In your own words, discuss the operation and different applications of a Zener
Diode.

_____________________________________________________________________

82
1-9 Explain how you implemented a voltage regulating circuit using a Zener diode.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-10 Describe and explain the specific role of a Zener diode in a regulator.

_____________________________________________________________________

83
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 B
1-2 A

84
Lab 4: Bipolar Junction Transistors
In this lab, you will be looking at some of the crucial applications of transistors in the real
world, why they are important, why we use them, and what they can do. A transistor,
similar to a faucet, can control the flow of electrical current.

In Section 1 of this lab, you will look at the definition and the importance of a transistor
and observe the patterns of behavior of a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) using several
different methods.

In Section 2, you will use simulation to understand how a BJT is used as a switch.

Figure 1 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities:

1. Discuss the characteristics, operation and application of a Bipolar Junction

Transistor (BJT).
2. Identify the regions of operation of a BJT.
3. Manipulate the input to a BJT to operate the BJT as a switch.

85
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/support/m
 Instrument 1: IV Analyzer odel.ni-elvis-iii.html
 Instrument 2: Digital Multimeter  View Tutorials:
 Instrument 3: Variable Power https://www.youtube.com/playlist?
Supply list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSxv0gw
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and tshBA2dh_M
Accessories Kit (purchased separately)  Install Soft Front Panel support:
is required for using the instruments. http://www.ni.com/documentation/e
n/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
installing-the-soft-front-panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/54749/en

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

 (1) 2N3904 transistor
 (1) 33 kΩ resistor
 (1) 100 Ω resistor
 1 kΩ potentiometer on protoboard

Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online at:

• You will run and modify two pre- http://multisim.com
built circuits with Multisim Live,
where you will be required to  View Multisim Help:
simulate a circuit to observe the https://www.multisim.com/help/
behavior of a BJT and its
operation as a switch.

86
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Calculations of voltage value

 Analysis questions
 Observations about the behavior of a BJT

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

87
Section 1: Bipolar Junction Transistors

1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot. View the video here: youtu.be/YCD7nszsfFM

Video Summary

 A transistor controls the flow of electrical current.

 Transistors have two common applications: as switches, and as amplifiers.
 When you switch between the cut-off and saturation regions of a circuit, it is the
same as the differences between an open and closed circuit.

88
What is a BJT?

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a device with three terminals capable of amplifying
a signal. A BJT is made up of three layers of N-type and P-type doped semi-conducting
material. The terminals are known as base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).

Figure 1-2 NPN and PNP transistors

A small current at the base is amplified to a larger current in a collector-emitter circuit.

An important feature is the current gain under direct current, beta (β DC), which is the
relationship between the current at the collector and that at the base. Another
parameter is beta under alternate current (βAC), which is the change in collector current
divided by the change in base current.

What Do Transistors Do?

A transistor is similar to a faucet. As you know, a faucet controls water flow. A

faucet can start, stop, and adjust flow. A transistor controls the flow of electrical current
in much the same way.

89
Why Are Transistors Important?

Small, modern devices and mobile phones require transistors. Before the invention of
transistors, electronic devices required large vacuum tubes.
Vacuum tubes were big, fragile, cumbersome, and hard to keep cool. With the invention
of transistors, electronics became smaller and cheaper, allowing for more extensive
access to them. Extensive access to electronics has shaped our society for the last 60
years. All of this was made possible because of the use of transistors in electronic
devices.

Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so
far. You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the
end of the lab.

1-1 What is a BJT?

A. A BJT is a device with two terminals capable of amplifying a direct current signal.
B. A BJT is a device with two terminals capable of amplifying an alternate current
signal.
C. A BJT is a device with three terminals capable of amplifying signals.
D. A BJT is a device with three terminals capable of controlling current flow.

90
1.2 Simulate: Explore the Behavior of a Diode

Note: In this section of the lab, you are going to simulate the behavior of a bipolar
junction transistor (BJT) and then confirm that behavior using the NI ELVIS III. You will
compare the measured results with the simulated results to get an idea of the behavior
of real transistors.

Multisim Live includes a tool called DC Sweep Analysis, which sweeps through voltage
values and measures output parameters.

1. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live circuit:

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/njxkmAyN8xPCLzpaHNxhF9/bjts-circuit/open
3. This DC Sweep has been configured to change the voltage supplied by the
collector voltage source, V1.
4. Values start at 0 V and end at 1.0 V, with 0.05 V increments.
5. The simulation also sweeps through multiple values of base current from the
current source, I1.
6. Base current values start at 15 μA and end at 60 μA, with 11.25 μA increments.
7. For each increment of I1 current, a plot is produced of collector current vs. the
sweeping source voltage.
8. Examine the simple BJT circuit, simulated with Multisim Live.
9. Click Run to run the DC Sweep simulation.
10. When the simulation is complete, take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a
sketch of the graph of collector voltage vs. collector current for the five base
currents.
11. Include the image with your lab report.

Note: This circuit uses an NPN transistor and supplies a current at the Base and a
voltage at the Collector.

1-2 At what approximate voltage value do the different plots start separating from each
other?

_____________________________________________________________________

91
Analyze the Results

Your graph should show 5 curves, each corresponding to the relationship between the
Collector Emitter Voltage (VCE) and the Collector Current (IC) for different Base Currents
(IB).

The five curves correspond to the Base Currents of 15 through 60 μA. These plots
represent the increasing current flowing through the transistor as the voltage increases
at the Collector.

Consider the similar set of plots in the following illustration:

Figure 1-3 BJT regions of operation

92
Using these characteristic curves, there are 3 defined regions of transistor operation:

 Cutoff region: In this region, the transistor does not conduct current from the
collector to the emitter, instead it functions like an open switch.

 Saturation region: The transistor has a maximum VCE known as VCEsat. When

VCE is below VCEsat., the transistor will conduct the maximum possible current
Imax, given the actual base current defined by the circuit's polarization. In practical
terms, when the transistor operates under saturation, it will behave almost like a
cable, or a closed switch.

 Active region: In this region, the collector current IC behaves like a linear function
of the base current defined by the β constant which depends on the type of
transistor.

Equation 1-1

For practical purposes, if you need the transistor to act like a switch, you will work in the
cutoff and saturation regions. If on the other hand you need to use the transistor as an
amplifier, you will need to work in the active region.

93
1.3 Implement: BJT Behavior

Instructions:

3. From the Instruments tab of Measurements Live, open the following instruments:

 IV Analyzer

Note: For more information about accessing Measurements Live and launching
instruments, visit http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
launching-soft-front-panels/.

Add the Transistor and Set up the IV Analyzer

Instructions:

1. Place the transistor in the Base, DUT+ and DUT- terminals in the NI ELVIS III, as
indicated in the instrument's window.
2. Place the Base of the transistor in BASE.
3. Place the Collector of the transistor in DUT+.
4. Place the Emitter of the transistor in DUT-.

Figure 1-4 IV Analyzer

94
5. Set the IV Analyzer according to the settings in the table below:
Table 1-1 IV Analyzer Settings

Analyzer Mode Transistor

Transistor Type NPN

Collector Voltage Sweep

Vc Start 0.00 V

Vc Step 0.10 V

Vc Stop 3.00 V

Ic Limit 30 mA

Base Current Sweep

Ib Start 15.00 μA

Ib Step 11.25 μA

Number of Curves 5

6. Compare the graph generated by the IV Analyzer to the graph that you
generated with Multisim Live circuit.

1-3 Do the graphs have the same general shape and spacing between plots?

A. Yes
B. No

If not, what is different?

_____________________________________________________________________

95
1-4 How can you explain the differences in the exact values of the collector current in
the two graphs?

_____________________________________________________________________

96
1.4 Exercise: BJT Measurements in the Active Region

Note: You will now obtain curves for the active region manually using the power supply
and Multimeter.

Instructions:
1. Use the NI ELVIS III to set up the following circuit:

Figure 1-5 Circuit Set-up

97
2. Open the following instruments from Measurements Live:

 Digital Multimeter (DMM)

 Variable Power Supply 1-15 V DC (VPS)

Verify the Transistor’s Base Current

1. In the Variable Power Supply window, apply the following settings:

Table 1-2 Variable Power Supply settings

Power supply “+” Static

Voltage 2.38 V

Power supply “-“ Inactive

2. Using the DMM configured to read DC currents, verify that the transistor’s base
current is 50 μA. You can measure from the exposed metal leads or create a
measurement point using a wire or header pin.
3. Measure the Collector voltage (Vc) using the DMM measuring DC voltage.
Manually adjust the potentiometer until the reading is 5 V.

98
Manually Observe the Behavior of a BJT

1. Read the collector-emitter voltage (VCE), as well as the collector's current (IC), and
write the data in Table 1-3.
2. Change the voltage VC using the data in the table below, repeat the V CE and IC
readings, and write the data in the table.

1-5 Repeat for base currents of 100 μA and 150 μA, until you complete the table below:
Table1-3
VC IB = 50 μA IB = 100 μA IB = 150 μA
(V1 = 2.38 (V1 = 4,08 (V1 = 5.76
V) V) V)
VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) IC (mA)
6V
7V
8V
9V
10 V
11 V
12 V

99
Generate a Collector Current vs. Collector-Emitter Voltage Graph

1. Using the data from the table in the previous step, generate a Collector-Emitter
Voltage (x) vs. Collector Current (y) graph. Attach your graph.

You have two options:

 You can create the graph by clicking on the Excel file below and submit a
screenshot or photograph of your graph.

 You can manually draw the graph and submit a photo of the graph with
your lab.

Access the Excel sheet here:

https://cf-ts.mythinkscape.com/ckeditor/Excel_document.xlsx

1-6 Is β relatively constant on all points?

A. Yes
B. No

If not, what is different?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-7 What is the transistor's approximate β? Tip: Use a base current IB = 100 µA at VCE =
8 V.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-8 What would be the collector's IC current if VCE = 9 V at IB= 75 µA?

_____________________________________________________________________

100
_____________________________________________________________________
1.5 Analysis

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this section
of the lab.

1-9 Use the chart below to compare the procedures from the simulation, the IV Analyzer
and the instrumentation measurement activities. What are their advantages and
disadvantages?

Table 1-4

Advantages Disadvantages

Simulation

IV Analyzer

Instrumentation

1-10 Which procedure was easiest to implement and why?

_____________________________________________________________________

101
1-11 Were there any procedures that generated an unexpected challenge? Explain
what you did to overcome the challenges you faced.

_____________________________________________________________________

102
Section 2: Bipolar Junction Transistor as a Switch

2.1 Theory and Background

In this section of the lab, you will examine a different application of a transistor. In this
section you will explore the circumstances where a transistor can operate as a switch.

How Can We Use Transistors?

A transistor has a variety of applications, but there are two common applications that
will be explored in this lab series: transistors as switches and as amplifiers

Transistors as Switches: Cut-off Region

Used as a switch, a transistor turns a circuit operation off by breaking the circuit through
insufficient supply of current in the base, which stops the flow of collector-current. This
means that the transistor is operating in the cut-off region.

Transistors as Switches: Saturation Region

To turn the circuit "on", increasing the current through the base will allow current to flow
through the collector, completing the circuit. This is a fundamental behavior of a
transistor. When this happens, the current through the collector and the emitter is
enough to power the circuit's components: the transistor is therefore operating in what
we call the saturation region. In the saturation region, a transistor behaves like a closed
switch.

In summary, operating in the cut-off region restricts the flow of current and causes the
circuit to turn off, while operating in the saturation region allows for current to flow and
the circuit to turn on. Moving between the cut-off and saturation regions is the exact
same thing as moving between the open and closed positions of a light switch to turn a
ceiling lamp on or off.

Transistors as Amplifiers: Active Region

Controlling the flow of current allows a transistor to operate like a dimmer switch. With a
transistor, the current through the base can be changed and a corresponding amount of
current will flow through the collector.

103
When the base current increases, the collector current increases and when the base
current decreases, the collector current decreases.

The current through the collector can vary greatly which gives control to whoever is
operating the circuit. All this can be done without having to physically move any of the
parts of the circuit. When this happens, the transistor is operating as an amplifier. The
transistor is operating in the active region.

Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so
far. You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the
end of the lab.

2-1 What is the difference between a cut-off region and a saturation region?

A. When a transistor operates in the cut-off region, it allows for current to flow and
causes the circuit to turn on, while in the saturation region, it does not allow for
current to flow and causes the circuit to turn off.
B. When a transistor operates in the cut-off region, it restricts the flow of current and
causes the circuit to turn off, while in the saturation region, it allows for current to
flow and causes the circuit to turn on.
C. When a transistor operates in the cut-off region, it restricts the flow of current and
causes the circuit to turn off, while in the saturation region, it allows for a certain
amount of current to flow and causes the circuit to turn on for a short period of
time.
D. A transistor cannot operate in either a cut-off region or a saturation region.

104
2.2 Exercise: BJT as a Switch

Instructions:

1. For the illustration below, you will need to calculate the following:

 Cutoff collector-emitter voltage VCE

 Saturation collector-emitter voltage VCE
 Saturation voltage across the collector resistor V RC
 Saturation current at collector IC

2. Complete Table 2-1 with the values you calculated.

Note: A few things to remember for this question:

 The LED voltage for cutoff and saturation purposes is 1.8 V.

 During the saturation stage, the transistor will be in full operation.
 VCE is 0.1 V (typical value).

Figure 2-1

105
2-2 Record your calculated values in the table below:

Calculate VRC by applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the transistor's collector.

Calculate saturation IC using Ohm's law in VRC.

Table 2-1

Data Calculated Values

VCE (cut-off)

VCE (saturation)

VRC (saturation)

IC (saturation)

Simulate a Circuit in Multisim Live

Instructions:

1. Click the link below to open the circuit:

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/zJYiXxk5U29QXKHUcbqASW/bjt-2/open
3. Examine the BJT switch circuit, simulated using Multisim Live.
4. Click Run to start the simulation.
5. Modify the resistance of the potentiometer by clicking the percentage value and
using the slider.
6. Find the resistance where the LED turns on. This is the saturation region.

Note: Probe 1 will display the collector current and collector-emitter voltage. Probe 2
will display the voltage at the collector resistor. LED voltage is less than 1.8 V in
simulation.

106
2-3 Record your measured values in the table below.

Table 2-2

Data Simulated Values

VCE (cut-off)

VCE (saturation)

VRC (saturation)

IC (saturation)

107
2.3 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in the lab.

2-4 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

2-5 List the most important characteristics and applications of bipolar junction
transistors.

_____________________________________________________________________

2-6 Explain the different regions of operation of a bipolar junction transistor.

_____________________________________________________________________

108
2-7 Discuss the operation of the BJT as a switch through the manipulation of its inputs.

_____________________________________________________________________

109
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 C
2-1 B

110
Lab 5: Transistor Amplifiers
In this lab, you will examine how transistors can be used to create amplifiers and will
identify the important characteristics and applications of a transistor amplifier. In each
section of this two-part lab, you will investigate the behavior of a different transistor
amplifier configuration.

In Section 1, you will measure and calculate the voltage gains of a common emitter
amplifier, then compare your results for simulation and implementation.

In Section 2, you will simulate an emitter-follower amplifier and investigate how its
current gain can be controlled with resistor values.

Figure 1 Transistor Amplifier Circuit Diagram

111
Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities.

1. Discuss the characteristics, operation and applications of a transistor amplifier.

2. Measure voltage and current gains of different transistor amplifier circuits.
3. Design an amplifier circuit to achieve the given gain using a desired gain value.

112
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/support/mo
 Instrument 1: IV Analyzer del.ni-elvis-iii.html
 Instrument 2: Function  View Tutorials:
Generator https://www.youtube.com/playlist?
 Instrument 3: Oscilloscope list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSxv0gwts
 Instrument 4: Bode Analyzer hBA2dh_M
 Install Soft Front Panel support:
 Instrument 5: Variable Power
http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/
Supply
ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and
installing-the-soft-front-panel/
Accessories Kit (purchased separately)
is required for using the instruments.

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/54749/en

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

Section 1 Components

 (1) 560 Ω resistor

 (1) 1 kΩ resistor
 (1) 8.2 kΩ resistor
 (1) 18 kΩ resistor
 (1) 1 μF capacitor
 (1) 22 μF capacitor
 (1) 100 μF capacitor
 (1) NPN 2N3904 transistor

Section 2 Components

 (1) 2 kΩ resistor
 (1) 5 kΩ resistor
 (2) 20 kΩ resistors
 (2) 1 μF capacitors
 (1) NPN 2N3904 transistor

113
Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online at:
 You will run several pre-built http://multisim.com
circuits with Multisim Live, in  View Multisim Help:
order to observe the https://www.multisim.com/help/
amplification achieved by various
transistor configurations.

114
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Calculations of voltage gain

 Analysis questions
 Observations about the behavior of transistor amplifiers

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

115
Section 1: Transistor Amplifiers

1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot. View the video here: youtu.be/ZCj_WE30oHQ

Video Summary

● An amplifier is designed to make smaller input signals larger by increasing the

signal voltage.
● Transistor amplifiers are common to most electronics we use every day.
● There are three types of common amplifiers: common collectors, common base
amplifier, and the common emitter amplifier.

