REVIEWER

FOR
MOCK BOARDS

Angel Maramba
FRESH
CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT
Development
TYPES OF LEARNERS MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
1. Visual Learners
- process info using charts and graphs
- need images to explain concepts and ideas
- prefer graphic elements over words Spiritual Linguistic
Intelligence Intelligence
2. Auditory Learners Existential
Logical-
Mathematical
Intelligence Intelligence
- learn best when info is spoken
- prefer lectures and discussions Naturalist Spatial
Intelligence Intelligence
- process info by talking through things
Intrapersonal Bodily-
Intelligence Kinesthetic
3. Linguistic Learners Interpersonal
Intelligence
Intelligence Musical
- prefer to receive written words Intelligence
- enjoy reading and writing assignments
- process information by writing notes

4. Kinesthetic Learners
- prefer to receive written words
- enjoy reading and writing assignments
- process information by writing notes Human Development
- is a pattern of movement or change that
begins at conception and it continues
Different learners has diverse needs.. - it is a development includes growth
To give these diverse needs, we and decline (Santrock, 2002)
must first learn our clientele's different
wants and needs, and how they need to
be satisfied. Remember that these MAJOR PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEV.
learners must be given what is healthy 1. Development is relatively orderly.
and usable that make their lives easier development proceeds from the
and better. center of the body outward
(Proximodistal)
To satisfy the needs of learners, we must:
development proceeds from the
provide our own pedagogies upper and lower limbs (Cephalo-
know our clienteles Caudal)
give other differentiated activities and 2. Development pattern is similar but
instructional format the outcomes of the developmental
As the contributor of learning, we process and rate of development
must recognize the principles of teaching varies among individuals.
3. Development takes place gradually.
and learning to harness the potentialities
4. Development is complex.
of the students which are the ff:
Cognitive Process
we must know that these learners are - involves changes in the
potential geniuses; individual's thoughts, intelligence,
we must maximize the learning and language
opportunities for our clienteles to Biological Process
know their strengths and weaknesses, - Involves changes in the
and; individual's physical appearances
we must/need to provide goods and Socio-Emotional Process
services to maximize the quality, - include changes in the individual's
relevant, and meaningful education that relationships with other people,
should be given to the leaners. changes in emotions, and
personality
Critical
TWO APPROACHES OF HUMAN DEV.
Thinking
1. Traditional Approach
- show extensive change while younger
- little or no change in adulthood Creativity
- decline change in old age 21st Century
2. Life-Span Approach Skills:
- change from childhood to adulthood is 4Cs

consistent Collaboration

Communication
CHARACTERISTICS OF Skills
LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE
TEACH THE MIND. TOUCH THE HEART.
1. Development is life-long. DEVELOP THE PHYSICAL, EMOTIONAL,
development doesn't end in AND SOCIAL POTENTIAL OF THE HUMAN
adulthood BEING.
2. Development is multi-dimensional.
consists of biological, cognitive, All children pass through predictable
and socio-emotional dimension stages of growth and development as
3. Development is plastic. they mature.
development is possible A child cannot be forced to achieve a
throughout the lifespan milestone faster than the child's own
4. Development is contextual. timetable will allow.
individuals are changing beings You can say that a person is maturing
in a changing world when you know that the domains
5. Development involves growth (Critical, Physical, Emotional, Social) are
maintenance and regulation. present.

Each human has 3 sources for Developmental Tasks:

PSYCHOSOCIAL MORAL COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT

ability to learn
personality knows what is
and understand
development right or wrong
from experiences

Remember!
Developmental Tasks are skills, knowledge, functions, attitudes
that individuals have to acquire at a certain point in their lives through
physical maturation, social expectations and personal effort.
Sigmund Freud
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
's

Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the

founding father of psychoanalysis, a method
for treating mental illness and also a theory
which explains human behavior. 3 LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Freud believed that events in our
childhood have a great influence on our adult 1. CONSCIOUS
- contains all of the thoughts, memories,
lives, shaping our personality.
feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at
any given moment.

STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL 2. SUBSCONSCIOUS

- consists of anything that could potentially be
DEVELOPMENT brought into the conscious mind.

1. ORAL STAGE 3. UNCONSCIOUS

- erogenous zone is mouth - is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and
- oral pleasures memories that are outside of our conscious
Fixation: awareness
Oral Receptive - tendency to smoke, - contains contents that are unacceptable or
drink alcohol, overeat unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or
conflict
Oral Aggressive - tendency to bit nails,
use curse words, gossip, etc.

2. ANAL STAGE ELEMENTS OF PERSONALITY

- erogenous zone is anus
1. ID
- satisfaction is eliminating and
- pleasurable principle
retaining feces - satisfaction of needs
Fixation: - no consideration of/for the reality, logicality,
Anal Retentive - obsession with and practicality of the situation
cleanliness, perfection, and control - means wants/desire
Anal Expulsive - may become messy

and disorganized 2. EGO

- reality principle
3. PHALLIC STAGE - deciding agent of the personality
- considers the best response to the situations
- erogenous zone is genitals

Fixation:
3. SUPEREGO
Oedipus Complex - unconscious sexual
- moral aspect
desire for the parent of the opposite sex
- conscience
(son to mother) - considers what is right or wrong
Electro Complex - unconscious sexual
desire for the parent of the opposite sex
(daughter to father)

4. LATENCY STAGE
DEFENSE MECHANISM
- during this stage the libido is dormant and
no further psychosexual development takes
- it is invented by the Ego in an attempt to
place (latent means hidden)
- active on peer activities, etc.
reuse the conflict between the Id and Super
Ego
5. GENITALS STAGE - it deny/distorts the reality while operating
- a time of adolescent sexual in unconscious level
experimentation - if used once in a while , the purpose of
Fixation: using it is to reduce stress
person gaining sexual pleasure primarily
- if it used frequently, it means the person is
from kissing and oral sex, rather than
trying to avoid the reality
sexual intercourse.
Types of
Defense Mechanism:

Denial Sublimation
- most common defense mechanism - considered a positive strategy
- occurs when you refuse to accept - to redirect strong emotions or
reality or facts feelings into an object or activity that
- you avoid the painful feelings or events is appropriate and safe (example:

instead of lashing out at your

Repression employees, you choose to channel
- restraint your frustration into kickboxing or
- unpleasant experiences are stored in exercise, arts, etc.)

the subconscious mind and can't be

Reaction Formation
accessed by conscious mind (you
- people recognize how they feel, but
choose to hide painful thoughts and
they choose to behave in the
experiences in your subconscious mind
opposite manner of their instincts
in the hopes of forgetting about it
- a person who reacts this way, for
entirely)
example, may feel they should not

express negative emotions, such as

Projection anger or frustration, but choose to
- example of it is you may dislike your instead react in an overly positive
new co-worker, but instead of accepting way
that, you choose to tell yourself that

they dislike you Compartmentalization

- separating your life into

Displacement independent sectors
- you direct strong emotions and - example, when you choose to not
frustrations toward a person or object discuss personal life issues at work,
that doesn’t feel threatening which you block off, or compartmentalize,
allows you to satisfy an impulse to react, that element of your life, which
but you don’t risk significant allows you to carry on without facing
consequences (example: getting angry the anxieties or challenges while
at your child or spouse because you had you’re in that setting or mindset.
a bad day at work. Neither of these

people is the target of your strong Intellectualization

emotions, but reacting to them is likely - When you’re hit with a trying
situation, you may choose to remove
less problematic than reacting to your
all emotion from your responses and
boss)
instead focus on quantitative facts

Regression
- act of reasoning backwards
- reversion to an earlier mental or
behavioral level

Rationalization
- an attempt to explain undesirable
behaviors with their own set of “facts.”
John Piaget 's

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Jean Piaget was a Swiss

psychologist and genetic
epistemologist. He is most famously
known for his theory of cognitive
development that looked at how
children develop intellectually Piaget's Stages of
throughout the course of childhood.
Cognitive Development
He called his theoretical framework,
"Generic Epistemology" because he Sensori-Motor Stage
BIRTH - 2 YRS OLD
was interested in how knowledge
The main achievement is during this stage is
developed in human organisms.
object permanence, which means knowing that
an object still exists even if it is hidden. It requires
The goal of this theory is to explain the ability to form a mental representation (i.e.
the mechanisms and process by schema) of an object.

which an infant, and then the child,

develops into an individual who can Pre-Operational Stage
2 - 7 YRS OLD
reason and think using hypothesis.
During this stage, young children are able to
think about things symbolically. This is the

3 BASIC COMPONENTS ability to make one thing - a word or an object -

stand for something other than itself.
TO PIAGET'S THEORY Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has
the difficulty taking the viewpoint of others.
1. Schemas
- building blocks of knowledge Concrete-Operational Stage
7 - 11 YRS OLD
2. Assimilation
Piaget considered the concrete stage a major
- using an existing schema to deal
turning point of the child's cognitive
with a new object or situation development, because it marks the beginning of
the logical or operational thought.
3. Accommodation This means the child can work things out
- this happens when an existing internally in their head (rather than physically try
schema (knowledge) does not work, things out in the real world). Children can conserve
and needs to be changed to deal a the number, mass, and weight.
new object or situation

Formal-Operational Stage
11 YRS OLD and ABOVE
4. Equilibration
- this is the force which moves The formal operational stage begins at
development along approximately age eleven and lasts into
- Piaget believed that cognitive adulthood. During this time, people develop the
development did not progress at a ability to think about abstract concepts, and
steady rate, but rather in leaps and logically test hypothesis.

bounds
Terms to Remember!
SENSORI-OPERATIONAL STAGE
Object Permanence - ability of the child to
know that an object still exists even when
hidden or out of sight

PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE
Symbolic Function - ability to represent
objects and events
Egocentrism - tendency of the child to only
see his point of view and to assume that
everyone also has his same point of view
Centration - the tendency of the child to only
focus on one aspect of a thing or event and
exclude other aspects
Irreversibility - inability to reverse their
thinking, example: they can understand that
2+3=5, but they can't understand that 5-3=2
Animism - tendency of the children to
attribute human like traits or characteristics
to inanimate objects
Transductive Reasoning - type of reasoning
that is neither inductive nor deductive

CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE
Decentering - ability of the child to perceive
the different features of objects and situation
and no longer is the child focused or limited
to one aspect or dimension
Reversibility - child can now follow that
certain operations can be done in reverse
Conservation - ability to know that certain
properties of objects like number, mass,
volume, or area do not change even if there is
a change in appearance
Seriation - ability to order or arrange things
in a series based on one dimension, such as
weight, volume, or size

FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

Hypothetical Reasoning - ability to come up
with different hypothesis about a problem
and to gather and weigh data in order to
make a final decision or judgement; can now
deal with "What if.." questions
Analogical Reasoning - ability to perceive the
relationship in one instance and then use that
relationship to narrow down possible answers
in another similar situation or problem; can
make analogy
Deductive Reasoning - ability to think
logically by applying a general rule to a
particular instance or situation
Erik Erikson
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
's

8 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
Erikson was an ego psychologist OF DEVELOPMENT
who developed one of the most
popular and influential theories of
1. TRUST VS. MISTRUST
development. While his theory was
This stage occurs between the ages of
impacted by psychoanalyst
birth and 1.5 years and is centered on
Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's developing a sense of trust in caregivers and
theory centered on psychosocial the world. Children who receive responsive
development and incorporated care are able to develop the psychological
cultural and social aspects rather quality of hope (virtue).
than psychosexual development.
MALADAPTATION: Sensory Maladjustment -
overly trusting, gullible
His theory of psychosocial
development is centered on what MALIGNANCY: Withdrawal - depression,
is known as the epigenetic loneliness, paranoia, possibly psychosis
principle, which proposes that all
people go through a series of eight 2. AUTONOMY VS. SHAME & DOUBT
stages. This stage takes place between the ages of
18 months and 3 years and involves gaining a
sense of independence and personal control.
At each psychosocial stage,
Success in this stage allows people to develop
people face a crisis that needs to
will and determination.
be successfully resolved in order
to develop the psychological MALADAPTATION: Impulsiveness - a sort o
quality central to each stage. shameless willfulness that leads you to jump
into things without proper consideration

MALIGNANCY: Compulsiveness - everything

must be done perfectly by following all the
rules precisely to keep you from mistakes,
Terms to Remember! and mistakes must be avoided at all costs

3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT

Virtue - psychosocial strength
Between the ages of 3 and 6 years,
which will help us through the children begin to explore their environment
rest of the stages of our lives and exert more control over their choices. By
Malignancy - too little of the successfully completing this stage, children
positive and too much of the are able to develop a sense of purpose.
negative aspect of the task
MALADAPTATION: Ruthlessness - to be
Maladaptation - too much of
heartless or unfeeling or be "without mercy",
the positive and too little of the
they have initiative but they don't care who
negative they step on to
MALIGNANCY: Inhibition - inhibited person 7. GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION
won't try things because "nothing ventured, At the stage occurring during middle
nothing lost", and nothing to feel guilty about; adulthood, people become concerned with
they are so afraid to start and take a lead contributing something to society and leaving
their mark on the world. Raising a family and
4. INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY having a career are two key activities that
The stage that takes place between the contribute to success at this stage. If this
ages of about 6 and 12 years is focused on stage is a success, you will have the capacity
developing a sense of personal pride and for caring that will serve you through the rest
accomplishment. Success at this point in of your life.
development leads to a sense of
competence. MALADAPTATION: Overextension - some
people try to be so generative that they no
MALADAPTATION: Narrow Virtuosity - kids longer allow time for themselves, for rest and
who aren't allowed to be just kids, kids that relaxation
has no life
MALIGNANCY: Rejectivity - too much
MALIGNANCY: Inertia - "inferioirity stagnation and you are no longer
complexes", if at first you don't succeed, don't participating in or contributing to the society
ever try again
8. INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR
5. IDENTITY VS. CONFUSION The final stage of psychosocial
The teen years are a time of personal development takes place in late adulthood
exploration. Those who are able to and involves reflecting back on life. Those
successfully forge a healthy identity develop a who look back and feel a sense of satisfaction
sense of fidelity. Those who do not complete develop a sense of integrity and wisdom,
this stage well may be left feeling confused while those who are left with regrets may
about their role and place in life. experience bitterness and despair.