116
What Are Transistor Amplifiers?

The main role of an amplifier is to take a relatively small input signal and make it larger
by increasing the signal voltage. There are many different varieties of amplifiers. There
are three standard configurations for Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT): the common
base amplifier, the common collector amplifier and the common emitter amplifier.

Why Are Transistor Amplifiers Important?

Transistor amplifiers are commonly found in a variety of electronics, and many

applications would not exist without them.

How Can We Use Transistor Amplifiers?

The common collector amplifier, known as an emitter follower, is one of the three basic
single-stage BJT topologies. This configuration is typically used as a voltage buffer. In
this configuration, the base is used as the input, the emitter as the output, and the
collector is common to both. The circuit's impedance particularities make it ideal to use
it as a voltage buffer, where the circuit provides current gain instead of voltage gain. A
small change to the input current results in a large change in output current. This
configuration is often used in combination with a Zener diode to create a voltage
regulator. You will build an emitter follower amplifier in Section 2.

The common base amplifier is another one of the three basic single-stage BJT amplifier
topologies. This configuration is typically used as a current buffer or a voltage amplifier.
This amplifier uses the emitter terminal as the input and the collector terminal as the
output. The base is connected to ground or "common". This type of amplifier is
occasionally used as a microphone preamp due to its unusually low input impedance. It
is more popular in high frequency amplifiers in the VHF and UHF ranges, where its
isolation between input and output help to prevent feedback and lead to higher stability.

The common emitter amplifier is the last of the three basic single-stage BJT amplifier
topologies. This configuration is typically used as a voltage amplifier and this is the type
of amplifier you will build in Section 1.

This type of amplifier uses the base terminal as the input and the collector as the output.
The emitter is common to both: either tied to a group reference or a power supply rail.
Common uses for these types of amplifiers are in radio frequency circuits and low-noise
amplifiers.

117
Note: Each of the three types of single-stage BJT amplifiers have different circuits that
they are best suited for. Very often, one type of amplifier is used in conjunction with
another depending on the needs of the circuit.

118
Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so
far. You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the
end of the lab.

1-1 What is the main role of an amplifier?

A. An amplifier’s main role is to take a large input signal and make it smaller by
decreasing the signal voltage.
B. An amplifier’s main role is to take a small input signal and keep it unchanged.
C. An amplifier’s main role is to take a small input signal and make it larger by
increasing the signal voltage.
D. An amplifier’s main role is to take a large input signal and keep it unchanged.

119
How Does a Transistor Amplifier Work?

When operating in the active region, a transistor can be used as an AC signal amplifier.
Consider the following example of a common-emitter amplifier:

Figure 1-2

In the active region, the transistor behaves in a linear manner, so the following formula
applies:

Equation 1-1

where β is the transistor's current gain.

It is necessary to polarize the transistor for it to amplify properly. A transistor's

polarization consists in the application of a base voltage that ensures it will operate in
the active region. A voltage divider connected to the power supply V CC is usually used.

120
Figure 1-3

To find the base voltage, Thevenin's equivalent is applied to calculate Thevenin's

voltage (VTh) and resistance (RTh).

In this case, VTh is simply the divided voltage of VCC between resistors R1 and R2:

Equation 1-2

RTh for this circuit is the parallel resistance of R1 and R2:

Equation 1-3

121
You can calculate the emitter current IE using the following expression:

Equation 1-4

Taking IE ≈ IC we can say that IE is βIB. If you replace IE in the formula above, and use 0.7
V as VBE, you get the following expression:

Equation 1-5

All of these equations are used to design a circuit that works within the linear operation
limits of an amplifier and allow us to select the proper resistor and capacitor values.

Voltage Gain

Voltage gain is the relationship between the output and input voltages of the amplifier:

Equation 1-6

For an amplifying circuit to work properly, it must operate in the linear region without
saturating the transistor.

Gain is also expressed in dB:

122
Equation 1-7

Note: It is important to remember that you are working with AC signals and that the
amplifier gain changes based on the frequency. A Bode graph is used to find the gain
variation.

1-2 What is true about voltage gain?

A. Voltage gain is independent of signal frequency.

B. Voltage gain is measured in volts.
C. Voltage gain is equal to Vout/Vin.

123
1.2 Simulate: Explore the Behavior of a Transistor Amplifier

In this section of the lab, you will simulate the behavior of a transistor amplifier in
Multisim Live. You will also compare the simulated results with real world results later in
the lab.
1. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live circuit.
2. https://www.multisim.com/content/LpZjfREW4Tir7MEbPeTY2Z/interactive-
transistor-amplifiers-circuit/open
3. Examine the Multisim Live common-emitter transistor amplifier circuit.

Note: The AC signal source produces a 100 Hz, 0.2 Vpp (0.1 V Pk) sine wave.

4. Click Run to begin the interactive simulation.

5. Observe:

 The source sine wave graphed in green by PR1

 The output sine wave graphed in blue by PR2

Note: The amplitude of the output sine wave is much larger than that of the source sine
wave.

6. Once the graph has been produced, click Stop.

1-3 What is the calculated gain of the simulated circuit?

V output
Note: Voltage gain = AV = =
V source

_____________________________________________________________________

124
AC Sweep: Frequency Response

Multisim Live includes a tool to sweep through different signal frequencies and measure
gain called AC Sweep Analysis. You will now use the AC Sweep tool to observe how
gain in the simulated common-emitter circuit changes relative to input signal frequency.

1. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live Circuit

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/Lzs7FJchJbqEdgALhSXZu3/ac-sweep-
transistor-amplifiers-circuit/open

 This AC Sweep has been configured to change the signal frequency provided
by the AC voltage source, V1.
 Values start at 10 Hz and end at 5 kHz.
 A Bode plot is produced showing the circuit's frequency response, i.e.
magnitude (dB) and phase shift (º) of the output signal (as compared to input
signal) vs. the sweeping source frequency.

3. Click Run to begin the AC sweep simulation.

4. Move the cursor to measure the gain at 100 Hz.

1-4 What is the gain at 100 Hz?

AV =

_____________________________________________________________________

5. Click Stop when you are done.

125
1.3 Implement: Transistor Amplifiers

You will now expand what you know about transistor amplifiers by completing the
following activity.

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to set up the circuit shown in the following illustration:

Figure 1-4 Circuit Set-up

126
2. From the Instruments tab of Measurements Live, open the following instruments:

 Digital Multimeter (DMM)

 Function Generator (FGen-Arb)
 Oscilloscope

Note: For more information about accessing Measurements Live and launching
instruments, visit http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
launching-soft-front-panels/.

3. Start the Function Generator with the following settings:

Table 1-1 Function Generator settings

Frequency 100 Hz

Amplitude 0.2 Vpp

1-5 Given a β of 100 and VBE of 0.7, calculate IB and IE, and write the calculated results
in Table 1-2 below.

After you have calculated your results, use the DMM to measure IB and measure IE. You
can measure from the exposed metal leads or create a measurement point using a wire
or header pin. Write the measured values in Table 1-2 below .

Table 1-2

Data Calculated Value Measured Value

127
1-6 Do the measured values correspond to the calculates values? Why or why not?
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Determine Gain Using the Oscilloscope

1. Using your oscilloscope measure:

 The function generator's signal at one channel

 The amplifier's output on the other channel

2. Adjust the Time/Div and Volts per division to see both signals at once.

1-7 Calculate linear gain (Output Vpp/ Input Vpp). Calculate gain in dB and write the
results below.

Oscilloscope Gain (dB) =

_____________________________________________________________________

128
1.4 Exercise: Frequency Response of the Amplifier

1. Click Stop on the Function Generator and the Oscilloscope.

2. Open the Bode Analyzer.
3. Set the Bode Analyzer as indicated below:

Table 1-3 Bode Analyzer Settings

Stimulus Channel

Start Frequency 10 Hz

Stop Frequency 5 kHz

Cursors On

4. Perform the reading and analyze the results by pressing Run.

1-8 Use the cursors to find the gain at 100 Hz and write it down.
Bode Gain (dB) =
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-9 Does the measured gain coincide with the gain found using the oscilloscope?
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

129
1-10 How do these values compare to the values measured in simulation? Why might
they be different?
Note: Keep in mind that simulated values are for linear gain while measured values are
for dB gain.
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

130
1.5 Analysis

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this section
of the lab.

1-11 Record any observations that you haven’t noted above.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-12 List the most important characteristics and applications of a transistor amplifier.
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-13 Discuss how, in the previous steps, you measured the voltage gain of a transistor
amplifier circuit.
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

131
1-14 What happens to the amplified signal from a transistor amplifier if we increase the
input signal amplitude?
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

132
Section 2: Emitter Follower Amplifiers

2.1 Simulate: Emitter Follower Amplifiers - Voltage Response

As you saw in Section 1, the main role of a transistor is to take a relatively small input
signal and make it larger by increasing the signal voltage. You also looked at the three
standard BJT amplifier configurations.

In this section, you will build a configuration of components that form a commonly-used
transistor amplifier called the emitter follower or common collector. With this amplifier,
the voltage gain is always slightly less than 1. This means the voltage will not increase
but the current gain can be higher than 1. Emitter followers are commonly used to
amplify the current of a signal, usually for a low impedance load such as a speaker.

In this activity, you will investigate the voltage response of an emitter follower circuit
using Multisim Live.

1. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/zGWUhynstWEfCHexu6GREc/emitter-
follower-v/open

Observe the Voltage Response

1. Examine the emitter follower circuit, simulated with Multisim Live.

Note: The AC signal source produces a 10 kHz, 5 Vpp (2.5 V Pk) signal.

2. Click Run.

3. Measure the voltage response using the probes PR1 and PR2.

 PR1 and PR2 should display essentially the same waveform. Hover your
cursor over different points on the output curve and observe how the cursor
shifts between the blue input plot and the green output plot.

Note: The output voltage has almost exactly the same phase and amplitude as the
input voltage. This is the reason that this amplifier is called a follower. The voltage
output follows the voltage wired to the base of the transistor

133
Observe the Current Response

1. You will now observe the current gain in an emitter follower amplifier.
2. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live circuit
3. https://www.multisim.com/content/B2DuX5YtreVZMtNVj6r2gW/emitter-follower-
a/open

Record Peak-to-Peak Current Values

1. Click Run.
2. Measure the current response using the probes PR1 and PR2.

2-1 Use the table below to record the peak-to-peak current from Probe 1 and Probe 2.

Table 2-1

Probe Peak-to-Peak Current (µA)

Probe 1 – Input Current

Probe 2 – Output Current

2-2 Calculate the current gain using the following equation:

I
AI = out =
I¿
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

3. Click Stop when you are done.

134
Identify the Relationship between Resistors and Current Gain

Typically, the load of a circuit (RL, in this simulation) is not going to change. If we
assume that the load in a real-life example of this circuit is an audio speaker, the
speaker is not going to change its physical properties.

It would be more appropriate to change the resistance RE to examine how the current
gain will respond.

1. Modify the resistance of RE by clicking its value and typing or using the slider to
select a new one.

2-3 Calculate the circuit gain for a range of resistance values by:

 Modifying the resistance (RE)

 Running the simulation
 Making the measurement
 Stopping the simulation

Then, complete Table 2-2 below:

Table 2-2

Resistance of RE Probe 1 – Input Probe 2 – Output Gain

Current (µA) Current (µA)

Note: The relationship between RE and gain is non-linear. Because the load is going to
be different for every application, the combination of resistors in a transistor amplifier is
often customized for a specific application.

135
2.2 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in the lab.

2-4 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

2-5 In your own words, talk about the purpose of an emitter follower amplifier.

_____________________________________________________________________

2-6 Give a few application examples of a transistor amplifier.

_____________________________________________________________________

136
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 C
1-2 C

137
Lab 6: MOSFETS
In this lab, you will be looking at metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors
(MOSFETs), their operation and applications in real-world examples.

First, you will explore the basic function of a MOSFET. You will examine important
characteristics such as threshold voltage and regions of operation. You will use
simulation and circuit-building on the NI ELVIS III to investigate MOSFET
characteristics. Finally, you will implement a circuit that exemplifies a real-
world MOSFET application.

Figure 1 MOSFETs

Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to:

1. Discuss the characteristics, operation and application of MOSFETS and identify

the difference between a BJT and a MOSFET based on their behaviors.
2. Identify the regions of operation and the threshold voltage of a MOSFET.
3. Manipulate the input of a MOSFET to make it operate as a switch.

138
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/suppo
rt/model.ni-elvis-iii.html
 Instrument 1: Variable Power
 View Tutorials:
Supply
 Instrument 2: Digital Multimeter https://www.youtube.com/playl
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and ist?
Accessories Kit (purchased separately) is list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSx
required for using the instruments. v0gwtshBA2dh_M
 Install Soft Front Panel
support:
http://www.ni.com/documentati
on/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-
started/installing-the-soft-front-
panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/5474
9/en

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

● (1) LED
● (1) IRF510 MOSFET

Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online at :

● You will run a pre-built circuit http://multisim.com
embedded in this web page with  View Multisim Help:
Multisim Live in order to observe https://www.multisim.com/h
the DC operation of a MOSFET. elp/

139
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Calculations of voltage threshold

 Analysis questions
 Observations about the behavior of a MOSFET

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

140
1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot View the video here: youtu.be/1L9fesBVxh8

Video Summary

 MOSFET is an acronym that stands for: Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect

transistor.
 MOSFETS today perform much of the same work as a Bipolar Junction
Transistor (BJT) except that MOSFETS control voltage and a BJT controls
current.
 A MOSFET is sensitive to damage that occurs from static discharge.

141
What Are MOSFETS and What Do They Do?

MOSFET is an acronym for metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor. A

MOSFET is a type of transistor used primarily for amplifying or switching signals.
MOSFETs today perform many of the same functions as BJTs, except BJTs are
current-controlled devices and MOSFETs are voltage-controlled. The most typical
application of a MOSFET is as a voltage-controlled switch. A MOSFET can be thought
of as a variable resistor, where the gate-source voltage difference controls the drain-
source resistance. When there is no voltage difference between the gate-source, the
drain-source resistance is very high and little to no current flows. When the gate-source
voltage difference increases, the drain-source resistance is reduced and current will
flow.

Why Are MOSFETS Important?

MOSFET technology represents some improvement over BJTs. Power MOSFETs are
not subject to thermal run away and other failure modes common to BJTs. MOSFETs
are sensitive to gate oxide damage before and during installation. Anti-static handling
precautions should be used when dealing with MOSFETS. Another advantage of the
MOSFET transistor compared to a regular transistor is that the MOSFET requires less
than 1 mA of current to turn but is able to deliver a much higher current to a load of 10
to 50 A or more.

How Can We Use MOSFETS?

The MOSFET is now the most common type of transistor in both digital and analog
circuits. Micro-processors contain millions of integrated MOSFET transistors on each
device. The MOSFET devices provide the switching functions needed to operate the
logic gates and data storage required by the micro-processor. Discreet MOSFET
devices are used in power supplies, variable frequency drives, and other
power applications where the devices may be required to switch hundreds or even
thousands of watts.

142
Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so far. You
can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the end of the lab.

1-1 What is the difference between a MOSFET and a BJT?

A. A MOSFET and BJT perform very different functions

B. A BJT is current-controlled while a MOSFET is voltage-controlled
C. A MOSFET is more subject to thermal runaway than a BJT
D. A MOSFET relies on current while a BJT relies on voltage

143
1.2 Simulate: DC Behavior of a MOSFET

Note: In this part of the lab, you will simulate the DC behavior of a MOSFET
using Multisim Live. You will identify the regions of operation of a MOSFET, which are
similar to a BJT.

1. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/8jFBdYM4nKVVihmEsPBFog/mosfet-circuit/
open
Note: You will run this circuit through a simulated DC Sweep Analysis. With the drain
voltage set to 15 V, the graph will show at what gate voltage source current begins to
flow. This will be an indication of the threshold voltage of the MOSFET.

3. The DC Sweep has been configured to change the voltage supplied by the DC
gate voltage source, VGS.
4. Values start at 0 V and end at 5.0 V, with 0.05 V increments.
5. Source current is graphed vs. the gate voltage.
6. Examine the Multisim Live MOSFET circuit.
7. Click Run to run the DC Sweep simulation.
8. When the simulation is complete, take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a
sketch of the graph of drain voltage vs. source current. Include the image in your
lab report.

1-2 At what approximate voltage does the MOSFET begin conducting a current? V threshold
=

_____________________________________________________________________

144
DC Sweep: Drain Voltage vs Source Current

1. Click the link below to open a new Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/CjsvrSpJwqhkbtGGB23tU4/mosfet-circuit-2/
open

Note: Using the circuit from the first activity, you will now simulate a new DC sweep to
chart source current against drain voltage, for different Gate voltage values.