MALADAPTATION: Fanaticism - a fanatic MALADAPTATION: Presumption - a person

believes that his way is the only way (adult) does not respect the ideas and views
of the young
MALIGNANCY: Repudiation - repudiate is to
reject; to reject their membership in the MALIGNANCY: Disdain - the person becomes
world of adults, and even more very negative and appears to hate life

6. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION

The stage that takes place in early
adulthood is all about forging healthy
relationships with others. Success leads to
the ability to form committed, lasting, and
nurturing relationships with others, a.k.a
love.

MALADAPTATION: Promiscuity - tendency to

become intimate too freely, too easily, and
without depth to your intimacy.

MALIGNANCY: Exclusion - tendency to isolate

oneself from love, friendship, and
community, and to develop certain
hatefulness in compensation for one's
loneliness.
Lawrence Kohlberg
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
's

LEVELS OF MORAL REASONING STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

LEVEL 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY STAGE 1: OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT

At the preconventional level children ORIENTATION
don’t have a personal code of morality, and The child/individual is good in order to
instead moral decisions are shaped by the avoid being punished. If a person is
standards of adults and the consequences punished, they must have done wrong.
of following or breaking their rules.
For example, if an action leads to STAGE 2: INDIVIDUALISM AND EXCHANGE
punishment is must be bad, and if it leads At this stage, children recognize that
to a reward is must be good. there is not just one right view that is
handed down by the authorities. Different
individuals have different viewpoints.
Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral
development, but only if it serves one's own
interests.

LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY STAGE 3: GOOD INTERPERSONAL

Conventional morality is the second RELATIONSHIPS
stage of moral development, and is Often referred to as the "good boy-
characterized by an acceptance of social good girl" orientation, this stage of the
rules concerning right and wrong. At the interpersonal relationship of moral
conventional level (most adolescents and development is focused on living up to
adults), we begin to internalize the moral social expectations and roles. Therefore,
standards of valued adult role models. answers relate to the approval of others.
Authority is internalized but not
questioned, and reasoning is based on the STAGE 4: MAINTAINING THE SOCIAL
norms of the group to which the person ORDER
belongs. The child/individual becomes aware of
the wider rules of society, so judgments
concern obeying the rules in order to
uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
The focus is on maintaining law and
order by following the rules, doing one’s
duty, and respecting authority.
LEVEL 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY STAGE 5: SOCIAL CONTRACT AND
Postconventional morality is the third INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS
stage of moral development, and is The child/individual becomes aware
characterized by an individuals’ that while rules/laws might exist for the
understanding of universal ethical good of the greatest number, there are
principles. These are abstract and ill- times when they will work against the
defined, but might include: the preservation interest of particular individuals.
of life at all costs, and the importance of
human dignity. STAGE 6: UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES
Individual judgment is based on self- People at this stage have developed their
chosen principles, and moral reasoning is own set of moral guidelines which may or
based on individual rights and justice. may not fit the law. The principles apply to
everyone, e.g., human rights, justice, and
equality. The person will be prepared to act
to defend these principles even if it means
going against the rest of society in the
process and having to pay the
consequences of disapproval and or
imprisonment.
Lev Vygotsky
SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian teacher who is considered a pioneer in
learning in social contexts. As a psychologist, he was also the first to examine how
our social interactions influence our cognitive growth. He was convinced that
learning occurred through interactions with others in our communities: peers,
adults, teachers, and other mentors.

Vygotsky sought to understand how people learn in a social environment and

created a unique theory on social learning. He determined that teachers have the
ability to control many factors in an educational setting, including tasks, behaviors,
and responses. As a result, he encouraged more interactive activities to promote
cognitive growth, such as productive discussions, constructive feedback, and
collaboration with others. Vygotsky also stated that culture was a primary
determinant of knowledge acquisition. He argued that children learn from the beliefs
and attitudes modeled by their culture.

Piaget and Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between the 1920' and
1930' but they had clear differences in their views about cognitive development. Since Piaget was
taken up already in the preceding module, it would be easier now to see how his views compare the
Vygotsky's.
CENTRAL FACTORS IN COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT UNDER SOCIO-
CULTURAL THEORY
SOCIAL INTERACTION ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Vygotsky emphasized that effective The difference between what the

learning happens throughout child can accomplish alone and what she
participation in social activities, making can accomplish with the guidance of
the social context of learning crucial. another is what Vygotsky referred to as
Parents, teachers, and other adults in Zone of Proximal Development. The zone
learners' environment all contribute to represents a learning opportunity where
the process. They explain, model, assist, a knowledgeable adult (MKO) such as a
give directions, and provide feedback to teacher or parent or a more advanced
the learner. Peers, on the other hand, peer can assist the child's development.
cooperate and collaborate and enrich the
learning experience. SCAFFOLDING
Scaffolding is the support or
CULTURAL FACTORS assistance that lets the child accomplish a
task he can't accomplish independently.
Vygotsky believed in the crucial role
that culture played in the cognitive SCAFFOLD AND FADE-AWAY TECHNIQUE
development of children. Vygotsky looked
into the wide range of experiences that a As learners become more proficient,
culture would give to a child. able to complete task on their own that
they could not initially do without
LANGUAGE assistance, the guidance can be
withdrawn, and this is called scaffold and
Language opens the door for learners fade-away technique.
to acquire knowledge that others already
have. Learners can use language to know
and understand the world and solve
problems. Language serves a social
function but it also has an important
individual function. It helps the learner
regulate and reflect on his own thinking.
For Vygotsky, "talking-to-oneself" is an
indication of thinking that goes on in the
mind of a child that will led to private
speech. Private Speech is a form of self-
talk that guides the child's thinking and
action.
Vygotsky also believed in the
essential role of activities in learning.
Children learn best through hands-on
activities than when listening passively.
Learning by doing is even made more
fruitful when children interact with
knowledgeable adults and peers.
Urie Bronfenbrenner
BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY

Urie Bronfenbrenner, (born April 29, 1917, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.—died

September 25, 2005, Ithaca, New York, U.S.), Russian-born American psychologist best
known for having developed human ecology theory (ecological systems theory), in
which individuals are seen as maturing not in isolation but within the context of
relationships, such as those involving families, friends, schools, neighborhoods, and
society.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model organizes contexts of development into five
levels of external influence. These levels are categorized from the most intimate level
to the broadest.

Because the five systems are interrelated, the influence of one system on a
child’s development depends on its relationship with the others.

BRONFENBRENNER'S BIOLOGICAL MODEL:

STRUCTURE OF ENVIRONMENT
1. MICROSYSTEM 4. MACROSYSTEM

The microsystem is the first level of The macrosystem is a component of

Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems
things that have direct contact with the theory that focuses on how cultural
child in their immediate environment, elements affect a child's development,
such as parents, siblings, teachers and such as socioeconomic status, wealth,
school peers. poverty, and ethnicity.

Relationships in a microsystem are bi- Thus, culture that individuals are

directional, meaning the child can be immersed within may influence their
influenced by other people in their beliefs and perceptions about events
environment and is also capable of that transpire in life.
changing the beliefs and actions of other

people too. The macrosystem differs from the

previous ecosystems as is does not
Furthermore, the reactions of the child to refer to the specific environments of
individuals in their microsystem can one developing child, but the already
influence how they treat them in return. established society and culture which

the child is developing in.
The interactions within microsystems are

often very personal and are crucial for This can also include the
fostering and supporting the child’s socioeconomic status, ethnicity,
development. geographic location and ideologies of
the culture.
2. MESOSYSTEM

For example, a child living in a third

The mesosystem encompasses the world country would experience a
interactions between the child’s different development than a child
microsystems, such as the interactions living in a wealthier country.
between the child’s parents and teachers,

or between school peers and siblings.

5. CHRONOSYSTEM
The mesosystem is where a person's
individual microsystems do not function The fifth and final level of
independently, but are interconnected Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems
and assert influence upon one another. theory is known as the chronosystem.

For instance, if a child’s parents This system consists of all of the

communicate with the child’s teachers, environmental changes that occur
this interaction may influence the child’s over the lifetime which influence
development. Essentially, a mesosystem development, including major life
is a system of microsystems. transitions, and historical events.

3. EXOSYSTEM These can include normal life

transitions such as starting school but
The exosystem is a component of the can also include non-normative life
ecological systems theory developed by transitions such as parents getting a
Urie Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It divorce or having to move to a new
incorporates other formal and informal house.
social structures, which do not

themselves contain the child, but

indirectly influence them as they affect
one of the microsystems.

Examples of exosystems include the

neighborhood, parent’s workplaces,
parent’s friends and the mass media.
These are environments in which the
child is not involved, and are external to
their experience, but nonetheless affects
them anyway.

An instance of exosystems affecting the

child’s development could be if one of the
parents had a dispute with their boss at
work.

FRESH
FACILITATING
LEARNING:
A Metacognitive Process
What is Metacognition? Metacognition is about your ability
to use your knowledge of your
thinking process to:
The term "metacognition" was
coined by John Flavell. 1. plan a strategy for approaching
a learning task
Metacognition is the term used to 2. create steps to solve a problem
define "thinking about thinking", or 3. reflect on actions taken
"learning how to learn". It is your 4. evaluate results
ability to understand and control 5. modify your approach
your thinking process.

Thinking about thinking is a higher

order thinking that enables 2 ELEMENTS
understanding, analysis, and control OF METACOGNITION
of your cognitive processes. It
involves planning, monitoring, 1. Metacognitive Knowledge -
assessing, and evaluating your use understanding what you know
of cognitive skills. about yourself as a cognitive
processor
2. Metacognitive Regulation -
managing or controlling how
you go about learning or
problem solving

3 Categories of
Metacognitive Knowledge

1. Knowledge Variables/Person
Variables - what you recognize
How do you learn how to learn? about your strengths and
How do you learn best? weaknesses in learning and
How do you approach a specific processing information
learning task? 2. Task Variables - what you
How do you approach a problem to know about the nature of a task
solve? and the processing demands
How do you know which approach required to complete the task
worked best? 3. Strategy Variables - what you
know about the different
These are questions addressed by the strategies you can apply to
concept of metacognition. successfully accomplish a task
Metacognition is about understanding
how you learn, and knowing when and
how to use particular strategies for
learning and/or problem solving.
Cognitive Regulation is about control What is Learner-Centered Principles?
over your thinking processes involved
in learning and problem solving. It
involves understanding, implementing, In 1997, the American Psychological
and managing strategies for processing Association (APA) developed a set of 14
information. learner-centered principles (LCPs) intended to
guide educational reform at all levels and
Strategies are those mental skills and informed by a number of different research
abilities you use to approach and perspectives.
process information. It involves the way
They include four research-validated
you think, study, and learn. Strategies
domains:
help you comprehend information or
solve problems.
The cognitive and metacognitive domain:
Thought processes involved in learning that
includes self-reflection
There may be specific methods you can
use to learn a task or adjustments you The motivational and affective domain:
make to accomplish a task. Effort and engagement while learning,
including affective and emotional factors,
1. planning on how to approach a and the understanding that personal
learning task interests directly influence learning
2. using appropriate skills and and
strategies to solve a problem The developmental and social domain:
3. monitoring comprehension Previous experiences of students and their
4. becoming aware of distractions learning readiness (i.e., developmental
5. using visual or auditory tools to factors) as well as interpersonal relations
help process information between and among students and teachers
6. self-assessing and correcting based (i.e., social factors) affect current learning
on assessments
7. evaluating progress toward the The individual differences domain:
completion of a task Differences between and within students
that influence learning. Students have
different strategies and skills for learning
based on their backgrounds and prior
learning experiences.

TIPS FOR FOSTERING

NOVICE AND EXPERT LEARNERS EXPERT LEARNERS:
Novice Learner SCAN ME!
is someone who has no specific knowledge
about a topic. They lack any knowledge
related to the topic and also lack any
exposure to similar topics that may apply
to the area they are learning about.

Expert Learner
Expert learners are purposeful and
motivated, resourceful and knowledgeable,
and strategic and goal-directed in
particular, discipline-specific ways.
14 learner-centered Psychological principles

The following 14 psychological principles pertain to all learners and the learning process.
They are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be viewed
in isolation. This document is adapted from the principles developed by the American
Psychological Association.
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS
1. The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
Successful learners are active, goal-oriented, self-regulating, and assume personal
responsibility for contributing to their own learning.

Message for Teachers:

Use techniques that aid students in constructing meaning from information,
experiences, and their own thought and beliefs.

2. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. Students must
generate and pursue personally relevant goals.

Message for Teachers:

Create meaningful student learning goals consistent with their personal and
educational aspirations and interests.

3. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as student continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. Unless new knowledge
become integrated with the learner’s prior knowledge and understanding, this new
knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does
not transfer readily to new situations.

Message for Teachers:

Assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by using such strategies as
concept mapping and thematic organization or categorizing.

4. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning,
problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of
strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply their
knowledge in novel situations.

Message for Teachers:

Assist learners in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.
5. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performance goals. select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and
monitor their progress towards these goals.

Message for Teachers:

Use instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher order
strategies to enhance learning and personal responsibility for learning.

6. Learning is influenced by environmental factor, including culture, technology, and

instructional practices.
Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Cultural or group influences on students impact
many educationally relevant variables: motivation, orientation toward learning, and
ways of thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for
learners’ level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking
strategies.

Message for Teachers:

Make the classroom environment nurturing to have significant impacts on student
learning.

MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS

7. What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states,
beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
Students’ belief about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked
influence on motivation. Positive emotions generally enhance motivation and facilitate
learning and performance. Mid anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by
focusing the learner’s attention on a particular task.

Message for Teachers:

Help students avoid intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity)
and related thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about failure,
fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels).