3. The DC Sweep has been configured to change the DC drain voltage supplied
by VDD.

4. Values start at 0 V and end at 5.0 V, with 0.05 V increments.

5. The simulation also sweeps through Gate voltage values at the DC source VGS.

6. Gate voltages start at 0 V and end at 5.5 V, with 0.5 V increments.

7. For each increment of gate voltage, a plot is produced of collector (source)

current vs. the sweeping drain voltage.

8. Click Run to run the DC sweep simulation.

9. When the simulation is complete, take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a

sketch of the graph of drain voltage and Gate voltage vs. source current. Include
the image in your report as evidence you have completed the activity.

Observe the Graph

Note: Some of the plots have 0 current flowing. These are the plots where the Gate
voltage is less than the threshold voltage for the MOSFET. These fall in the cutoff
region of operation.

The left side of the plots where current is still increasing is called the linear region. The
linear region is also known as the triode region.

Finally, when the current is stabilized, the MOSFET is in the saturation region, shown
on the right of the graph.

1. When your observations are complete, close the simulated circuit.

145
Figure 1-2 MOSFET and DC Transfer Graph characteristics

146
1.3 Implement: Regions of Operation of a MOSFET

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to set up the circuit shown below:

Figure 1-3 Circuit set-up

2. From the Instruments tab of Measurements Live, open the following instruments:

 Variable Power Supply (VPS)

147
Note: For more information about accessing Measurements Live and launching
instruments, visit http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
launching-soft-front-panels/.

3. Click Run to begin providing voltage to the Gate.

4. Increase the Supply + Voltage until the LED just turns on.
5. Find the Gate voltage value where decreasing the voltage by a small amount will
turn the LED off and then increasing the voltage by a small amount will turn the
LED on.

1-3 This is the threshold voltage for the MOSFET. Record this value.

Vthreshold =

_____________________________________________________________________

6. Click Stop in the Variable Power Supply window when you are done.

1-4 How does this voltage compare to the graph recorded when simulating the circuit
previously?

_____________________________________________________________________

148
1-5 Does this voltage correspond to the point on the graph when current began to flow?
Explain.

_____________________________________________________________________

149
1.4 Exercise: MOSFET as a Switch

In this section of the lab, you will use the circuit from Part 2 to implement a switch with a
MOSFET. As you saw, the Gate voltage can be used to turn on and off the flow of
current through a MOSFET. In this way, a signal with a relatively small amount of
voltage and power can control a much higher voltage or power signal.

1. Turn on the NI ELVIS III and open the following instruments from Measurements
Live:

 Digital Multimeter (DMM)

 Variable Power Supply (VPS)

2. In the Variable Power Supply, click Run to begin providing voltage to the Gate.

3. Set the Supply + voltage to 5 V and observe the LED.

4. Turn off the Supply + voltage to stop applying voltage and observe the LED.

 Notice that as voltage is applied to the Gate, the MOSFET allows current to
flow through the Drain-Source channel, and the LED turns on.
 By applying a relatively small voltage, the MOSFET can turn on or off a higher
power signal.

150
1.5 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

1-6 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-7 In your own words, describe the characteristics, operations and applications of
MOSFETS.

_____________________________________________________________________

151
1-8 In your own words, explain the regions of operation and the threshold voltage of a
MOSFET.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-9 In your own words, describe how you used a MOSFET as a switch by manipulating
its input.

_____________________________________________________________________

152
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 B

153
Lab 7: Thyristors
In this lab, you will be looking at the operation and characteristics of a thyristor. You will
explore a detailed definition of a thyristor and learn why they are important; you will then
focus on a specialized thyristor called a TRIAC.

In the simulation portion of Section 1, you will identify key thyristor characteristics while
exploring how and when a thyristor conducts current. You will then implement a safety
circuit, a real-life use for a thyristor.

In Section 2, you will use simulation to explore TRIACs and investigate their differences
and similarities with regular thyristors.

Figure 1 Thyristor

154
Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities.

1. Discuss the characteristics, operation and application of Thyristors and TRIACs.

2. Implement a safety circuit using a Thyristor and identify the triggering voltage and
turn-off time.
3. Compare the behaviors of Thyristors and TRIACs.

155
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/support/mo
 Instrument 1: Variable Power del.ni-elvis-iii.html
Supply  View Tutorials:
 Instrument 2: Oscilloscope https://www.youtube.com/playlist?
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSxv0gwts
Accessories Kit (purchased separately) hBA2dh_M
is required for using the instruments.  Install Soft Front Panel support:
http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/
ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
installing-the-soft-front-panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/54749/en

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

 (1) Silicon-controlled Rectifier
(Thyristor), 100 VRM, 4 A
 (2) 100 Ω Resistors
 (1) 1 kΩ Resistor
 (1) Zener Diode

Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online at: http://multisim.com

• You will run and observe two  View Multisim Help:
pre-built circuits embedded in https://www.multisim.com/help/
this web page with Multisim Live
in order to understand the
behavior of thyristors and
TRIACs.

156
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Calculations of threshold voltage

 Analysis questions
 Observations about the behavior of a thyristor

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

157
Section 1: Thyristors

1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot. View the video here: youtu.be/eZuRePDOzMs

Video Summary

 A thyristor is a solid state semiconductor device.

 The term silicone controlled rectifier (SCR) is often used interchangeably with the
term thyristor.
 TRIACS are designed to work directly with alternating current.

158
What Are Thyristors?

A thyristor is a solid-state, semi-conductor device that has two to four leads, typically
including an anode, a cathode and a gate. Thyristors are constructed with four layers of
alternating N and P-type semi-conductor materials. The term "silicon-controlled rectifier"
or SCR is often used interchangeably with thyristor. Although the SCR is a type of
thyristor, there are others as well, including TRIACs that are designed specifically to
work with alternating current.

What Do Thyristors Do?

When the cathode of a thyristor is negatively charged relative to the anode, no current
flows until a pulse is applied to the gate. After the pulse, the thyristor will begin to
conduct until the voltage between the cathode and the anode is reversed or drops
below a certain threshold value. This enables large amounts of power to be switched
using only a small triggering current or voltage.

A thyristor is not a proportional device like a transistor. This means a thyristor can only
be fully on or off, but a transistor can operate in between on and off states. A thyristor is
unsuitable as an analog amplifier but useful as a switch.

Why Are Thyristors Important?

Efficient management of electrical power is more important today than ever. Thyristors
play a large role in power generation by facilitating high-voltage direct current, or HVDC,
conversion. Large stacks of thyristor valves called Valve Halls contain the valves of the
static inverters that are used to convert DC that has been generated by a power station
into AC for long distance transport.

How Can We Use Thyristors?

Thyristors have a number of different power control uses. Phase control is a method of
pulse width modulation applied to AC voltages. It works by modulating a thyristor into
and out of conduction at a pre-determined phase of the applied waveform. Another very
common thyristor circuit used to prevent over-voltage from damaging circuits is
the crowbar circuit.

159
This circuit operates by putting a short circuit across the voltage output when triggered
by an over-voltage condition. The voltage drops to a safe level and protects any circuits
or connected equipment from the excessive voltage.
This type of protection is often employed by lab or bench-top power supplies to protect
the equipment attached to them. Thyristors have been used as lighting dimmers in
television, motion pictures and theaters. Thyristors are also used in flash and strobe
lighting, motor speed controls, pressure control systems and liquid-level regulators.

160
Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so
far. You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the
end of the lab.

1-1 When does current start to flow?

A. When the cathode of a thyristor is positively charged relative to the anode.

B. When the cathode of a thyristor is negatively charged relative to the anode and a
pulse is applied to the gate.
C. When the anode of a thyristor is negatively charged relative to the cathode and a
pulse is applied to the gate.
D. When the anode of a thyristor is positively charged relative to the cathode.

161
1.2 Simulate: Explore the Behavior of a Thyristor

In this section of the lab, you will simulate and examine the behavior of a thyristor.
Normally no current flows across a thyristor. If a positive voltage is connected across
the anode and cathode of the thyristor, and a small amount of current is injected into the
gate, the thyristor will "fire" and conduct current. The thyristor will continue conducting
current until the positive voltage across the main terminals falls below the threshold,
even if the gate current is removed.

1. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/3dcbTWXZTPmRRQtfWhKNvC/thyristor/open

Observe Thyristor Triggering

You will observe how the voltage at the SCR’s gate determines the flow of current
through its main terminals.

1. Examine the Multisim Live thyristor circuit.

 The AC signal source V1 sends a 5 V, 5 Hz sine wave signal to the
gate of the SCR.
 The source V2 produces a 5 V, 3 Hz sine wave, which travels to the
thyristor anode.
2. Click Run to begin the interactive simulation.
3. After the graph populates (plotting a few cycles of both sources), stop the
simulation.
4. Examine the waveforms shown on the graph and scale the axes as needed.

 Probe PR1, blue, shows the signal at the gate provided by V1.
 PR2, green, shows the signal provided by V2, as well as the current
through the V2 loop.

Note: Current flow only begins when both of the following conditions are true:

 Gate voltage, V1, blue, is above the trigger voltage, 0 V

 Input voltage, V2, green, is positive.

Current flow continues as long as the current through the main terminals is above the
holding current, 0 mA, regardless of whether V1 is above the trigger voltage.

162
5. Take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a sketch showing all the distinct
current behaviors plotted by PR2.

163
Determine Turn-On Time

Instructions:

1. Examine the beginning of the waveform graph.

Notice that when a positive voltage is applied to the gate, there is not an instantaneous
appearance of current in the circuit. There is a delay time, td, before the current
starts to change. The period between the application of the gate voltage and the full
current response to the circuit is called the turn-on time, t on. In the simulated circuit, ton =
td. Real-life circuits will also display a rise time, t r, for the current to ‘catch up’ to the
signal. The turn-on time of a real circuit is the sum of the rise time and delay: t on = td + tr.

1-2 Measure the delay time in the circuit, which is the interval between when V1
passes the threshold voltage (0 V) and when the SCR begins to conduct current.
Record the td value below.

td =

_____________________________________________________________________

164
1.3 Exercise: Apply Thyristor Characteristics to Protect a Circuit

In this section, you will build a crowbar circuit that uses a thyristor to protect a load.

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to set up the circuit shown:

Figure 1-2 Circuit Set-up

165
2. From the Instruments tab of Measurements Live, open the following instruments:

 Variable Power Supply (VPS)

 Oscilloscope
Note: For more information about accessing Measurements Live and launching
instruments, visit http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
launching-soft-front-panels/.

166
Start Measuring Data Using the Oscilloscope

1. In the Oscilloscope window, set the following settings:

Table 1-1 Oscilloscope Settings

Horizontal and Acquisition

Time/Div 1 ms

Channels

Channel 1 Active

Volts per division 2V

Channel 2 Active

Volts per division 10 V

Vertical Position -4

Trigger

Type Analog Edge

Slope Falling

Level 0.8 V

2. Click Run.

3. Measure the voltage at which the crowbar circuit will “fire” to protect the Load.

 Using the VPS controls, increase the input voltage being supplied to the
circuit until the scope triggers.
 When this happens, the scope will have captured the moment when the
thyristor ‘fired’ and the current flowing through the load (RLOAD) dropped to
near zero.

167
1-3 Using the cursors on the scope, measure the value of the supply voltage (V supply) on
Channel 1 at the moment the voltage across the load resistor (RLOAD) begins falling to
zero. Record the value below.
Vsupply =

_____________________________________________________________________

Measure the Turn-Off Time

1-4 Using the cursors on the scope, measure the amount of time it took for the current
flowing through the load, RLOAD, to fall to zero after the thyristor fired. This is the turn-
off time, toff. (The turn-off time is the same for the current as for the voltage drop across
RLOAD). Record the measured value below.

toff =

_____________________________________________________________________

168
1.4 Analysis

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this section
of the lab.

1-5 Summarize any observations from this section of the lab that haven’t been
addressed elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-6 In your own words, discuss the characteristics, operations and applications of
Thyristors.

_____________________________________________________________________

169
1-7 Describe how you implemented a safety circuit using a Thyristor and identified the
triggering voltage and turn-off time.
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

170
Section 2: TRIACS

2.1 Theory and Background

In Section 1, you investigated the common SCR thyristor. These devices are

unidirectional, meaning they can only conduct current in one direction. Triodes for
alternating current (TRIACs), on the other hand, perform a similar function to
thyristors except they are bi-directional. These specialized semiconductor devices work
just like thyristors, except they can be triggered by a positive or negative current at the
gate. Once triggered, a TRIAC can conduct in either direction.
Because they can provide switching on both halves of an AC waveform, TRIACs
operate more efficiently than thyristors for certain AC power applications. It is possible
to achieve a similar function to a TRIAC by wiring two parallel thyristors in opposite
directions, a configuration that is more suitable than a TRIAC for high power
applications. Due to advantages, such as simplicity and low cost, TRIACs are still quite
popular in dimmer switches, electric fan controls, small motor controls and others.

Figure 2-1 TRIAC

171
2.2 Simulate: Observe the Behavior of a TRIAC

Note: In this exercise, you will follow a similar procedure to Part 1, except you will be
working with a TRIAC instead of a thyristor. You will start by working in simulation and
observing the difference in behavior between a thyristor and a TRIAC.

1. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/bDdV4eytPB6UMXrruZvRFm/triac/open

Observe TRIAC Triggering

You will observe how a positive voltage through the TRIAC’s gate can control both
negative and positive voltages through its main terminals.

1. Examine the Multisim Live thyristor circuit.

 The pulse voltage source V1 sends 2 V pulses at intervals of 0.85 s to the

gate of the TRIAC.
 The source V2 produces a 5 V, 2.5 Hz sine wave, which travels to the
main terminal of the TRIAC.

2. Click Run to begin the interactive simulation.

3. After the graph populates and plots a few cycles of both sources, click Stop.
4. Examine the waveforms shown on the graph and scale the axes as needed.

 Probe PR1, blue, shows the signal at the gate, provided by V1.
 PR2, green, shows the signal provided by V2, as well as the current
through the V2 loop.

5. Take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a sketch showing all the distinct
current behaviors plotted by PR2.

2-1 How does the current flow differ in an SCR and a TRIAC?

_____________________________________________________________________

172
Note: A pulse of gate voltage triggers the current to flow, regardless of whether the
input signal is positive or negative. The current continues as long as its absolute value
is above the holding current. If gate voltage remains above the trigger voltage as current
approaches zero, current will continue conducting as it switches signs.

TRIAC Behavior with a Negative Trigger Voltage

Now you will investigate how a TRIAC will behave with a negative trigger voltage.

1. In the embedded circuit, change the pulsed voltage value of the source V1 to
-2 V.
2. Click Run to begin the interactive simulation, and then click Stop after the graph
populates.
3. Observe the behavior of the TRIAC given a negative trigger voltage.

2-2 How does the TRIAC behave with a negative trigger voltage?

_____________________________________________________________________

173
2.3 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

2-3 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

2-4 In your own words, describe the difference between an (unidirectional) thyristor and
a TRIAC. How does this difference affect the behavior you observed?
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

174
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 B

175
Lab 8: Optocouplers and IGBTs
In this lab, you will be looking at two devices used as electronic switches: optocouplers
and insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). In Section 1, you will investigate the
behavior of optocouplers. Optocouplers are electronic devices used to electrically
isolate two circuits while allowing one to control the other using light. You will use
optocouplers digitally and in a real circuit to control a high power loop from a low power
loop. In Section 2, you will focus on IGBTs. IGBTs are a type of transistor used for fast,
power-efficient switching. You will simulate their use.

Figure 1 Optocoupler

176
Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities.

1. Discuss isolation and its importance and use in circuits.

2. Identify the important characteristics of an optocoupler and implement a control
circuit utilizing one.
3. Measure the threshold voltage of an IGBT in simulation.

177
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/support/m
 Instrument 1: Digital Multimeter odel.ni-elvis-iii.html
 Instrument 2: Variable Power  View Tutorials:
Supply https://www.youtube.com/playlist?
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSxv0gw
Accessories Kit (purchased separately) tshBA2dh_M
is required for using the instruments.  Install Soft Front Panel support:
http://www.ni.com/documentation/e
n/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
installing-the-soft-front-panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/54749/en

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

 (2) 1 kΩ Resistors
 (1) Optocoupler
 (1) SPST Switch
 (1) Red LED

Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online at:

• You will modify and run pre- http://multisim.com
built circuits, embedded in this  View Multisim Help:
web page with Multisim Live, in https://www.multisim.com/help/
order to understand the operation
of optocouplers and IGBTs.

178
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Calculations about power

 Analysis questions
 Observations of the behavior of Optocouplers and IGBTs

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

179
Section 1: Optocouplers

1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot. View the video here: youtu.be/UXwevpl9ghM

Video Summary

 An optocoupler transfers signals between two isolated signals using light.

 Circuits can share signals while remaining electrically isolated. This protects both
circuits.
 An IGBT (insulted-gate bipolar transistor) is a three terminal semi-conductor.
 IGBTs are primarily used as electronic switches.