8. The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute
to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty
and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and
control.
Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the
learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn.

Message for Teachers:

Encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and motivation to learn by attending
to individual differences in learners’ perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevance, and personal choice and control.

9. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and
guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this
effort is unlikely without coercion.
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable
learner energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time.

Message for Teachers:

Facilitate motivation by using strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to
learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and understanding.

DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS

10. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for
learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.

Message for Teachers:

Be aware of and understand developmental differences among students with and
without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, to facilitate the creation of
optimal learning contexts.

11. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and

communication with others.
Setting that allow for social interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage flexible
thinking, and social competence can enhance learning.

Message for Teachers:

Allow for interactive and collaborative instructional contexts to provide individuals an
opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels
of cognitive, social and moral development, as well as self-esteem.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS

12. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that
are a function of prior experience and heredity.
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.

Message for Teachers:

Help student examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them, if
necessary.

13. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and
social backgrounds are taken into account.
Language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all influence learning.

Message for Teachers:

Paying careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the
possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning environments.
14. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as
well as learning progress – including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment –
are integral parts of the learning process.
Ongoing assessment of the learner’s understanding of curricular material can provide
valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress towards the learning
goals.

Message for Teachers:

Use of varied types of assessment will provide a clearer picture of student learning.

What is Student Diversity?

There are many misconceptions about the term student diversity. Student
diversity does not only represent the different races of the student body, but also
many other aspects that set some people apart from others.

The official definition of student diversity is, “The understanding that each
individual is unique, and recognizing our individual differences. These can be
along the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-
economic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or
other ideologies” (Rock).

FACTORS THAT BRING ABOUT STUDENT DIVERSITY:

1. Socio-Economic Status - The millionaire's lifestyle differs from that of the middle
income or lower income group

2. Thinking/Learning Style - Some of you learn better by seeing something; others

by just listening; and still others by manipulating something

3. Exceptionalities - In class, there may be one who has difficulty in spoken language
comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO ENCOURAGE DIVERSITY

IN SCHOOLS AND WORKPLACES?

Fostering inclusion and awareness around multicultural education and taking

a culturally responsive approach to teaching benefits all students. Not only does
creating greater multicultural awareness and inclusion help students with
different backgrounds and needs succeed, but it encourages acceptance and
helps prepare students to thrive in an exponentially diverse world.
How does Student diversity enrich TIPS ON STUDENT DIVERSITY:
the learning environment?
1. Encourage learners to share their
1. Students' self-awareness is personal history and experience.
enhanced by diversity.
They may be different from each
Exposing students to others with diverse other, but they also have similarities.
backgrounds and experiences also

serves to help students focus on their 2. Integrate learning experiences and

awareness of themselves. When they see activities which promotes students'
how others are different, students are multicultural and cross-cultural
given reference points or comparative awareness.
perspectives which sharpen assessment
of their own attitudes, values, and You can encourage or even initiate co-
behaviors. curricular experiences that are aimed
at promoting diversity awareness.
2. Student diversity contributes to Let students interview other students
cognitive development. on campus who are from diverse
backgrounds (foreign students from
The opportunity to gain access to the other ethnic/racial groups).
perspectives of peers and to learn from Invite students to Internet discussion
other students, rather than the instructor groups or e-mail; have students "visit"
only, may be especially important for foreign countries and "talk" to natives
promoting the cognitive development of of those countries.
learners. Ask students if they have ever been
the personal target or prejudice or
3. Student diversity prepares learners discrimination, and have them share
for their role as responsible members these experiences with other
of the society. members of the class.

With student diversity, the classroom 3. Aside from highlighting diversity,

becomes a 'public place' where identify patterns of unity that
community can be practiced. transcend group differences.

4. Student diversity can promote "Every human is, at the same time,
harmony. like all other humans, like some
humans, and like no other human",
When student diversity is integrated into Wong, 1991. We are all the same in
the classroom teaching and learning different ways.
process, it cam become a vehicle for Periodically place students in
promoting harmonious race relations. homogenous groups on the basis
Through student-centered teaching shared demographic characteristics
strategies, diverse students can be (e.g., same-gender groups, or same-
encouraged to interact and collaborate race/ethnicity groups), and have them
with one another on learning tasks that share their personal views or
emphasize unity of effort while experiences with respect to course
capitalizing on their diversity of issues.
backgrounds.
4. Communicate high expectations to
students from all subgroups.

Make a conscious attempt to call on,

or draw in students from diverse
groups by using effective questioning
techniques that reliably elicit student
involvement.
Learn the names of your students, Left Brain VS. RIGHT BRAIN:
especially the foreign names that you
may have difficulty pronouncing. This
WHAT'S THE Difference?
will enable you to establish early
personal rapport with them which can
later serve as a social/emotional
foundation or springboard for
encouraging them to participate.

5. Use varied instructional methods to

accommodate student diversity in
learning styles.

Diversify the sensory/perceptual

modalities through which you deliver
and present information.
Diversify the formats or procedures
you use in class:
Use formats that are student- According to Sperry’s dated research,
centered and teacher-centered. the left brain is also connected to:
Use formats that are unstructured
(trial and error discovery learning) logic
and structured (step-by-step sequencing
instructions). linear thinking
Use procedures that involve both
mathematics
independent learning and
interdependent learning. facts
thinking in words
6. Vary the examples you use to
illustrate concepts in order to provide
multiple contexts that are relevant to The right brain is more visual and
students from diverse backgrounds. intuitive. It’s sometimes referred to as
the analog brain. It has a more creative
7. Adapt to students' diverse
and less organized way of thinking.
backgrounds and learning styles by
allowing them personal choice and Sperry’s dated research suggests the
decision-making opportunities right brain is also connected to:
concerning what they will learn and imagination
how they will learn it.
holistic thinking
8. Diversify your methods of assessing intuition
and evaluating student learning. arts
9. Purposely, form small-discussion
rhythm
groups of students from diverse nonverbal cues
backgrounds. You can form group of feelings visualization
students from different learning daydreaming
styles, different cultural background,
etc.
Learners with Exceptionalities
Disability - is a measurable impairment or Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments
limitation that "interferes with a person's Physical and health impairments - this
ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or involves physical or medical conditions (usually
long-term) including one or more of these: (1)
learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory, or
limited energy and strength, (2) reduced mental
mental condition" Schiefelbusch Institute, alertness, and/or (3) little muscle control.
1996). Severe and Multiple Disabilities - refers to the
presence of two or more different types of
Handicap - the word handicap does not disability, at times at a profound level.
have the same meaning as disability. A
handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a Sensory Impairments
Visual Impairments - these are conditions when
result of a disability or impairment.
there is malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves
that prevent normal vision even with corrective
lenses.
CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONALITIES Hearing Impairments - these involve
malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that
Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties
hinders perception of sounds within the
Learning Disabilities - this involve difficulties in
frequency range of normal speech.
specific cognitive processes like perception,
language, memory, or metacognition that are
not due to other disabilities like mental
retardation, emotional, or behavioral disorders, People-First language
or sensory impairments. Example: dyslexia People-First Language - this language trend
(reading), dyscalculia (number operations), and involves putting the person first, not the disability
dysgraphia (writing). (e.g., a person with disability, not a disabled person).
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - This is similar to saying "person with AIDS", rather
ADHD is manifested in either or both of these: (1) than "AIDS victim". Other suggestions for referring
difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention to those disabilities include:
and (2) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive
behavior. avoiding generic labels (people with mental
Speech and Communication Disorders - there retardation is preferable to the mentally
is difficulty in spoken language including voice retarded);
disorders, inability to produce the sounds... emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for
correctly stuttering, difficulty in spoken language instance, uses a wheelchair is preferable to
comprehension that significantly hamper confined to a wheelchair);
classroom performance. avoiding euphemisms (such as physically-
challenged) which are regarded as
Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties condescending and avoid the real issues that
Autism - it is a condition manifested by different result from a disability; and
levels of impaired social interaction and avoiding implying illness or suffering (had
communication, repetitive behaviors and limited polio is preferable to is a polio victim, and has
interests. Individuals with autism usually have an multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from
intense need for routine and a predictable multiple sclerosis.
environment.
Mental Retardation - this refers to significant
sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive
behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities
of daily living and in conducting themselves in
social situations.
Emotional/Conduct Disorders - this involves
the presence of emotional stress like depression
and aggression over a considerable amount of
time that they notably disturb learning and
performance in school.
Behaviorism
Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner

Behaviorism, also known as behavioral II. Connectionism

psychology, is a theory of learning based on
Edward Thorndike's Connectionism Theory gave
the idea that all behaviors are acquired us the original S-R framework of behavioral
through conditioning and reinforcement psychology, He explained in his book, "Educational
(rewards and punishments). Psychology" that learning is the result of associations
forming between stimuli (S) and response (R). The
main principle of connectionism (like all behavioral
theory) was that learning could be adequately
I. Classical Conditioning explained without considering any unobservable
internal states.
Classical conditioning - the behaviorist idea that
animals and people can learn to react to a stimulus
Three Primary Laws:
by reflex based upon prior experiences. Also known
Law of Effect - this states that a connection
as "Respondent Conditioning".
between a stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence is positive
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) is a Russian psychologist
(reward) and the connection between the
and the father of classical conditioning.
stimulus and the response is weakened when
the consequence is negative (punishment).
There are 4 Elements that are used to describe
Thorndike later on, revised this law when he
the process of classical conditioning:
found that negative rewards (punishment) do
Neutral Stimulus (Ringing the bell caused no
not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some
response to the dog)
seemingly pleasurable consequences do not
Unconditioned Stimulus (Placing the food in
front of the dog..) necessarily motivate performance.
Unconditioned Response (..the dog initiated Law of Exercise - this tells us that the more
salivation) stimulus-response bond is practiced, the
Conditioned Stimulus (After conditioning, the stronger it will become. "Practice makes perfect".
ringing of the bell alone..) However, after its revision, Thorndike found that
Conditioned Response (.. produced salivation). practice without feedback does not necessarily
enhance practice.
Law of Readiness - this states that the more
Pavlov also had the following findings: readiness the learner has to respond the
Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between
learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will them. When a person is ready to respond to a
salivate at other similar sounds. stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes
Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the annoying to the person, e.g. if the teacher says,
food, salivation eventually cease in response to "Okay we will now watch the movie (stimulus)
the bell. you've been waiting for." And then suddenly the
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses power goes off. The students will feel frustrated
can be "recovered" after an elapsed time, but will because they were ready to respond to the
soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented stimulus but was prevented from doing so.
with food.
Discrimination. The dog could learn to PRINCIPLES DERIVED FROM THORNDIKE'S
discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and CONNECTIONISM:
discern which bell would result in the 1. Learning requires both practice and rewards
presentation of food and which would not. (laws of effect/exercise).
Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has 2. A series of stimulus-response connections can be
been conditioned to associate the bell with food, chained together if they belong to the same
another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light action sequence (law of readiness).
may be flashed at the same time that the bell is 3. Transfer of learning occurs because of
rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash previously encountered situations.
of the light without the sound of the bell. 4. Intelligence is a function of the number of
connections learned.
John Watson considered that humans are born with Punishment is a consequence intended
a few reflexes and emotional reactions of love and to result in reduced responses. Example, a
rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus- student who always comes late is not
response associations through conditioning. allowed to join a group work that has
already begin (punishment) and,
Experiment on Albert. In the beginning, Albert therefore, loses points for the activity. The
(young child) was not afraid of the rat; but punishment was done to reduce the
Watson made a sudden loud noise each time response of repeatedly coming to class
Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was late.
frightened by the loud noise, he soon became

conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Now, he Shaping of Behavior. Shaping, or behavior-
was also afraid of the small animals. Watson then shaping, is a variant of operant conditioning.
"extinguished" or made the child "unlearn" fear Instead of waiting for a subject to exhibit a
by showing the rat without the loud noise. This desired behavior, any behavior leading to the
may help us understand the fears, phobias, and target behavior is rewarded.
prejudices that people may develop.

Behavior Chaining comes about when a series

of steps are needed to be learned.
III. OPERANT CONDITIONING

Reinforcement Schedules is constant delivery of

reinforcement for an action; every time a specific
Burrhus Frederick Skinner believed in the stimulus-
action was performed the subject instantly and
response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory
always received a reinforcement. This method is
zeroed in only on changes in observable behavior,
impractical to use, and the reinforced behavior is
excluding any likelihood of any processes taking
prone to extinction.
place in the mind. He studies operant behavior

(voluntary behaviors used in operating on the

Interval Schedules are based on the time
environment. Thus, his theory came to be known as
intervals between reinforcements.
Operant Conditioning.
Fixed Interval Schedule (FI) - an operant
conditioning principle in which
Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion
reinforcements are presented at fixed
that learning is a result of change in overt
time periods, provided that the
behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of
appropriate response is made.
an individual's response to events (stimuli) that
Variable Interval Schedule (VI) - an operant
occur in the environment. A response produces
conditioning principle in which behavior is
consequence such as defining a word, hitting a
reinforced based on an average time that
ball, etc.
has expired since the last reinforcement.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's

Ratio Schedules are based on the ratio of
stimuli-response theory. A reinforcer is anything
responses to reinforcements
that strengthens the desired response. There's a
Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR) - an operant
positive and negative reinforcer.
conditioning principle in which

reinforcement is delivered after a specific

Positive Reinforcer that is given or added to
number of responses have been made.
increase response.
Variable Ratio Schedule (VR) - an operant
Negative Reinforcer is any stimulus that
conditioning principle in which the
results in the increased frequency of a
delivery of reinforcement is based on a
response when it is withdrawn or removed. A
particular average number of responses
negative reinforcer is not a punishment, in
(ex. slot machines).
fact it is a reward. Example, any student who
got a grade of 1.5 for two grading periods will
VR produce slightly higher rates of responding than
no longer take the final examination.
FR because organism doesn’t know when next
Therefore, the negative reinforcer is
reinforcement is. The higher the ratio, the higher the
"removing" the final exam which we realize is
response rate tends to be.
a form of reward for working hard and having
grades of 1.5.
Neo Behaviorism Tolman, bandura
Neo Behaviorism is a behavior cannot be fully Bandura's Social Learning Theory
understood simply in terms of observable stimuli Also called observational learning.
and reactions. Neo behaviorism introduce mediating It is a theory that emphasizes learning through
variables into the behaviorist stimulus-response observation of others.
scheme. It has aspects of behaviorism but it also
reaches out to be cognitive perspective. We learn not only how to perform a behavior but
also what will happen to us in a specific situation if
we do perform it.
Tolman's Purposive behaviorism
Also known as, "Sign Learning Theory", and is TYPES OF OBSERVATIONAL
often seen as the link between behaviorism and LEARNING EFFECTS
cognitive theory. Inhibition - to learn not to do something that we
Learning is a cognitive process. already know how to do because a model being
Learning is acquired through meaningful observed refrains from behaving in that way or
behavior. does something different from what is intended
to be done.
Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes Disinhibition - to learn to exhibit behavior that is
associated with already meaningful stimulus (the usually disapproved of by most people because a
significate) through the series of pairings; there is no model does the same without being punished.
need for reinforcement in order to establish learning. Facilitation - to be prompted to do something
that is not ordinarily done because of insufficient
TOLMAN'S KEY CONCEPTS motivation.
Observational Learning - to learn a new
Learning is always purposive and goal-
behavior pattern by watching and imitating the
directed. (Behavior is cognitive)
performance of someone else.
Individuals do more than merely respond to
stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes,
changing conditions and they strive towards GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL
goal. LEARNING THEORY
Cognitive maps in rats. (Pattern) 1. People can learn by observing the behavior of
Famous experiments on rats concluded that the others and the outcomes of those behaviors.
organism or individual to be exact learned the 2. Learning can occur without a change in
same location and will select the shortest behavior.
path to achieve goal. 3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
Latent learning. (Hidden learning) 4. Social learning theory can be considered a
Learning that remains or stays with the bridge or a transition between behaviorist
individual until needed. learning theories and cognitive learning theories.
Learning that is outwardly manifested at
once. HOW THE ENVIRONMENT REINFORCES
The concept of intervening variable. (Drive) AND PUNISHES MODELING
Variables that are not readily seen but serves People are often reinforced for modeling the
as a determinants of behavior. behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the
Learning is mediated or influenced by environment also reinforces modeling. This is in
expectations, perceptions, representations, several possible ways:
needs, and other internal or environmental 1. The observer is reinforced by the model.
variables. 2. The observer is reinforced by a third person.
Reinforcement not essential for learning. 3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing
Reinforcement is not essential for learning, consequences. Many behaviors that we learn
although it provides an incentive for from others produce satisfying or reinforcing
performance. results.
4. Consequences of the model's behavior affect the
observer's behavior vicariously. This is known as
vicarious reinforcement. It's like when you
imitate behavior based on someone else's
reinforced behavior
Overt - shown Behavior
Covert - hidden behavior

COGNITIVE FACTORS IN
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
1. Learning without performance (through observation and actual imitation)
2. Cognitive processing during learning (attention is a critical factor in learning)
3. Expectations (people form about the consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring, learner
needs to be aware of the reinforcement and punishment)
4. Reciprocal causation (person, behavior, and environment can have an influence on each other)
5. Modeling (live model is a an actual person demonstrating the behavior, symbolic model can be a
person or action portrayed in tv, radio, etc.)

BEHAVIORS THAT CAN BE LEARNED

THROUGH MODELING
Many behaviors can be learned at least partly, through modeling.
Aggression can be learned through models.
Moral thinking and moral behavior are influence by observation and modeling.
Moral judgement regarding right and wrong, which can, in part, develop through modeling.

4 PHASES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING:

1. Attention - pay attention to the model
2. Retention - remember the behavior
3. Motor reproduction - ability to replicate
4. Motivational process - want to demonstrate

Cognitivism
In Cognitivism, the learner is viewed as an Law of Pragnanz (means order) - law of
information processor like a computer. simplicity; brain makes complex ideas simpler
Law of Figure and Ground - we can distinguish
I. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY an object from background
One of the most important theories of perception is
the Gestalt Theory. It was developed by Max II. WOlfghang Kohler's insight /
Wertheimer and carried on by Wolfghang Kohler and
discovery learning / problem
Kurt Koffka.
solving theory
They suggested that learners do not just collect
The capacity to discern true nature of situation
information but they actively process and
Imaginative power to see into and understand
restructure data in order to understand it. This is
immediately (sudden idea/flashbulb)
called perceptual process.
Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring,
analysing, and structuring perception until a
PRINCIPLES OF GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY solution is arrived at
Law of Proximity - objects near each other
belongs together; mastery connection (recap and
review); relation of past and present iii. Lewin's Topological and vector
Law of Similarity - similar will be perceived as theory (field theory)
part of the group e.g., in physics, you apply math
Focused on psychological field or life space of an
Law of Closure - we fill gaps or 'close' the figures
individual
we perceive e.g. summarize the topics, reflect
The behavior of an individual at a given moment
Law of Good Continuation - people tend to
is the result of existing forces operating
draw good continuous line e.g., physics is
simultaneously in his life space
different from trigonometry
IV. David Ausubel's Meaningful VII. ROBERT GAGNE's NINE EVENTS of
learning theory (subsumption instruction
theory) The assumption is that different types of learning
exists, and that different instructional conditions are
He viewed learning as an active process not simply most likely to bring about these different types of
responding to you environment. learning.

Learners make sense of their surroundings by In his view, effective instruction must reach beyond
integrating new knowledge with that which they traditional learning theories and can provide support
have already learned. to transition from simple to complex skills. Thus
using a hierarchical model for learning.

THE NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

1. Gaining attention
4 Processes by which learning can 2. Informing the learners of the objectives
3. Stimulating recall prior learning
occur:
4. Presenting stimulus
Derivative Subsumption - new information 5. Providing learning guidance
is learned 6. Eliciting performance
Correlative Subsumption - expand your 7. Providing feedback
knowledge 8. Assessing performance
Superordinate Learning - you know lots of
examples
Combinatorial Learning - newly acquired
knowledge combined to old knowledge

v. Jerome Bruner's Discovery

Learning Theory
Bruner believes that students must be active, they
must identify key principles for themselves rather
than simply accepting teacher's explanation.

SPIRAL CURRICULUM - teaching the same subject but

increases level of difficulty

3 MODES OF REPRESENTATION
Enactive (action-based)
Iconic (image-based)
Symbolic (language-based)

VI. RICHARD ATKINSON's AND RICHARD

SHIFFRIN's INFORMATION PROCESSING
THEORY
The individual learns when the human minds takes
in information (encoding), performs operation on it
and stores the information (storage), and retrieves it
when needed (retrieval).