180
What Are Optocouplers and IGBTs?

An optocoupler, opto-isolator, photocoupler or optical isolator is an electronic

component that transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits using light. An
optocoupler allows the transfer of signals without the use of an electrical conductor and
permits two circuits to share signals while still remaining electrically isolated. This
protects both circuits from possible faults originating in the other connected circuit.
Optocouplers are primarily used for digital signals, but there are also special
optocouplers developed specifically for analog signals.
An insulated-gate bipolar transistor, or IGBT is a three-terminal power semiconductor
device primarily used as an electronic switch. IGBTs are designed to be both highly
efficient and fast at switching. In operation, an IGBT is equivalent to the combination of
a MOSFET and a power transistor.

Why Are Optocouplers and IGBTs Important?

Optocouplers have a number of important uses in modern electronics. Optocouplers

can provide a safe way of monitoring high voltages and they're used in inexpensive
switch-mode power supplies to provide isolation from ground. These factors help bring
the cost of electronics down.
IGBTs offer advantages over both power MOSFETs and BJTs that help reduce the cost
of producing the devices that the circuits are used in as well as the amount of power
required by those devices. Very low on-state voltage drops combined with low required
driving power reduce the size and cost of IGBTs, making them more practical and
advantageous to use.

How Do We Use Optocouplers and IGBTs?

There are a variety of optocouplers available today. Resistive opto-isolators are the
earliest type, originally marketed as light cells in the 1960s. Resistive opto-
isolators used miniature incandescent light bulbs as their light sources and light-
dependent resistors as their receivers. Although this style of optocoupler has very
limited switching speed, they are still used in the audio and the music industry today.

Photodiode opto-isolators use light emitting diodes (LEDs) as light sources and silicon
photodiodes as sensors.

181
Although this type of optocoupler does not have the same linearity properties as the
resistive type, it is much faster.

The fastest type of optocoupler uses PIN diodes to handle data transfer rates up to 50
million pulses per second. Photodiode opto-isolators can be used for interfacing analog
signals.

There are also phototransistor opto-isolators which, although slower than photodiode
types, are still common in power supply and signal switching applications.

IGBTs can be found anywhere high power signals need to be controlled. The extremely
high pulse ratings of IGBTs make them useful for generating large power pulses
required in the study of both particle and plasma physics. Hobbyists use IGBTs for
controlling large amounts of power required to drive devices like Tesla coils and coil
guns. IGBTs are also critical components in the control circuits for hybrid and electric
vehicles.

182
Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so
far. You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the
end of the lab.

1-1 Which one of the options below is the most accurate definition of an optocoupler?

A. An optocoupler is an electronic component used as an electrical switch.

B. An optocoupler is an electronic component that transfers electrical signals
between two isolated circuits using light.
C. An optocoupler is an electronic component that transfers electrical signals
between two related circuits using light.
D. An optocoupler is an electronic component that transfers faults between two
connected circuits.

1-2 Which one of the options below is the most accurate definition of an insulated-gate
bipolar transistor (or IGBT)?

A. A single terminal semi-conductor device primarily used as an electronic switch.

B. A three terminal semi-conductor device primarily used to transfer electrical
signals between two isolated circuits using light.
C. A two terminal semi-conductor device that is highly efficient and fast at switching.
D. A three terminal semi-conductor device that is primarily used as an electronic
switch.

183
1.2 Simulate: Explore the Behavior of an Optocoupler

1. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/FevSitu8q9qFgKepVi6mA6/optocoupler-
circuit/open
3. Examine the simple Optocoupler circuit.

Note: The optocoupler allows the high-power loop to be controlled by a low-power one.

4. Click Run to begin the simulation.
5. Notice that the indicator for the LED shows that it is turned off. Current running
through both loops is very small.
6. Increase the voltage provided by the power supply by clicking the V1 voltage
value and moving the slider until the LED in the larger circuit, LED1, appears to
turn fully on in the circuit diagram.

1-3 At what voltage in the left loop does the LED in the right loop turn fully on?
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-4 Calculate the power generated in the left loop (control) at the voltage that causes
the LED to turn on.

Pcontrol = Icontrol x Vcontrol

_____________________________________________________________________

1-5 Calculate the power generated in the right loop (powered).

Ppowered = Ipowered x Vpowered

_____________________________________________________________________

Note: This example demonstrates a lower power signal controlling a large power signal.

184
1.3 Exercise: Test the Behavior of an Optocoupler

In this section, you will build two isolated circuits joined by an optocoupler and confirm
that one of the circuits can control the other.

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to set up the following circuit:

Note: You may have a different optocoupler, but it should behave similarly if you
connect the terminals in the same way.

Figure 1-2 Circuit set-up

185
2. From the Instruments tab of Measurements Live, open the following instruments:

 Digital Multimeter (DMM)

 Variable Power Supply (VPS)

Note: For more information about accessing Measurements Live and launching
instruments, visit http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
launching-soft-front-panels/.

3. Using the Variable Power Supply, alternate between 0 V and 5 V applied to the
source side. Confirm that the LED turns on and off in the 15 V circuit.

Note: By applying a voltage across the source side of the optocoupler, current is
allowed to flow through the sensor side.

186
Confirm That Two Circuits Are Isolated

1. In the DMM window, select Resistance.

2. Click Run to start the DMM.
3. Close the switch and confirm that the LED is turned on. Current is flowing
through both loops.
4. Turn off power to the prototyping board, using the switch on the top of the ELVIS.
Leave the ELVIS device on (the switch on the back of the ELVIS).
5. Connect the DMM leads to the sensor side and the emitter side of the
optocoupler. See the image provided for an example:

Warning: Do not force the DMM probes into the breadboard holes. Instead, create a
measurement point by plugging in one end of a wire or a header pin into the breadboard
hole.

187
Figure 1-3 Circuit set-up
1-6 Record your measured resistance and hypothesize what it means.

_____________________________________________________________________

188
Note: These results are an indication that either very little or no current can flow
between the two points being measured, meaning they are isolated from each other.

1.4 Analysis

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this section
of the lab.

1-7 Why would it be desirable to control a high-power loop from a low-power one? Give
an example of such an application.

_____________________________________________________________________

189
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

1-8 Consider two circuits joined by an optocoupler (an emitter/control loop and a
sensor/controlled loop). If you applied 10,000 V on the sensor side, what do you expect
would happen on the emitter side?
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

190
Section 2: IGBTs

2.1 Theory and Background

An insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) combines the behavior of a Metal-Oxide

Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) and a Bipolar Junction Transistor
(BJT). It is composed of an isolated gate Field-Effect Transistor (FET), capable
of controlling the device, and a Bipolar Transistor that is used as a switch.

Like the MOSFET, an IGBT is voltage-controlled and possesses a specific gate-emitter

threshold voltage. An IGBT also has the high-current and high-voltage capacities of a
BJT, which a MOSFET does not.

IGBTs are typically used in high voltage and low frequency applications. MOSFETs are
preferred for high frequency and low voltage power applications.

You will complete this part of the lab in simulation.

Figure 2-1 IGBT Cross-section

191
2.2 Simulate Observe the Behavior of an IGBT

1. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/kkr6djoV4TJrpcCqs3njLC/igbt/open

Note: You will run this circuit through a simulated DC Sweep of collector voltage (VDD),
observing the relationship with collector current for multiple gate voltage values.
 Collector voltage values start at 0 V and end at 10 V, with 0.5 V increments.
 The simulation repeats for different values of gate voltage, provided by VGS.
 VGS values start at 0 V and end at 8 V, with 0.5 V increments.
 For each increment of gate voltage, a plot is produced of collector voltage vs.
collector current detected by PR1.

3. Click Run to begin simulating the IGBT circuit.

4. When the simulation is complete, take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a
sketch of the graph.

 Notice how much collector voltage is required before the IGBT begins
conducting current.

Note: Several of the plots show zero (or very nearly zero) current conducting. The first
plot where current does flow represents the first gate voltage value that is above the
threshold voltage of the IGBT.

Confirm the Threshold Voltage

Note: You will now observe how an IGBT can be used as a switch. You will measure
the IGBT's threshold voltage more precisely than in the last activity.

1. Click the link below to open the Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/PD3PDx96LqASKWwwzrvkRC/igbt-
threshold/open
3. Click Run to start the simulation.
4. Adjust the gate voltage provided by VGS until the LED just turns on.
5. Find the Gate voltage value where decreasing the voltage by a small amount will
turn the LED off and then increasing the voltage by a small amount will turn the
LED on.

192
6. Click Stop to end the simulation once you have determined this value, which is
the threshold value of the IGBT.
2-1 What is the threshold voltage of the simulated IGBT?

_____________________________________________________________________

2-2 How does this voltage compare to the graphs you plotted in the last activity? Does it
correspond with the minimum gate voltage at which current flowed?

_____________________________________________________________________

193
2.3 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

2-3 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

2-4 In your own words, discuss isolation and its importance and use in circuits.
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

194
2-5 In your own words, discuss the important characteristics of an optocoupler.
Describe how you implemented a control circuit using an optocoupler.

_____________________________________________________________________

2-6 In your own words, describe how you measured the threshold gate-emitter voltage
of an IGBT in simulation.

_____________________________________________________________________

2-7 In what ways is an IGBT similar to a MOSFET? How is it dissimilar?

_____________________________________________________________________

195
2-8 In what ways is an IGBT similar to a BJT? How is it dissimilar?
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

196
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 B
1-2 D

197
Lab 9: Op-Amps
In this lab, you will be looking at the open-loop behavior of an operational amplifier (op-
amp). First, you will look at a detailed definition of an op-amp circuit and learn what
controls its behavior. Then, you will examine why op-amps are important and how they
are used in countless devices.

Through simulation and circuit-building, you will observe the outputs for different inputs
to an open-loop op-amp configuration. Additionally, you will build an op-amp clipper
circuit (a closed-loop configuration) and observe the output signal.

Figure 1 Op-Amp Circuit Diagram

Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities:

1. Discuss the operation and application of op-amps.

2. Discuss the limiting factors imposed by the supply voltage to an op-amp.
3. Predict the output of an op-amp in an open-loop configuration given the input
parameters.
4.

198
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/suppo
rt/model.ni-elvis-iii.html
● Instrument 1: Function Generator
 View Tutorials:
● Instrument 2: Oscilloscope
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and https://www.youtube.com/playl
Accessories Kit (purchased separately) is ist?
required for using the instruments. list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSx
v0gwtshBA2dh_M
 Install Soft Front Panel
support:
http://www.ni.com/documentati
on/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-
started/installing-the-soft-front-
panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/5474
9/en

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

 (1) 10 kΩ resistor
 (1) 220 Ω resistor
 (1) operational amplifier,
TL074, or similar

Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online

● You will modify and run a pre- http://multisim.com
built Multisim Live circuit in order to  View Help
understand the open-loop gain of http://multisim.com/help/
an op-amp.

199
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Calculations of output voltage

 Data from simulation and circuit-building
 Observations of the behavior of an Op-Amp

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

200
1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot. View the video here: youtu.be/ph8zI9Emeuc

Video Summary

● Operational amplifiers, also known as Op-Amps, are one of the most commonly
used electronic devices.
● Op-Amps are an ideal choice for signal conditioning, filtering, and mathematical
operations.
● Op-Amps are considered a differential amplifier

201
What Are Op-Amp Circuits?

Operational amplifiers are one of the most commonly used electronic devices today.
They constitute one of the basic building blocks of analog electronic circuits. Op-amps
are linear devices that can provide close to ideal DC amplification making them an
excellent choice for signal conditioning, filtering and mathematical operations.

What Do Op-Amp Circuits Do?

An op-amp is a type of differential amplifier. One of their most common uses is for
signal voltage amplification, which is what this lab will focus on. An op-amp’s inputs
typically consist of a non-inverting input marked with a plus symbol, and an inverting
input marked with a minus symbol. Ideally, the op-amp amplifies only the difference
between the two inputs, which is called the differential input voltage.

The output voltage of the op-amp is represented by the equation:

V OUT =A OL ¿
Equation 1-1

where (V+ - V-) is the difference between the inverting and non-inverting inputs and AOL
is the open-loop gain of the amplifier. Open-loop refers to the absence of a feedback
loop from the output to the input. This feedback loop is typically achieved with a resistor.
The open-loop gain of an op-amp is typically very large, usually a factor of 100,000 or
more for integrated circuit op-amps. This means that very small differences between the
two inputs will drive the amplifier output nearly to the supply voltage. Conditions where
the output voltage is approximately equal to the supply voltage are referred to as
saturation of the amplifier.

Because the exact magnitude of the op-amp's gain is not well controlled by the
manufacturing process, it is impractical to use an op-amp as a stand-alone differential
amplifier. To achieve a more reliable and predictable magnitude of gain from an op-
amp, negative feedback is used. Negative feedback is achieved by applying a portion of
the output voltage to the inverting input. This is called a closed-loop feedback and it
greatly reduces the gain of the circuit. When negative feedback is used, the circuit's
overall gain is determined mostly by the feedback network rather than the op-amp's
characteristics. This effectively eliminates manufacturing differences of the op-amp and
allows for a predictable and repeatable factor of gain in the circuit.

202
How Can We Use Op-Amp Circuits?

An op-amp of some type can be found in almost every piece of electronic equipment.
They are widely used in audio and video pre-amplifiers and buffers. Op-amps are also
used as differentiators and integrators, filters, rectifiers and regulators. Op-amps are
also critical components in analog-to-digital converters as well as digital-to-analog
converters. An important design feature of many op-amps is a standardized pin-out that
allows one type of op-amp to be swapped for another without having to make difficult
wiring changes.

203
Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so far.
You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the end of the lab.

1-1 What is the correct equation for the output voltage of an op-amp?

A. VOUT = AOL (V- - V+)

B. VOUT = AOL (V+ / V-)
C. VOUT = AOL (V+ - V-)
D. VOUT = AOL (V+ * V-)

1-2 What is the saturation of an amplifier?

A. When the input voltage is less than the supply voltage.

B. When the output voltage is less than the supply voltage.
C. When the input voltage is equal to or greater than the supply voltage.
D. When the output voltage is approximately equal to the supply voltage.

204
1.2 Simulate: Open-Loop Behavior of an Op-Amp

1. Click the link below and examine the Multisim Live circuit.
2. https://www.multisim.com/content/UsTPm4Tn6L4HMjnW4tPP7Q/op-amps-
circuit/

Note: This circuit features a supply voltage of +/-5 V and a non-inverting input that can
be switched between +/-1 V.

3. Ensure that the switch is in the top position (click and press the icon that appears
to change the switch's position).
4. Click Run to begin simulating the circuit.

1-3 Measure the voltage out of the op-amp when the switch is in the top position (input
voltage is +1 V). What is the output voltage?

VOUT =

_____________________________________________________________________

1-4 Change the switch position to the bottom (input voltage is -1 V). Measure the
voltage out of the op-amp. What is the output voltage?

VOUT =

_____________________________________________________________________

Note: In this configuration, the output switches between the upper and lower voltage
values from the variable power supply.

205
Modify the Supply Voltages

1. Click on the supply voltage values and change them to +15 V and -15 V.

1-5 Measure the voltage out of the op-amp when the switch is in the top position (input
voltage is +1 V).

VOUT =

_____________________________________________________________________

1-6 Change the switch position to the bottom (input voltage is -1 V). Measure the
voltage out of the op-amp. What is the output voltage?

VOUT =

_____________________________________________________________________

Note: The output switches between approximately +15 V and -15 V.

2. Click Stop.

1-7 Record your observations on the op-amp in this configuration.

_____________________________________________________________________

206
1.3 Implement: Open-Loop Behavior

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to set up the following circuit:

Note: You may have a different op-amp, but it should behave similarly if you connect
the terminals in the same way.

 Consult the specification sheet for your op-amp for a guide to which terminals
are connected to which pin.
 Op-amps are often packaged in an integrated circuit. Therefore, it is important
to learn about the pin connections.

Figure 1-2 Circuit set-up

207
2. From the Instruments tab of Measurements Live, open the following instruments:

 Function Generator (FGen-Arb)

 Oscilloscope

Note: For more information about accessing Measurements Live and launching
instruments, visit http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
launching-soft-front-panels/.

3. In the Function Generator window, apply the following settings:

Table1-1 Function Generator Settings

Frequency 60 Hz

Amplitude 5 Vpp

4. Click Run.
5. In the Oscilloscope window, set the following settings:

Table1-2 Oscilloscope Settings

Horizontal and Acquisition

Time/Div 2 ms

Channels

Channel 1 and Channel 2 Active

Volts per division 5V

6. Click Run.

208
Observe the Oscilloscope

 Notice that the input signal on Channel 1 is a sine wave.

1-8 Does the behavior correspond with what you observed in Part 1?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-9 What does the graph indicate about the open-loop behavior of an op-amp?

_____________________________________________________________________

209
1.4 Exercise: Signal Clipping

Note: In this section, you will explore the behavior of an op-amp when the input signal
has a higher voltage than the supply voltage.

You will be building a closed-loop configuration of an op-amp, which will make it easier
to visualize its behavior.

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to set up the following circuit:

Figure 1-3 Circuit Set-up

210
2. Open the following instruments from Measurements Live:

 Function Generator (FGen-Arb)

 Oscilloscope (SCOPE)
 Variable Power Supply (VPS)

3. In the Variable Power Supply window, set the following settings:

Table 1-3 Variable Power Supply Settings

Power Supply “+” Static

Voltage 4.00 V

Power Supply “-“ Static

Voltage -4.00 V

4. Click Run to provide supply voltage to the op-amp.

5. Configure the Function Generator as follows:

Table 1-4 Function Generator Settings

Frequency 60 Hz

Amplitude 5 Vpp

6. Click Run.

211
7. In the Oscilloscope window, set the following settings:

Table1-5 Oscilloscope Settings

Horizontal and Acquisition

Time/Div 2 ms

Channels

Channel 1 and Channel 2 Active

Volts per division 2V

8. Click Run.

Observe the Behavior of the Op-Amp

 With these settings, the input signal has an amplitude of 5 V peak-to-peak, which
is less than the supply voltage.
 The output signal follows the input signal. You can disable the Channel 1
signal to see that the output signal (shown in blue) is almost identical.

1. Increase the amplitude of the input signal so that it is higher than the supply
voltage. In the Function Generator window, set the Amplitude to 9 Vpp.
2. Observe the response in the Oscilloscope.

 Notice that the output signal does not increase or decrease to the amount of the
input signal. This effect is called clipping.

212
1-10 What is the consequence of clipping in a circuit?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-11 What would happen if your output signal is expected to be of higher amplitude than
your supply voltage?

_____________________________________________________________________

213
1.5 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

1-12 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-13 In your own words, discuss the operation of an op-amp and some of its open-loop
and closed-loop applications.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-14 In your own words, discuss the limiting factors imposed by the supply voltage to an
op-amp.

_____________________________________________________________________

214
1-15 Predict the output of the following op-amp:

Figure 1-4 Determine the output.

_____________________________________________________________________

215
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 C
1-2 D

216
Lab 10: Op-Amp Amplifiers
In the previous lab, you examined the open-loop behavior of an op-amp. In this lab, you
will look at several closed-loop configurations in which op-amps are used to amplify an
input signal. You will learn how op-amp amplifiers operate as well as why they are
important and how we can apply them.

Using simulation and the NI ELVIS III, you will measure the response of an op-amp in
three commonly used closed-loop configurations. For each configuration, you will make
calculations about gain in the circuit and examine how and why we use the op-amp
circuit.

Figure 1 Op-Amp Amplifier Circuit Diagram

Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to:

1. Discuss the characteristics, operation and application of op-amp amplifiers.

2. Measure the gain of a closed-loop op-amp.
3. Design inverting and non-inverting configurations given a required amplifier gain.

217
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/suppo
rt/model.ni-elvis-iii.html
● Instrument 1: Function Generator
 View Tutorials:
● Instrument 2: Oscilloscope
● Instrument 3: Variable Power https://www.youtube.com/playl
Supply ist?
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSx
Accessories Kit (purchased separately) is v0gwtshBA2dh_M
required for using the instruments.
 Install Soft Front Panel
support:
http://www.ni.com/documentati
on/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-
started/installing-the-soft-front-
panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/5474
9/en

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

 (1) kΩ resistor
 (1) 2 kΩ resistor
 (1) operational amplifier,
TL074 or similar

Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online

http://multisim.com
 View Help
● You will modify and run pre-built
http://multisim.com/help/
circuits, embedded in this web
page with Multisim Live, in order to
observe the operation of various
op-amp amplifier configurations.

218
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Calculations of output voltage

 Data from simulation and circuit-building
 Observations about the behavior of Op-Amp Amplifiers

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

219
1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot. View the video here: youtu.be/n5FI_gjPAA8

Video Summary

● Op-Amps with feedback are closed-loop.

● Open loop amplifiers have an incredibly high gain.
● The addition of feedback allows an Op-Amp’s gain to be controlled.

220
What Are Op-Amp Amplifier Circuits?

Op-amp amplifier circuits are operational amplifiers in closed-loop configurations where

a portion of the amplifier output signal is fed back into the input signal.

What Do Op-Amp Amplifier Circuits Do?

Open-loop amplifiers have incredibly high gain, but their usefulness is limited in
electronics, because the output of an open loop amplifier is saturated so easily.

Minute differences in the manufacturing process mean that gain properties of op-amps
are similar but not completely identical. Without feedback from the output, these small
differences become very large, making the output of an open loop op-amp
unpredictable. The addition of the feedback resistor allows the gain of the op-amp to be
controlled and calculated.

Voltage gain can be easily calculated using the correct formula for a given configuration.
For instance, for inverting amplifiers you can use the following formula:

−R f
ACL=
R¿
Equation 1-1

where ACL represents the closed loop gain. That means if R in is 1k and Rf is 10k, the
voltage gain of the circuit will be -10. If the input voltage is 0.1 V, then the output voltage
will be -1 V. The gain of the amplifier can now be predictably controlled by manipulating
these resistor values.

Why Are Op-Amp Amplifiers Important?

Op-amps are the most widely used analog integrated circuit. Some applications, such
as comparators, do not require closed loop feedback as part of their function. But for
most use cases, the gain of the op-amp must be controlled. In these instances, some
form of output feedback is required. An important advantage of negative feedback in an
op-amp circuit is that the specific voltage gain of the op-amp is no longer critical in
determining the gain of the circuit. An op-amp only amplifies the difference between the
inverting and non-inverting inputs. Negative feedback can reduce the difference
between them to negligible values.

221
The precise op-amp gain does not have to be set by the factory in order to design an
amplifier with precise gain. The negative feedback will make the system self-correcting.

How Can We Use Op-Amp Amplifier Circuits?

Op-amp amplifiers are used in many different types of circuits and configurations, but
there are a few standard configurations:

 The differential amplifier amplifies the difference in voltage between its inputs.

 The inverting amplifier is a special type of differential amplifier in which the non-
inverting input of the op-amp is grounded, and the inverting input serves as V in.
 The voltage follower or unity buffer amplifier is used to connect a device with high
source impedance to a device with low input impedance.
 The instrumentation amplifier combines properties like low DC offset, very high
input impedance and high common-mode rejection, which is the rejection of
unwanted input signals common to both input leads. This combination makes this
amplifier ideal for accurate, low-noise measurements.

222
Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so far.
You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the end of the lab.

1-1 Choose the correct formula for voltage gain in an inverting amplifier from the
selections below.

E. Acl = Rf/Rin, where Acl represents the closed loop gain.

F. Acl = -Rf/Rin, where Acl represents the open loop gain.
G. Acl = -Rf/Rin, where Acl represents the closed loop gain.
H. Acl = -Rin/Rf, where Acl represents the closed loop gain.

223
1.2 Simulate an Op-Amp Follower

Closed-Loop Behavior of an Op-Amp

Instructions:

You will now explore a simple op-amp configuration called a follower. In this
configuration, the feedback loop forces the output to be the same signal as the input.
The benefit is that the output signal is powered by the supply to the op-amp, not the
source of the input signal. A low power signal generator can be routed through an op-
amp to generate a high power output signal that has the same profile as the input
signal.

1. Click the link below to examine the Multisim Live circuit:

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/H7x5tpySF99MA7n3ooCbVZ/op-amp-
amplifier-circuit/open

Note: This circuit uses an AC source producing a 60 Hz, 5 Vpp signal, DC power

supplies providing +/-15 V, and a feedback loop.

3. Click Run to graph the input and output signals.

 The two signals are practically identical. Hover your cursor over different points
on the output curve and observe how the cursor shifts between the blue input
plot and green output plot.
 The difference between these two signals is that the input signal is powered by
the AC source and the output signal is powered by the DC power supply.

Generally, a function generator (represented here by an AC source) will not source a

large amount of current. In this circuit, the output signal can provide much more current
because its power is sourced from the DC power supply.

224
1-2 What are the benefits of having identical input and output voltage signals?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-3 What are some applications of this configuration?

_____________________________________________________________________

225
1.3 Simulate a Non-Inverting Amplifier

In this part of the lab, you will explore a non-inverting feedback loop configuration where
two resistors form a voltage divider, working to amplify the output voltage.

1. Click the link below to examine the Multisim Live circuit:

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/V3TDRVwpAkQaTqfbAvDip7/non-inverting-
amplifier/open
3. Examine the Multisim Live Non-Inverting Amplifier circuit.

Note: This circuit uses a DC input voltage of 0.5 V and DC supply voltages of +/-15 V.

4. Click Run to start the simulation and observe the new output voltage.

1-4 Complete the table by measuring the output voltage for a range of input voltages
from the Variable Power Supply.

Table 1-1

Input Voltage (From V3) Measured (Output) Voltage Ratio Rf/Rin

0.5 V 4

1V 4

1.5 V 4

2V 4

Note: The measured voltage is amplified by a factor of 1+( )

Rf
R¿
where Rf is the

resistance of the feedback resistor and Rin is the resistance of the input resistor. This is
the amplification factor for this configuration of a closed loop op-amp. The amplification
is called non-inverting, because the input voltage is input on the positive input of the op-
amp.

226
5. Try changing the input voltage to values such as 2.5 V, 4 V, and 5 V (higher than
2.4 V).

 Notice that the output voltage is capped at a value close to that of the positive
supply voltage.

Change Resistance to Configure a New Amplification

1. Modify the resistances of the two resistors to set a new ratio.

 Set whichever ratio that you like. A small ratio will provide very little amplification
and a large ratio will be capped by the supply voltage.

1-5 Complete the table by measuring the output voltage for a range of input voltages.
Record the resistor ratio that you used.

Table1-2

Input Voltage (From V3) Measured (Output) Voltage Ratio Rf/Rin

0.5 V

1.5 V

Note: As with the original resistor values, input voltage is amplified by 1+ ( Rf

R¿)to
produce the output voltage measured.

227
1.4 Exercise: Inverting Amplifier

In this activity, you will investigate an op-amp configuration where the amplification gain
is inverting (negative). You will build the circuit on the Protoboard and examine the
behavior of the gain with changing resistances. To achieve this you will use a variable
resistor to modify the ratio of feedback and input resistances.

Instructions:

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to set up the following circuit:

Figure 1-2 Circuit Set-up

228
2. Measure the inverting voltage in the circuit using the DMM.
Warning: Do not force the DMM probes into the breadboard holes. Instead, create a
measurement point by plugging in one end of a wire or a header pin into the breadboard
hole.

1-6 What is the measured voltage output from the op-amp?

Voltage Measured =

_____________________________________________________________________

1-7 With an input voltage of + 5 V, calculate the gain of amplifier.

Gain = Voltage Measured / Input Voltage

_____________________________________________________________________

1-8 Is this identical to the theoretical gain?

−Rf
(Gain¿ )
R¿

A. Yes
B. No

1-9 What are some reasons why the actual and theoretical gains may not be equal?

_____________________________________________________________________

229
_____________________________________________________________________

230
1.5 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

1-10 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-11 In your own words, discuss the characteristics, operations, and applications of op-
amp amplifiers.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-12 Explain in your own words how you measured the gain of a closed-loop op-amp.

_____________________________________________________________________

231
1-13 Imagine you are designing an inverting amplifier with a gain of -15. If R in is 33 Ω,
what should Rf be?

Rf =

_____________________________________________________________________

1-14 Imagine you are designing a non-inverting amplifier with a gain of 45 and R f = 2.2
kΩ. What should Rin be?

Rin =

_____________________________________________________________________

232
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 C
1-8 B

233
Lab 11: Instrumentation Amplifiers
In this lab, you will be looking at a configuration of op-amp amplifiers called an
instrumentation amplifier. You will learn what an in-amp is and how its gain can be
calculated and designed. Plus, you will explore why in-amps are ideally suited to
measuring low-level, high-noise signals, and how we can apply them in measurement
and instrumentation.

Your first activity will be to calculate and measure the gain of a simulated in-amp circuit.
Then, you will design your own in-amp by calculating a resistor configuration for a
specified gain. After testing your design in Multisim Live, you'll implement it using both
op-amp and in-amp ICs.

Figure 1 Instrument Amplifier Circuit Diagram

234
Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities:

1. Discuss the characteristics, operation and application of instrumentation

amplifiers
2. Design an instrumentation amplifier given a specific gain requirement
3. Implement a designed instrumentation amplifier and confirm that it works with the
specified gain amount, using both individual components and an IC.

235
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III
 View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab:
http://www.ni.com/en-us/suppo
● Instrument 1: Function Generator rt/model.ni-elvis-iii.html
● Instrument 2: Oscilloscope  View Tutorials:
● Instrument 3: Bode Analyzer
https://www.youtube.com/playl
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and
Accessories Kit (purchased separately) is ist?
required for using the instruments. list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSx
v0gwtshBA2dh_M
 Install Soft Front Panel
support:
http://www.ni.com/documentati
on/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-
started/installing-the-soft-front-
panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/5474
9/en

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

 (5) 1 kΩ resistor
 (2) 10 kΩ resistor
 Assorted resistors to design
an amplifier
 (3) operational amplifiers,
TL074 (quad IC) or similar
 (1) Instrumentation Amplifier
IC, INA217

Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online

● You will run a pre-built circuit http://multisim.com
embedded in this web page with  View Help
Multisim Live in order to observe an http://multisim.com/help/
in-amp's operation, then modify the
circuit to design your own in-amp
with a specified gain.

236
237
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Calculations of gain
 Data from simulation and circuit-building
 Observations about the behavior of Instrumentation Amplifiers

Your instructor may expect you complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

238
Section 1: Instrumentation Amplifiers
1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot. View the video here: youtu.be/E746YZrM97U

Video Summary

● A typical in-amp is comprised of 3 op-amps. Two are input buffers, one is

configured as a standard differential amp.
● An in-amp’s built-in input buffers eliminate the need for impedance matching.
● In-amps have very low DC offset, low drift and low noise.

239
What Are Instrumentation Amplifier Circuits?

An instrumentation amplifier is a specific type of operational amplifier, comprised of 3

op-amps. Two of the op-amps act as input buffers for the third op-amp, which is
configured as a standard differential amplifier. The gain equation for the most commonly
used instrumentation amplifier is as follows:

( )
V out 2R1 R3
Gain=G= = 1+
V 2−V 1 Rgain R 2

Equation 1-1

Typically, only Rgain (also written RG) is modified to manipulate the gain of the circuit.

Gain is sometimes expressed in decibels. To convert gain into decibels, take its

common logarithm and multiply it by 20:

V out
G=20 log
V¿

Equation 1-2

Note: Instrumentation amplifiers are often called in-amps.

What Do Instrumentation Amplifier Circuits Do?

The two input buffers of the instrumentation amplifier eliminate the need for external
impedance matching. This allows for an in-amp to be used to amplify both high and low
impedance sources, increasing its flexibility. Additionally, instrumentation amplifiers
have the advantages of very low DC offset, low drift and low noise. Another quality of
instrumentation amplifiers is their very high common mode noise rejection. Common
mode noise rejection reduces noise pickup and ground drops that often plague remote
sensor applications.

240
The combinations of these characteristics make the in-amp ideal for use in
measurement and test equipment. Most op-amps use external resistors to determine
closed-loop gain. In-amps use an internal feedback resistor network that is isolated from
its signal input terminals. Gain is either present internally or is user-set by an internal or
external gain resistor, which is also isolated from the signal inputs.
The output of the in-amp is single-ended and is intended to drive ground-referenced
loads that are typically found in test and measurement equipment.

Why Are In-Amp Circuits Important?

In addition to its impedance matching abilities, the in-amp also has special gain
properties. Op-amps theoretically have infinite gain, so defined gain can only be
achieved by adding additional components to the op-amp circuit. This typically means
that at least one of the inputs to the op-amp will lose its extremely high input impedance
due to the external resistors added to the circuit.

With the inclusion of its input buffers, an in-amp is able to have the defined gain of a
standard feedback op-amp, while still retaining extremely high input impedance on both
of its inputs. This allows the in-amp to be used as a differential amplifier and employ
common mode noise rejection to reduce the noise present on both inputs of the
amplifier before the signals are amplified.

How Can We Use In-Amp Circuits?

In-amps are intended for use where acquisition of a useful signal is difficult. These types
of amplifiers have very high input impedances because source impedances may be
high and possibly unbalanced. Instrumentation amplifiers use low and relatively stable
bias and offset currents. This compensates for source impedances that are not
constant.

The primary use of in-amps is to amplify signals from low level output transducers in
noisy environments. Amplifying pressure and temperature transducer signals are
common in-amp applications. They are also widely used in medical equipment such as
EKG and EEG monitors.

Another advantage to the in-amp's high input impedance is that almost no current is
drawn through the amplifier inputs. This prevents the amplifier from affecting the signal

241
voltage, regardless of what the source impedance is. This is important when working
with low level signals.

In-amps can be composed of separate, discrete op-amps. In-amps are more typically
packaged together as an integrated circuit such as the INA217, which is used in this lab.

Not all amplifiers used in instrumentation are in-amps, and in-amps are not used
exclusively in instrumentation. In-amps are used for a variety of purposes including
motor control, data acquisition and automotive applications.

Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so far.
You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the end of the lab.

1-1 Choose from the options below the correct gain equation for the most commonly
used instrumentation amplifier.

I. Vout / (V2 - V1) = (1 + 2R1 / Rgain) * R3/R2

J. Vout / V1 - V = (1 + 2R1 / Rgain) * R3/R2
K. Vout / (V2 - V1) = (1 - R1 / Rgain) * R3/R2
L. Vout / (V2 - V1) = (1 + 2R1 / Rgain) * R2/R3

1-2 Choose the statement that best describes in-amps from the options below.

A. In-amps have very high DC offset, low drift and low noise.
B. In-amps have very low DC offset, high drift and low noise.
C. In-amps have very low DC offset, low drift and low noise.
D. In-amps have very low DC offset, low drift and high noise.

242
1.2 Simulate an Instrumentation Amplifier

In this exercise, you will learn about an instrumentation amplifier and its properties.

To start, you will calculate and then measure the gain of a pre-built in-amp circuit
using Multisim Live.

Instructions:

1. Click the link below to examine the Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/nWZbeBw5LkMCQtTRLZa99T/
instrumentation-amplifier/open
3. Examine the Multisim Live in-amp circuit.

Note: The AC source produces a 100 Hz, 0.1 Vpp signal, while the DC supply voltages
provide +/-15 V.

1-3 Calculate the theoretical gain of the instrumentation amplifier. Remember that gain
is:

Gain=G= 1+( )
2 R1 R 3
RG R 2

_____________________________________________________________________

4. Click Run to graph the input and output signals.

5. Measure the output voltage using the reading from PR2.
6. Click Stop when you’ve recorded the measurement.

243
1-4 Based on your measurements, calculate the actual gain in the circuit. Recall that
V out
gain is: G= where Vout is the measured voltage, Vin+ is the voltage provided by
V ¿+¿−V ¿ ¿
¿−¿

the AC source, and Vin- is 0 V (since it’s connected to ground in this circuit).

_____________________________________________________________________

1-5 Does the gain that you’ve measured match the gain that you previously calculated?
If not, double-check your calculations.

A. Yes
B. No

244
Design an Instrumentation Amplifier

You will now calculate a resistance configuration to design an instrumentation amplifier

with a specific gain. This designed amplifier will be used later in the lab. Your in-amp will
be a modification of the one you just worked with in Multisim Live.

Instructions:

1. Click the link below to examine the Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/nWZbeBw5LkMCQtTRLZa99T/
instrumentation-amplifier/open

Note: Assume you are designing this instrumentation amplifier to be used in a medical
ECG device. These types of devices measure very low amplitude signals which need to
be amplified.

3. Design an in-amp that has a gain of 300 (G=300) in order to provide enough

amplification for a low amplitude input.

 When modifying the resistors in an instrumentation amplifier, it is typical to only

modify the resistance of the RG resistor.

1-6 Given the R1, R2, and R3 values from the Multisim Live in-amp, calculate the RG
value that will provide a theoretical gain of 300.

Recall that:

(
G= 1+
)
2R1 R3
RG R 2

300= 1+
( 2R1 R3
RG R 2)
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

4. On the schematic diagram, modify the RG resistor to the value you calculated.

5. Click Run to graph the in-amp's input and output signals.

245
Note: The output signal should have increased by a factor of 10, giving a gain of 300.

246
AC Sweep: Measure Frequency Response

1. Click the link below to examine the Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/RDATrnmReDvs8xoENmcMrb/ac-
instrumentation-amplifier/open

Instructions:

Multisim Live includes a tool to sweep through different signal frequencies and measure
gain called AC Sweep Analysis. You will now use the AC Sweep tool to observe how
gain in the in-amp you designed changes relative to input signal frequency.

 This AC Sweep has been configured to change the signal frequency provided
by the AC voltage source, V3.
 Values start at 1 Hz and end at 10 GHz.
 A Bode plot is produced showing the circuit's frequency response, i.e.
gain (dB) and phase shift (º) vs. the sweeping source frequency.

3. Modify RG to the value calculated in the last step.

 RG must be reset as this is a new circuit with RG = 1 kΩ by default.

4. Click Run to start the simulation.

5. When both graphs have appeared, click Stop.
6. Take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a sketch of these graphs so that you
may include them in your lab report. You will compare them to similar graphs
later in this lab.

Note: An instrumentation amplifier behaves differently at different frequencies.

247
1.3 Implement: Designing an Instrumentation Amplifier

In this section, you will build the instrumentation amplifier you designed previously.
Then, you will confirm that it works the same way in practice as it did in simulation.

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to build the circuit that you designed previously.
 Use the TL074, which has 4 isolated op-amps built in.
 Use a resistor for RG with resistance as close as possible to the value
calculated previously. You may find it helpful to combine a couple of resistors
in series or parallel.
 Connect the Function Generator to provide the input signal.
2. From the Instruments tab of Measurements Live, open the following instruments:
 Function Generator (FGen-Arb)
 Oscilloscope (SCOPE)
 Bode Analyzer (Bode)

Note: For more information about accessing Measurements Live and launching
instruments, visit http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
launching-soft-front-panels/.

3. In the Function Generator window, apply the following settings:

Table 1-1 Function Generator settings

Frequency 100 Hz

Amplitude 0.05 Vpp

4. Click Run.
5. In the Oscilloscope window, set the following settings:

Table 1-2 Oscilloscope Settings

Channels

Channel 1 and Channel 2 Active

248
6. Adjust the Time/Div and Volts per division in order to see both signals at once.
7. Connect the Oscilloscope so it measures the input and output signals.
8. Click Run to begin taking measurements.
9. Measure the amplitude of the input and output signals.
10. Stop the Oscilloscope and Function Generator when you’ve taken the
measurement.

1-7 Calculate the gain.

V out
G= =
V¿

_____________________________________________________________________

1-8 Does the gain of this circuit match the gain of 300 that you designed?

A: Yes
B: No

Note: Small fluctuations in the gain can be attributed to the variations in resistances of
the resistors used. In simulation, a 1 kΩ resistor is always 1 kΩ. In practice, this is not
always the case as there can be instrumental and experimental error.

11. In the Bode Analyzer window, set the following settings:

Table 1-3 Bode Analyzer Settings

Stimulus Channel

Peak Amplitude 0.05 V

12. Click Run.

13. Take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a sketch of the graphs generated.

249
1-9 How do these graphs compare to the graphs generated in simulation and why might
they be different?

_____________________________________________________________________

250
1.4 Exercise: Integrated Circuit - Instrumentation Amplifier

In-amps are a commonly used amplifier configuration. Because of this, circuitry

manufacturers have created integrated circuits (ICs) that implement the components of
an instrumentation amplifier. The INA217 is a common example of these ICs.

In this section, you will use an INA217 to build the same instrumentation amplifier that
you designed and built in the previous activities.

 With an INA217, the gain is specified by wiring a resistor from pin 1 to pin 8. The
formula that defines the gain is:

G=1+ ( 10RkΩ )
G

Equation 1-3

where RG is the resistor used.

 Solving for RG,

10 kΩ
RG =
G−1

Equation 1-4

1-10 Calculate the resistor required to achieve the same instrumentation amplifier gain
used in the previous part, a gain of 300.

10 kΩ
RG =
G−1
=?

_____________________________________________________________________

251
Set Up the Given Circuit

Instructions:

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to set up the following circuit, using your calculated value for
the resistor RG:

Figure 1-2 Circuit Set-up

252
2. Open the following instruments from Measurements Live:

 Function Generator (Fgen-Arb)

 Oscilloscope
 Bode Analyzer (Bode)

3. In the Function Generator window, set the following settings:

Table 1-4 Function Generator Settings

Frequency 100 Hz

Amplitude 0.05 Vpp

4. Click Run.
5. In the Oscilloscope window, set the following settings:

Table 1-5 Oscilloscope Settings

Channels

Channel 1 and Channel 2 Active

6. Adjust the Time/Div and Volts per division in order to see both signals at once.
7. Click Run to begin taking measurements.
8. Measure the amplitude of the input and output signals.
9. Click Stop on the Oscilloscope and Function Generator when you’ve taken the
measurement.

1-11 Calculate the gain.

V out
G= =
V¿

_____________________________________________________________________

253
_____________________________________________________________________
1-12 Does the gain of this circuit match the gain of 300 that you designed?

A. Yes
B. No

10. In the Bode Analyzer window, set the following settings:

Table 1-6 Bode Analyzer Settings

Stimulus Channel

Peak Amplitude 0.05 V

11. Click Run.

12. Take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a sketch of the graphs generated.

1-13 How do these graphs compare to the graphs generated in simulation and why
might they be different?

_____________________________________________________________________

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Section 2: Source Signal Current Draw of In-Amps

2.1 When Are Instrumentation Amplifiers Used?

One of the performance benefits of Instrumentation Amplifiers is their ability to amplify a

signal without drawing current from the signal's source. The two buffer op-amps provide
isolation between the differential amplifier and the signal source.

When the signal source isn't capable of providing much current, the instrumentation
amplifier can amplify the signal without affecting the signal voltage due to pulling too
much current. This type of application is common among sensors and instrumentation
designed for low-voltage, high-sensitivity measurements, such as EEG and EKG
machines.

In this section, you will compare the behavior of an instrumentation amplifier and a
differential amplifier in simulation, and then measure the current from the signal source
in your instrumentation amplifier circuit.

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2.2 Simulate: In-Amp Vs. Differential Amp Current Draw

Instructions:

1. Click the link below to examine the Multisim Live circuit.

2. https://www.multisim.com/content/PbKumV7KjBPcPjyskTVRFM/current-
differential-amplifier/open
3. Examine the Multisim Live differential amplifier circuit.

Note: A small AC signal is provided as a source and amplified in the circuit. The output
of the amplifier is fed into a load resistor.

2. Click Run to graph the input and output signals.

3. Measure the output voltage and load current using the reading from PR2. Record
your results in the table below.
4. Next, measure the input current using the reading from PR1. Record your results
in the table below.
5. Click Stop when you’ve recorded the measurement.

2-1 Record the Load Voltage, Load Current, and Input Current.

Load Voltage (V) Load Current (mA) Input Current (mA)

2-2 What is the gain of the differential amplifier?

_____________________________________________________________________

6. Open a new Multisim circuit:

https://www.multisim.com/content/bnaEr2UqPwNExDcQo5cUwZ/current-
instrumentation-amplifier/open
7. Click Run to graph the input and output signals.
8. Measure the output voltage and load current using the reading from PR2. Record
your results in the table below.

256
9. Next, measure the input current using the reading from PR1. Record your results
in the table below.
10. Click Stop when you’ve recorded the measurement.

2-3 Record the Load Voltage, Load Current, and Input Current.

Load Voltage (V) Load Current (mA) Input Current (mA)

2-4 What is the gain of the implementation amplifier?

_____________________________________________________________________

2-5 Are the load voltages and currents the same for both amplifiers?

A. Yes
B. No

2-6 What do you notice about the current input to the differential amplifier versus the
current input to the instrumentation amplifier?

_____________________________________________________________________

257
2.3 Implement: In-Amp Source Current

Set Up the Given Circuit

Instructions:

1. Use the NI ELVIS III to modify the circuit that you created previously. As before,
Rg represents your gain resistor. You'll also be adding a load resistor.

Warning: Do not force the DMM probes into the breadboard holes. Instead, create a
measurement point by plugging in one end of a wire or a header pin into the breadboard
hole.

Figure 2-1 Source Current Measurement

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2. Open the following instruments from Measurements Live:

 Function Generator (Fgen-Arb)

 Digital Multimeter (DMM)
 Oscilloscope

3. In the Function Generator window, set the following settings:

Table 2-2 Function Generator Settings

Frequency 100 Hz

Amplitude 0.05 Vpp

4. Click Run.
5. In the Oscilloscope window, set the following settings:

Table 2-3 Oscilloscope Settings

Channels

Channel 1 and Channel 2 Active

6. Adjust the Time/Div and Volts per division in order to see both signals at once.
7. Click Run to begin taking measurements.

8. Confirm that the input signal is being amplified.

9. Using the DMM, measure the AC current into the instrumentation amplifier. You
can create a measurement point by plugging in one end of a wire or a header pin
into the breadboard hole.
10. Click Stop on the Oscilloscope, DMM and Function Generator when you’ve
taken the measurement.

2-7 How much current is measured from the input signal into the instrumentation
amplifier?

_____________________________________________________________________

259
2-8 How much voltage is provided to the load resistor, and implanting Ohm’s law, how
much current would be running through the load?

_____________________________________________________________________

260
2.4 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

2-9 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

2-10 In your own words, discuss the characteristics, operations and application of
instrumentation amplifiers.

_____________________________________________________________________

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2-11 In your own words, describe how you used both individual components and an IC
to design instrumentation amplifiers for a specific gain requirement.

_____________________________________________________________________

2-12 Describe how you implemented the in-amps you designed and confirmed that they
were working with the specified gain.

_____________________________________________________________________

262
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 A
1-2 C

263
Lab 12: Project Lab – Power Supply
In this project lab, you will be building your own DC power supply. Your power supply
will convert AC to DC power in order provide a regular supply voltage. It will feature
three important stages: full-wave rectifier, filter, and Zener regulator. You will be
using circuit components and applying major concepts that you have learned throughout
the Analog Electronics course.

Figure 1 Power Supply

Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities:

1. Describe the final three stages of a basic DC power supply.

2. Implement major concepts learned throughout the course into a real-world
example.
3. Design and implement the final 3 stages of a DC power supply.

264
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/support/
model.ni-elvis-iii.html
● Instrument 1: Function Generator
 View Tutorials:
● Instrument 2: Oscilloscope
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and https://www.youtube.com/playlist?
Accessories Kit (purchased separately) is list=PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSxv0g
required for using the instruments. wtshBA2dh_M
 Install Soft Front Panel support:
http://www.ni.com/documentation/
en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-
started/installing-the-soft-front-
panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/54749/e
n

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

● 10 k Potentiometer on Protoboard
● (1) 1 kΩ resistor
● (1) Zener diode
● (4) diodes

265
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Analysis Questions
 Observations of performance at various stages
 Screenshot of rectifier
 Conclusion questions

Your instructor may expect you to complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

266
1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot. View the video here: https://youtu.be/lgr3u1WSpoQ

Video Summary

 The main role of a DC power supply is to convert AC voltage to DC voltage.

 Rectification is the process of changing an AC signal to a signal that only uses
positive values.
 A filter establishes a relatively constant DC signal to pass through to a load.
 A voltage regulator’s main role is to set a stable DC voltage output level.

The main role of a DC power supply is to convert AC voltage to DC voltage. Generally,

a DC supply will convert from 120 V or 230 V AC, using the electricity coming into the
building through a wall plug. The wall voltage is often transformed into a smaller voltage
to be more accessible for use. For safety reasons, this project will skip the utilization of
a transformer and the experiment will begin with a 9V AC signal.

The output voltage needs to be stable with a static or changing load. The load that we
use in this lab starts as a simple resistor and will switch over to a potentiometer.

267
As mentioned in the Overview section, this project lab consists of three different steps:
rectifier, filter, and voltage regulator. Read below to get a brief description of each step.

Rectifier

 Rectification is the process of changing an AC signal to a signal that only uses

positive values. Circuits that perform this operation are called rectifier circuits.
 The result of rectifying an AC signal with a full-wave rectifier is similar to the
absolute value of a sine wave.

Filter

 The output of a rectifier is not constant; it ranges from zero to a peak value. The
power supply therefore requires a filter to eliminate this variation and establish a
relatively constant DC signal to pass through to the load.
 A capacitor wired in parallel with the load, known as a smoothing capacitor, can
be used to even out the signal. However, it will usually leave a very small AC
component, called the ripple voltage. We'll design the filter to reduce the ripple
voltage past a certain level, and what remains will be eliminated by the regulator.

Regulator

 A voltage regulator's main role is to set a stable DC voltage output level. A Zener
diode can be used to make a voltage regulator circuit because of its reverse
breakdown characteristic. (Recall that when a Zener diode breaks down, its
voltage remains constant independent of its reverse current.)
 As you will see, a resistor leading to the regulator limits the current through the
Zener diode to reduce the power dissipated by the Zener diode.

268
1.2 Implement: Rectifier

Stage 1

1. Use the circuit schematic below to build a full-wave rectifier with the instruments
provided in your kit:

Figure 1-2 Schematic for rectifier stage

2. Connect the oscilloscope to measure the input signal and the output across the
resistor.
3. Turn on the Function Generator and configure it to output a 9 V AC signal at 60
Hz. This voltage simulates an AC voltage which has been transformed to 9 V.
4. Take a screenshot, take a photograph, or draw sketch of the output voltage of
the rectifier across the load resistor. Include it in your completed lab report.

1-1 What do you notice about the shape?

_____________________________________________________________________

269
1-2 How would a capacitor smooth out this shape?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-3 Is a larger or smaller capacitor required to generate a smoother output? Explain.

_____________________________________________________________________

5. When you are finished measuring, turn off power to the protoboard.

270
1.3 Implement: Filter

Stage 2

1. Implement a filter. Place a 10 μF capacitor in parallel with the load as shown in

the schematic below:

Figure 1-3 Schematic for filter stage

2. Attach a screenshot, picture, or sketch of the output.

3. After observing the results, answer the following questions:

1-4 What happened to the rectified signal?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-5 What is the resulting ripple voltage value?

_____________________________________________________________________

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4. Modify the capacitance of the filter until the ripple voltage is below 600 mV peak-
to-peak. Note that this is still quite a high ripple voltage, but a much larger
capacitor would be required to reduce the ripple voltage into a range that would
be found in typical bench-top power supplies.

Note: You can use a single capacitor or multiple capacitors in combination to change

the filter.

5. When you have completed a circuit that meets this requirement, create a
screenshot, picture, or sketch of the output and answer the following questions:

1-6 What capacitance did you use?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-7 What is the resulting ripple voltage value?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-8 What is the DC voltage output?

_____________________________________________________________________

6. When you are finished measuring, turn off the power to the protoboard.

272
1.4 Implement: Regulator

Stage 3

You have now generated a voltage with mostly a DC component and only a small AC
component (the ripple voltage). The next step is to stabilize the DC voltage at a certain
value. For that, you will build a regulator using a 6.2 V Zener diode. Using the schematic
below, build the last circuit of the project lab:

Figure 1-4 Schematic for regulator stage

1-9 Choose a regulator resistor, Rreg, such that when there is no load, the power
through the Zener diode is below 100 mW (knowing that the Zener diode is regulating
for 6.2 V).
In that case, what resistance is needed?

_____________________________________________________________________

1. Add a regulating resistor and Zener diode to your power supply circuit.
2. Measure the regulated signal and create a screenshot, picture, or sketch of the
load voltage.

273
1-10 What is the voltage across the load?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-11 Does this value match the rated Zener voltage?

A: Yes
B: No

3. When you're finished measuring, turn off power to the protoboard.

274
1.5 Test: Varying Load

Change the load of the circuit to the 10k potentiometer, so that changing the load is
easier over time.

Note that the regulator resistor and the load resistor form a sort of voltage divider. If the
resistance of the potentiometer goes too low, the load voltage will drop because of a
change in the balance of the voltage divider. For this reason, don't spin the
potentiometer to the most counter-clockwise 10% of its range.

1-12 After the first change in the load, what is the measured voltage across the load?
Does this match the Zener voltage?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-13 Modify the load while continuing to observe the load voltage. Do you notice
anything more than a slight change in load voltage while the load is being varied?

A. Yes
B. No

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1.6 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

1-14 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-15 In your own words, explain the concepts you learned in the Theory and
Background section.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-16 In your own words, describe the three stages (rectifier, filter and regulator) you
followed to build the DC Power Supply.

_____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

276
Lab 13: Project Lab – Voltage Level Indicator
In this lab, you will design and build a voltage level indicator. This very practical circuit
uses a voltage divider and op-amp comparator network to light up a number of LEDs
depending how much voltage is provided by a source under test. You will design this
circuit in Multisim Live, then implement it on the NI ELVIS III, where you will use it to
indicate the voltage level of the variable power supply.

Figure 1

Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities:

1. Describe how a voltage divider works

2. Describe how an op-amp comparator works
3. Implement major concepts learned throughout the course into a real-world
example
4. Design and implement a multi-level voltage indicator
5.

277
Required Tools and Technology
Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/support/mo
del.ni-elvis-iii.html
 Instrument 1: Variable Power
 View Tutorials:
Supply
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list
 Instrument 2: Digital =PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSxv0gwtsh
Multimeter BA2dh_M
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables and  Install Soft Front Panel support:
Accessories Kit (purchased http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/
separately) is required for using the ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/
instruments. installing-the-soft-front-panel/

Hardware: NI ELVIS III Default  View Breadboard Tutorial:

Prototyping Board http://www.ni.com/tutorial/54749/en

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit Components used in this lab:

 (5) resistors (equal value)
 (4) other resistors (equal value)
 (4) LEDs
 (4) operational amplifiers, TL074
(quad) or similar

Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online at: http://multisim.com

 View Multisim
 You will plan and design your
Help: https://www.multisim.com/help/
circuit in Multisim Live.

278
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will collect the following deliverables:

 Analysis questions
 Screenshot and images of final implementation
 Conclusion questions

Your instructor may expect you to complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for
specific requirements or templates.

279
1.1 Theory and Background

Figure 1-1 Video Screenshot. View the video here: https://youtu.be/iN8JMPnZM4M

Video Summary

 Voltage level indicators depict visually how much voltage is coming from a
source.
 Voltage dividers use series resistors to create output voltages smaller than the
voltage going into the circuit.
 A comparator is a circuit that compares two input voltages and outputs a digital
signal depending on which input is larger.

Voltage level indicators depict visually how much voltage is coming from a source.
Voltage level indicators have many applications. For example, since batteries lose
voltage over time, an indicator circuit is helpful for showing if a battery’s voltage has
decreased too much from its intended value. Voltage levels are very important in
regards to car batteries. If the voltage level is too low, this can create major problems
for the car owner.

280
Other applications of voltage indicators include safety circuitry and audio level displays.
You can find many different configurations of voltage indicators using many different
components such as Zener diodes and dedicated ICs. Today you will develop a voltage
level indicator circuit that uses a network of voltage dividers, op-amp comparators, and
LEDs. Background on voltage dividers and op-amp comparators is provided below.

Voltage Divider

Voltage dividers use series resistors to create output voltages smaller than the voltage
going into the circuit. Voltage is dropped across each resistor, leaving lessened
voltages that are output from the circuit in a parallel connection.

Figure 1-2 Voltage Divider

The output at any point in a divider is equal to the voltage drop across the resistors to
which the output is parallel (the resistors remaining between output and ground). Ohm’s
law allows you to find this value:

Equation 1-1

Op-Amp Comparators

A comparator is a circuit that compares two input voltages and outputs a digital signal
depending on which input is larger. Often, one input is a known reference voltage and

281
the other is unknown. Comparators are key for analog-to-digital conversion, sensors,
and other applications. Although high-performance circuits generally use dedicated
comparator ICs, for low-performance circuits, you can substitute an open-loop op-amp.

In the lab Op-Amps, you learned that op-amps have very high open-loop gain. Due to
this, open-loop op-amps are very easily saturated. Small differences in the two input
voltages drive the output to the supply voltage. Op-amp comparators make use of this
effect in comparing two input voltages, one of which is known (a reference voltage)
while the other is under test. If the non-inverting input is higher, the output rises to its
saturated state at the positive supply. If the non-inverting input is lower, the output will
be the negative supply. The output of the op-amp indicates the result of the comparison.

Figure 1-3 Op-amp configured as a comparator

Table 1-1 Function of op-amp comparator.

Comparison Result Output

Inverting input > non-inverting input Negative supply
Non-inverting input > inverting input Positive supply

Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so far.
You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the end of the lab.

1-1 What is TRUE about voltage dividers?

282
A. Voltage dividers are helpful for creating reference voltages
B. Voltage dividers compare two input voltages
C. Increasing the input voltage causes the output to exponentially increase
D. The output voltage is usually larger than the input

1-2 What is TRUE about op-amp comparators?

A. Op-amp comparators primarily function in the unsaturated zone of the op-amp

B. If the inverting input is higher, the output will be the positive supply voltage
C. Op-amp comparators perform better than ICs
D. One input in often a known/reference voltage

1-3 Given that an op-amp comparator has the following input and supply values, what is
its approximate output?

 non-inverting input = 5.56 V

 inverting input = 4.0 V
 positive supply = 12 V
 negative supply = ground

A. 5.56 V
B. 4.0 V
C. 12 V
D. 0V

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Circuit Theory

Your task is to create a circuit that uses LEDs to indicate the approximate voltage level
of a source under test, compared to the source's ideal or maximum value. For instance,
a car battery that is supposed to supply 12.6 V when new should be tested against a
known source set to 12.6 V. A number of LEDs in the circuit will light up depending on
what fraction of the known voltage the test source is providing. For example, if the test
voltage is almost as high as the known voltage, all of the LEDs will be lit; if it is only half
as much as the known voltage, half of the LEDs will be lit, and so on.

The diagram below shows a high-level view of the stages of the circuit and what they
each do:

Figure 1-4 Stages of voltage level indicator

The circuit is powered by the known voltage source, Vcc. The first stage of the circuit is
a voltage divider that splits Vcc into equal fractions to establish reference voltages.

Next is the comparator stage, which includes one op-amp comparator for each

reference voltage from the divider. Each comparator is wired to determine whether the
test voltage is larger than a particular reference voltage.

The output of each comparator is connected to an LED (see Figure 1-5). If the test
voltage is larger than a comparator's reference voltage, the comparator's output is such
that the LED turns on. If the test voltage is less than a comparator's reference voltage,
the LED will not turn on. Therefore, the number of LEDs that are lit will show
approximately what fraction of its ideal voltage a source is actually supplying.

284
Figure 1-5 Op-amp and LED stage for one reference voltage

285
1.2 Simulate: Designing an Indicator

Voltage Divider

1-4 You are going to build a voltage divider that evenly splits the input (creating equally
incremented output voltages, e.g. ¼, ½, ¾, and 4/4 of V in . What must be true of the
resistors used?

_____________________________________________________________________

1. Access the Multisim Live circuit here:

www.multisim.com/content/9CtUZVAbjScLtgrrATXj65/voltage-level-detector/
 Note the 15 V DC source, Vcc
2. In the circuit, build a voltage divider that splits Vcc to establish four reference
voltages: 3 V, 6 V, 9 V, and 12 V.
3. Attach voltage probes between the resistors to measure the output at each point
in the divider.
4. Run the simulation and observe the output voltages. Change the input to
different values and observe the new outputs.

1-5 What patterns do you notice in the output values? Are they what you expected?
Why or why not?

_____________________________________________________________________

5. Run your circuit with Vcc = 15 V and take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a
sketch. Attach the image to your completed lab.

286
Comparator

Now, you will implement the first of four op-amp comparators to compare an "unknown"
input voltage with one of your reference voltages.

1. Insert another DC Voltage source to your Multisim Live file. This will be your
voltage source under test.

 Connect its negative side to ground.

2. Insert a 5 terminal op-amp to your file.

 Be sure that you are adding an op-amp, not a dedicated comparator.

3. Configure the op-amp to compare the test voltage from the new source with the 3
V reference voltage output by the divider.

 If the reference voltage is higher, the op-amp comparator should output

approximately Vcc.
 If the test voltage is higher, the comparator should output approximately 0
V.

4. Attach the output of the op-amp to the provided connector (labeled Op-Amp-

Output) and add a voltage probe along the connecting wire.

 This will allow you to measure voltage output from the op-amp.

5. Run the simulation for various test voltages (both above and below 3 V).
Observe the comparator output voltage.
6. Take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a sketch of your circuit and attach it to
your completed lab.

1-6 Record your observations regarding the op amp comparator’s output voltage for
different inputs. Is your comparator working as intended? Why or why not?

_____________________________________________________________________

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LED Control Circuit

In this section you will attach an LED such that it is controlled by the output of the
comparator, as shown below. The LED will turn on when the test voltage is higher than
the reference voltage.

Figure 1-6

1. Connect an LED and resistor to your Multisim Live circuit as shown in the
schematic above.

When planning to build a circuit we must consider the real-world limitations of the
components. Although LEDs glow brighter the more current is put through them, too
much current will cause an LED to burn out. For this reason, LED datasheets
provide information such as the LED’s maximum forward current and often a
suggested current for ongoing use.

2. Determine a safe driving current for your LED using the component's datasheet.
 If the datasheet is unavailable, research common values for similar LEDs.

1-7 What amount of current will you aim to put through your LED to ensure it is not at
risk of being damaged?

_____________________________________________________________________

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1-8 Calculate the resistor value needed to limit the LED current to the safe value you
found.
Note: Assume that the resistance of the LED itself is negligible and that the output of
the op-amp can source or sink as much current as needed.
Rreg = ?

_____________________________________________________________________

3. Set the regulator resistor to this value.

4. Run the simulation with various test voltages (both above and below 3 V).
Observe the LED behavior.

1-9 For what input voltages does the LED turn on and turn off?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-10 Explain what is happening in the circuit that is causing the LED to turn on and off.

Note: You may find it helpful to measure current and voltage at different points in the
LED circuit for voltages above and below the reference.

_____________________________________________________________________

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Complete the Network

Now, you will create a series of comparator/LED circuits in order to provide multi-level
voltage indication.

1. Add a comparator and LED stage (similar to the ones you just created) for each
of the reference voltages output by the voltage divider.
2. Run the simulation with various test voltages and observe how the circuit
behaves.

1-11 Record your observations regarding the behavior of the LEDs for different input
voltages. Does the circuit behave as you expected?

_____________________________________________________________________

3. Change your design as needed to achieve the desired functionality.

4. Take a screenshot, take a picture, or draw a sketch of your final version of the
circuit and attach it to your completed lab.

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1.3 Implement: Circuit

You will now use the NI ELVIS III to implement the circuit you designed. Your voltage
source under test will be the variable power supply (VPS), which you will compare to its
maximum level, 15 V.

1. Construct your Multisim Live circuit using the NI ELVIS III. Refer to the following
table to help you transfer your Multisim Live design to the protoboard:

Table 1-2 Virtual and implementation equivalents.

Multisim Live Component Real Component

Vcc +15 V supply on protoboard
V1 (Test voltage) Variable power supply
Voltage probes Digital multimeter in voltage mode
TL074 IC (4 built-in isolated op-amps)

Notes:
(4) 5 terminal op-amps
 Refer to IC datasheet for pin connections
 If unavailable, may substitute other op-amps

LED regulator resistors (calculated

Resistors of closest available larger value
value)

2. Run the circuit with various test voltages across the 1-15 V range. Observe how
the LEDs behave.

291
1-12 Record your observations regarding the behavior of the LEDs for the following
input voltages:

Table 1-3
Input voltage 3 V LED Status 6 V LED Status 9 V LED Status 12 V LED
(V) Status
0
1.5
4.5
7.5
10.5
13.5
15

3. Run the circuit for input values very close to the reference voltages (e.g. 2.99,
3.01 V) and observe at what points the LEDs turn on.

1-13 Comment on the functionality of your circuit. Does it have major issues, or is it
failing to display the intended behaviors? Does it work, but perform less than ideally? If
so, what could be causing these issues?

_____________________________________________________________________

4. Make alterations to your circuit and continue to test it until you are satisfied with
its performance.

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1.4 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

1-14 Summarize any observations from the lab that haven’t been addressed elsewhere.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-15 In your own words, explain how the circuit you built using NI ELVIS III works.

_____________________________________________________________________

1-16 Explain the purpose of the resistor placed on the anode side of each LED.

_____________________________________________________________________

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1-17 What changes, if any, did you make to your circuit during the building and testing
phases? How did they affect its performance?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-18 Give one way you could configure this circuit so that the number of lit LEDs was
inversely proportional to the test voltage (i.e. more LEDs turned on for a low voltage and
fewer turned on for a high voltage)?

_____________________________________________________________________

1-19 Describe one real-life application of this type of circuit.

_____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

294
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-4 A
1-2 D
1-3 C
Lab 14: Project Lab – Building an ECG Circuit
Circuits play an important part in many fields, including medicine. In this lab, you will
explore and build an Electrocardiogram (ECG) circuit using Multisim. An ECG works by
measuring the electrical activity of a heartbeat. Measurements are taken by examining
the electrical activity from every beat of the heart. Typically, this occurs with an
oscillation frequency of 1.3 Hz, which is equivalent to 80 beats per minute.

In a real-world scenario, your readings would be subject to noise and bias. You will
need to account for these factors as you complete this lab. While the noise may be
minimal or non-existent in Multisim, you will still need to account for these factors as you
complete this lab. First, you will amplify the initially quite small input signal. Then, you
will condition the signal to create a heartbeat reading that is as accurate as possible.

Figure 1 Heartbeat

296
Learning Objectives

After completing this lab, you will be able to complete the following activities:

1. Design and implement an amplifier to achieve a desired output

2. Assess an input signal and determine filtering needs
3. Design and implement a filter to produce a clearer output signal
4. Characterize a filter using the bode analyzer
5. Build a test a circuit design.

Required Tools and Technology

Platform: NI ELVIS III  View User Manual:
Instruments used in this lab: http://www.ni.com/en-us/support/model
 Instrument 1: Function .ni-elvis-iii.html
Generator  View Tutorials:
 Instrument 2: Oscilloscope https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list
 Instrument 3: Bode =PLvcPIuVaUMIWm8ziaSxv0gwtsh
Analyzer BA2dh_M
Note: The NI ELVIS III Cables  Install Soft Front Panel support:
and Accessories Kit (purchased http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-
separately) is required for using elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/installing-
the instruments. the-soft-front-panel/

Hardware: TI Electronics Kit for Components used in this lab:

NI ELVIS III
 Resistors, Capacitors, and Op-Amps to
build amplifiers and filters.

Software: NI Multisim Live  Access online at: http://multisim.com

 You will plan and design  View Multisim
your circuit in Multisim Help: https://www.multisim.com/help/
Live.

297
Expected Deliverables

In this lab, you will design and implement a conditioned amplification system based on a
specific real-world scenario. You will be responsible for many decisions, and you will
need to test your finished system to confirm that it fulfills the requirements of the real-
world scenario.

You will collect the following deliverables:

 Check your Understanding questions

 Conclusion questions
 Screenshots of your designs
 Calculations of gain
 Calculations of a signal to noise ratio
 Screenshot of a bode plot

This lab follows the 6 Stages of the engineering design process:

1. Define the problem

2. Collect information on the problem
3. Brainstorm and analyze possible solutions
4. Build a solution to your problem
5. Test your design
6. Improve your design

You can refer to previous labs for help and information, and while progressing through
this lab, you will answer assessment questions that will guide you through the design
and implementation process.

Ultimately, you will implement a conditioned amplification system and provide

documentation detailing your design choices and final implementation. Your instructor
may expect you to complete a lab report. Refer to your instructor for specific
requirements or templates.

298
Section 1: Amplifiers

1.1 Real-World Scenario

Each time your heart beats, a detectable voltage is produced. An electrocardiograph

(ECG) is a non-invasive diagnostic tool used by medical professionals to measure this
voltage. An ECG utilizes electrodes that are placed on the skin to detect the voltage of
heartbeats. An ECG has various medical applications including:

 Checking the rhythm of a heart

 Analyzing heart muscles
 Diagnosing heart attacks

You are responsible for designing a circuit to amplify and filter a noisy input signal. In
the real-world, your circuit could be placed in ECG machines and in turn used by
medical professionals. Your circuit should be able to:

 Detect a heartbeat
 Amplify the detected signal
 Condition the signal so that the signal is as clear as possible

The final output signal will be used by doctors to diagnose critical heart issues and thus
clarity is important. Remember, heartbeat signals are roughly 0.4 mVpp with an
oscillation frequency of 1.3 Hz. This equates to approximately 80 beats per minute.

Your system must satisfy the following specifications:

 Be able to amplify a signal as small as 0.4 mVpp

 The output signal should be effectively conditioned to be the clearest signal
possible

Figure 1-1 Video. View the video here: https://youtu.be/lwfvtS4v8NM

Video Summary

 An Electrocardiogram (ECG) measures the electrical activity of a heartbeat

 Typically, the signal generated by attaching leads to the skin of a patient is very
small, thus making it hard to detect
 Amplifiers and filters are used to condition the signal to reduce the noise

300
Amplifiers

Amplifiers convert energy from a power source to increase the amplitude of an input
signal. This is important to the outlined real-world scenario because the input signal
from a heartbeat has a peak to peak voltage of roughly 0.4 mV. This signal is extremely
small and thus must be amplified in order for it to be visible. A common way to rate this
magnification is the ratio of the voltage measured at the output port to the voltage
measured at the input port. This ratio is typically referred to as gain.

In previous labs, you explored various types of amplifiers and their applications. Some
of the amplifiers you may recall include differential amplifiers, inverting amplifiers,
instrumentation amplifiers and non-inverting amplifiers.

As you think about your design, you will need to consider the various characteristics of
each amplifier and choose the amplifier you feel will benefit your design the most. There
may be more than one appropriate choice. The following section will briefly review key
equations and features of each amplifier type. Use this to aid you as you work on your
design.

Inverting Amplifiers

An inverting amplifier is a special type of differential amplifier in which the non-inverting

+¿¿ −¿ ¿
input of the op-amp ( V ¿ ) is grounded and the inverting input ( V ¿ ) has the input
signal. The output signal is out of phase with the input signal.

Figure 1-2 Inverting amplifier

Equation 1-1

−R f
V out = ∙V¿
R¿

301
Equation 1-1 describes the voltage output for an inverting amplifier. Where V in is the
input peak to peak voltage in volts (V), Vout is the output peak to peak voltage in volts (V)
and R refers to the resistance measured in ohms (Ω) of a particular resistor.

Equation 1-2

V out −R f
Gclosed loop = =
V¿ R¿

Equation 1-2 describes the gain for a closed loop inverting amplifier.

A non-inverting amplifier is a special type of differential amplifier in which the non-

+¿¿
inverting input ( V ¿ ) of the op-amp receives the input signal while the inverting input
−¿ ¿
( V ¿ ) is connected to ground. The output signal is in phase with the input signal.

Figure 1-3 Non-Inverting amplifier

Equation 1-3

R1 + R2
V out =V ¿ ∙
R1

Equation 1-3 describes the voltage output for a non-inverting amplifier.

Equation 1-4

V out R1 + R2
G closed loop = =
V¿ R1

Equation 1-4 describes the voltage gain for a closed loop inverting amplifier.

Figure 1-4 Differential amplifier

Equation 1-5

Rf Rg R1 + Rf
V out =−V 1 ∙ +V 2 ∙ ∙
R1 R 2 + Rg R1

Equation 1-5 describes the voltage output for a differential amplifier.

Note: There is also a simplified case of the voltage output equation when R 1 = R2 and Rf
= Rg:

Equation 1-6

304
Rf
V out = (V −V 1 )
R1 2

Equation 1-6 describes a simplified voltage output for a differential amplifier.

Equation 1-7

V out
G=
V 2−V 1

Equation 1-7 describes the voltage gain for a differential amplifier.

Figure 1-5 Instrumentation amplifier

Equation 1-8

V out =(V 2−V 1)∙ 1+

( 2 R1
)( )
∙
R3
R gain R2

Equation 1-8 describes the voltage output for an instrumentation amplifier.

Equation 1-9

G=
V out
V 2−V 1 (
= 1+
2 R1
∙
R gain R2)( )
R3

306
Equation 1-9 describes the voltage gain for an instrumentation amplifier.

Often with instrumentation amplifiers, they are constructed so that R 1 = R2 = R3 and only
Rgain is adjusted to change properties of the amplifier.

Instrumentation amplifiers have the benefit that they do not draw current from the
source being measured.

Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Integrated circuits are chips that implement a small circuit with one component. There
exist ICs for each of the amplifiers mentioned above. Multiple ICs exist for each type of
amplifier and their properties vary according to their datasheet. When implementing an
IC, always consult the datasheet for both setup information and relevant equations.

308
Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so
far. You can view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the
end of the lab.

1-1 What is the gain of a circuit where ΔVin = 2V and Vout = 10V?
A. 0.2
B. 5
C. 8
D. 20

1-2 What is the closed loop gain of an inverting amplifier where the input voltage is 70
mVpp, Rin = 20kΩ and Rf = 140kΩ?
A. -7
B. -0.143
C. -2
D. -0.742

1-3 When does signal clipping occur?

A. When the input signal voltage range is less than the power supply range
B. When the output signal voltage range is less than the power supply range
C. When the input signal voltage range is greater than the power supply range
D. When the output signal voltage range is greater than the power supply range
1-4

309
1.2 Implement: Designing an Amplifier

Given the real-world scenario defined, consider the important aspects of the signal that
will need to be captured. Thinking back to your amplification labs, consider which
amplifier characteristics will be most important to have when addressing the real-world
scenario. Consider the steps of the engineering design process when creating your
circuit. The basic steps of the design process are as follows:

1. Define the problem

2. Collect information on the problem
3. Brainstorm and analyze possible solutions
4. Build a solution to your problem
5. Test your design
6. Improve your design

You will begin the lab in Multisim, which will give you access to unlimited possibilities
regarding details such as resistor and capacitor values. Then, you will be expected to
reproduce this virtual circuit on a breadboard where you only have access to specific
components. You may want to keep the TI Electronics Kit for NI ELVIS III in mind when
constructing your circuit in Multisim, or you may choose to create an optimal virtual
solution.

It is important to remember though, that in a real-world scenario if you were fashioning

an ECG, you would have many component options when designing your solution.

Note: When working in Multisim, default signal generators will have no noise on the
output signal, however, this is unrealistic. To more closely recreate a real heartbeat, we
will utilize a preconfigured waveform. This will look like a 0.4 mVpp, 1 Hz signal with
white noise mixed in.

 To open the noisy input signal, follow this link:

https://www.multisim.com/content/Bs4p4mYjdEJyRP8Cr2GTC5/ecg-signal-gen/
open/
 Press Play on the simulation.
 Notice that the output waveform is extremely small and noisy. This is the
waveform you will be amplifying and conditioning.

310
Note: You may need to adjust the scale settings on your output graph. It is
recommended that you run the simulation for at least 2 seconds and then set the time
axis to range from 0s to 2s and the voltage axis to range from -2 mV to 2 mV.

 An important measurement when dealing with amplification and attenuation is the

signal to noise ratio. The signal value is the amplitude of the unaffected signal, in
this case the large peak which occurs at roughly 492 ms. The noise value is the
peak to peak voltage of any of the smaller noisy peaks.

1-4 What is the signal to noise ratio of the provided signal?

______________________________________________________________________

1-5 What is the peak to peak voltage of the provided signal?

______________________________________________________________________

1-6 Given the measurement scenario, which amplifier characteristics will be important
for your design?

______________________________________________________________________

1-7 Thinking of the various amplifiers you have explored, which amplifier(s) would
work toward the requirements of the measurement scenario?

______________________________________________________________________

1-8 Which amplifiers don’t meet the requirements of the scenario, and why?

______________________________________________________________________

311
______________________________________________________________________

Instructions:

 Think about what is required of your ECG, and then select an amplifier type that
you feel best meets these requirements.
 In Multisim, wire a circuit that contains your selected amplifier. Use the provided
noisy waveform as the input signal.

Note: When wiring the waveform to your amplifier, remove the resistor that is present in
the provided circuit.

1-9 After implementing your circuit in Multisim, what is the peak to peak voltage output
of your amplifier?

______________________________________________________________________

1-10 Did your amplifier work how you wanted it to? What happened?

Note: If you did not get the desired result, go back and redesign it or try another
amplifier.

______________________________________________________________________

1-11 What is the gain of your circuit? Recall from the provided equations that gain is
measured as Vout / ΔVin.

______________________________________________________________________

312
1-12 Describe your output waveform. Is it cut off? Centered? Noisy? Etc.

______________________________________________________________________

1-13 Explain how this amplified signal would be effective in the real-world example.
Would it be effective?

______________________________________________________________________

Note: Include a picture or screenshot of your final amplifier circuit and its output signal
with your finished lab.

313
Section 2: Filters

2.1 Theory and Background

Amplifying a signal is often necessary, especially when dealing with voltage differences
as small as a heartbeat. Unfortunately, as you saw in Section 1, when a signal is
amplified, so is the noise on the signal. As a result, you need a way to remove the noise
from the signal so that just the portion of interest is amplified. This is especially
important when dealing with ECGs as this final outputted signal is used for diagnostics,
it is essential that the medical professional be analyzing an accurate output.

Thus, following amplification, the signal must be filtered to remove the noise. It doesn’t
make sense to attenuate the signal prior to amplifying it, as the difference between the
noise and the actual signal is often too small. As a result, filtering must happen after
amplification.

An electronic filter is a circuit component that allows certain frequencies to transmit and
rejects others. They are used in multiple devices such as radios and telephones. This
lab analyzes four main types of filters: low pass, high pass, band pass and band stop.
These filters can be either passive or active. Passive filters are constructed using
capacitors, resistors or inductors. Active filters are comprised of both passive filter
components and an amplifying component. They require an external power source.

Figure 2-1 Different filter type outputs

314
Low Pass Filter

The low pass filter allows low-frequency signals to pass through it. Any signal above the
filter’s cut-off frequency is attenuated.

Figure 2-2 Passive low pass filter

Equation 2-1

Xc 1
V out =V ¿ ∙ X c= Z=√ R 2+ X c 2
Z 2 πfC

Equation 2-1 describes the voltage output for a passive low pass filter.

315
Equation 2-2

1
f C=
2 πRC

Equation 2-2 describes the cut-off frequency of a passive low pass filter.

Figure 2-2 Active low pass filter

Equation 2-3

1
f C=
2 π R1 C 1

Equation 2-3 describes the cut-off frequency of an active low pass filter.

316
Equation 2-4

R3
G=1+
R2

Equation 2-4 describes the gain of an active low pass filter.

Figure 2-3 Passive high pass filter

Equation 2-5

R 1
Z=√ R + X c
2 2
V out =V ¿ ∙ X c=
Z 2 πfC

Equation 2-5 describes the voltage output for a passive high pass filter.

318
Equation 2-6

1
f C=
2 πRC

Equation 2-6 describes the cut-off frequency of a passive high pass filter.

Figure 2-4 Active high pass filter

Equation 2-7

1
f C=
2 π R1 C 1

Equation 2-7 describes the cut-off frequency of an active high pass filter.

319
Equation 2-8

R3
G=1+
R2

Equation 2-8 describes the gain of an active high pass filter.

Figure 2-5 Passive band pass filter

Equation 2-9

1
f CL=
2 π RlCl

Equation 2-9 describes the cut-off frequency of the low pass filter.

321
Equation 2-10

1
f CH =
2 π R h Ch

Equation 2-10 describes the cut-off frequency of a high pass filter.

Figure 2-6 Active band pass filter

The cut off frequencies of the active filter are calculated using the same equations as
the passive band pass filter.

Equation 2-11

R3
G=1+
R2

Equation 2-11 describes the gain of an active band pass filter.

322
Read more about band pass filters here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band-pass_filter

323
Band Stop Filter

The band stop filter is the opposite of a band pass filter. It has a lower and an upper
threshold, however, the band stop filter attenuates any frequency that falls between
these two values. Frequencies below the lower threshold or above the upper threshold
can pass through the filter. The low pass filter element is formed by R 1, R2, and C1. The
high pass filter element is formed by C2, C3, and R3.

Figure 2-7 Band stop filter

Equation 2-12

1
f N=
4 πRC

Equation 2-12 describes the notch frequency at which maximum attenuation occurs.

2-6 Does the bode plot align with your calculations?

______________________________________________________________________

Note: Include a picture or screenshot of your final working filter as well as a picture or
screenshot of its bode plot with your final lab.

 Now, connect the output of your amplifier to the input of your filter.
 Place two voltage analyzers, one at the output of the amplifier and one at the
output of the filter.
 Run the circuit for at least 3 seconds.

Note: Include a picture or screenshot of your working circuit and a picture of the output.

2-7What do you observe about the final output compared to the amplifier output?

______________________________________________________________________

2-8 Compute the signal to noise ratio of the final output. How does it compare to the
signal to noise ratio of the original signal that you calculated previously?

______________________________________________________________________

327
Section 3: Putting It All Together

3.1 Implement: Final Design

Now is the time for you to test your final implementation. Consider a methodology for
confirming the measured signal.

Configure the Arbitrary Waveform Generator to output a custom wave, and use the
ECG_No_Noise.csv file to output a heartbeat signal.

Important Note: Since heartbeats are so small, the noise of the system will be much
greater than the original signal. If your signal noise from the waveform generator is
overpowering your output signal, you can use the gain setting on the Arbitrary
Waveform Generator and then adjust the gain of your amplifier accordingly. For
example, if the total gain of your circuit is 1000, and you set the gain of the generator to
be 100, then you could adjust the gain of your amplifier to be 10.

Instructions:

 Build your amplifier and filter on the breadboard

 Connect the output of your amplifier circuit to your filter circuit
 Input the simulated heart signal

3-1 Document your testing setup and criteria. How will you confirm that your signal is
being filtered?

______________________________________________________________________

3-2 Does your circuit fulfill the requirements of the real-world scenario? Explain why this
is the case. If the requirements were not met, how could you improve upon your
design?

______________________________________________________________________

328
3-3 Describe the output waveform. Is it cut off? Centered? Noisy? Etc.

______________________________________________________________________

3-4 Does your output signal still have noise? If so, what could you do to eliminate or
reduce it?

______________________________________________________________________

Note: Take a picture of your final amplified and filtered “heartbeat” as well as a picture
of the connected circuit.

329
3.2 Conclusion

3-5 How could you improve the circuit? What types of new features could be used for
this system?

______________________________________________________________________

3-6 What was most challenging when you were designing and implementing your
circuit? How did you overcome these challenges?

______________________________________________________________________

3-7 How could your system be improved? Consider performance, reliability and real-
world applications.

______________________________________________________________________

330
Answer Key – Check Your Understanding Questions Only

Check Your Understanding

1-1 B
1-2 A
1-3 D
2-1 A
2-2 C

331

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