Memory is the ability to store information so that it

can be used at a later time.
FRESH
THE
TEACHING
Profession
Notes
K-12 Curriculum 4 Types of Teaching Style
Handa sa Kolehiyo Permissive
Handa sa Trabaho - high in nurturance, expects little
Handa sa Negosyo - low in control attempts
- students choose on how to learn and
Science Education - this aims to develop what to learn
scientific literacy among learners that will Authoritarian
prepare them to be informed and participate - dictator, doesn't encourage interaction
citizens who are able to make judgements and - establishes competition among students
decisions regarding applications of scientific - high in nurturance but parent-
knowledge. It also integrates science and tech in centered/controlling
the social, economical, personal, and ethical Authoritative
aspects of life. - bidirectional communication/responsive
- high in demands and high in
K-12 Science Curriculum - will provide learners expectations
with repertoire of competencies that are Neglecting Teaching Style
important in the world of work and in a - uninvolved
knowledge-based society. It also envisions the - rejecting, expects little and low in
development of scientifically, technologically, and nurturance
environmentally literate and productive
members of society.

Productive Members of the Society:

1. Critical problem solvers
4 PILLARS OF LEARNING IN 21st CENTURY
2. Responsible stewards of nature
learning to know
3. Innovative
learning to do
4. Creative citizens
learning to live together
5. Informed decision-makers
learning to be
6. Effective communicators

K-12 Science Curriculum is also designed

Pygmalion Effect - teacher's expectations
around the 3 domains of learning science:
affects/influence student's performance
a. understanding and applying scientific
knowledge in local and global context
Ikigai - reason for living; indicate the source of
b. performing scientific processes and skills
value on one's living
c. developing and demonstrating scientific
attitude

K-12 Science curriculum is facilitated with the

following approaches:
1. multi-disciplinary approach
2. science-tech approach
3. contextual learning
4. problem/issue-based learning
5. inquiry-based approach

Without science content and science

processes in the K12 Curriculum, we will have
difficulty utilizing science process skills.

Motivation:
Hands on, minds on, hearts on.
SECRETS OF
A GREAT TEACHER
1. Passion
- enthusiasm for something
- to suffer if you love something
- showing passion by your ikigai
- you love the others

Do what you are

good at

Found meaning in
Providing value to
what you are
others
doing

Mediocre Teacher TELLS

Good Teacher EXPLAINS
Superior Teacher DEMONSTRATES
Great Teacher INSPIRES

- William Arthur Ward

Effective Teaching
- teaching students to learn
- every student encounter should be thought of as a student's opportunity of learning

2. Explore
- out of the box pedagogical approach

20th century 21st century

1. Filling the vessel (teacher as the transmitter 1. Kindling the fire (teacher as the
of knowledge) guide/facilitator of learning)
2. Traditional teaching 2. Discovery (students led to discover more)
3. Retelling (mediocre teaching) 3. Learning to learn
4. Learning is passive 4. Learning is active
5. Time-based (basta matapos ang oras, tapos 5. Outcome-based (based on performance,
na rin klase) okay maabutan ng oras basta kita result)
6. Memorization of Facts (rote learning/LOTS) 6. Analyzing/Comprehension (HOTS)
7. Lectures (transmit only) 7. Discussion (reciprocal/response)
8. Pragmatic curriculum 8. Integrated curriculum (spiral and student-
9. Lots of discipline problems because of based)
authoritarian teachers 9. Few discipline problem
10. Low expectations 10. High expectations
11. Textbook-driven 11. Research-based
12. Working independently 12. Collaborative work
13. No student freedom 13. Great deal of student freedom
14. School being irrelevant and boring 14. School members connected to the
15. Teacher as a judge students
16. Taught them the material, it's up to them 15. Facilitator
to learn 16. Learning focused
17. Authorities 17. Worldwide audience

3. ENGAGE
- to occupy, to attract, to involve someone's interest or attention

To engage the students in our lesson, use our potent weapon, our voice. Be enthusiastic,
have a great personality, be spontaneous, add slight humor to lessons when children's
attention is steadily dropped, provide ice breakers, etc. Teacher is the leader and will lead the
students to their goal.

Dr. John Medina coined the 10-minute rule. He stated that in 10 minutes, students' attention
will steadily drop. Do something emotionally relevant at each 10 minutes to regain attention.

We must remember the 10-MINUTE RULE:

1. Ask questions.
2. Be unpredictable.
3. Utilize your voice.
4. Establish rapport to the students by having engaging personality while being conscious
about your hygiene.

After the discussion and students agreed that they understand the lesson, do the following:
1. Review the topic. Ask/test what they know.
2. Be unpredictable in pedagogical strategies.
3. Establish rapport. We need to do movements such as signal interference. Louder voice
can also emphasize terms.

4. AHA
- to make the students think by tapping their metacognition
- let the students think critically

5. CHALLENGE

Pygmalion Effect - shows that teachers' expectations influences student performance

High expectations lead to high/exemplary performance.
Low expectations lead to low/no result.
6. FAIL
- overcome failure

ACCEPTANCE

When a person experience failure, one remain in sleeping on it while other one remain on
working on it.

7. CARE
- no teacher's pet
- genuine to everyone while still having authority
- should not abuse students to provide a good performance project
- should appreciate the students

Don't just teach, but teach with a heart to transform the lives of the students.

8. MOTIVATION

Rule of thumb: Do not surround yourself with negative people. Keep in touch with your ikigai.
A good teacher is like a candle, it consumes itself to light the way of the others.
Believe you can do it, so you can make things happen!

9. CRITICIZE

Teacher must be open with criticism. Don't be too sensitive. Criticism is meant to help you be
a better person. Learn from it.

Profess
- someone who claim to have status (to become licensed teacher) and purpose (to teach as an expert
teacher and books ahead of your students)9

Professional Teacher
- has competent skill
- has high standards in service
- abides the Code of Ethics

Professionalism
- demonstrate competent skills, high standards, and qualities expected of a person in the profession

Licensed Professional Teacher > Licensed Teacher

Licensed Professional Teacher - you don't think about yourself, you think about the others
Licensed Teacher - I, me, myself
Teaching as a
profession
A profession is one who conforms to the technical or PRE-HISPANIC PERIOD
ethical standards of a profession. There are two There was no established formal schooling in the
elements of a profession, which are: competence and country. So there was no formal preparation for
a Code of Ethics. teachers, too. The mothers and fathers, and tribal
leaders served as teachers at home and in the
The other elements of a profession also includes: community.
1. Initial Professional Education - long years of

initial professional education SPANISH PERIOD

2. Accreditation - the attainment of a By virtue of Educational Decree of 1863, free
college/university degree recognized by a public school system was established. There was
regulatory body, CHED one school for boys, and one school for girls in
3. Licensing - a licensure examination called the ever municipality. The Spanish missionaries
LET served as teachers. The same Decree provided for
4. Professional Development - continuing a normal school run by Jesuits to educate male
professional development, and teachers in Manila, and they were called the
5. Professional Societies - professionals see maestros. Normal schools for women were not
themselves as part of a community of like-minded established until 1875. It was the Spaniards who
individuals who put their professional standards started training teachers in normal schools.
above the self-interest or their employer's self-

interest Women were inferior than men.

6. Code of Ethics - adherence to the Code of Ethics

for Professional Teacher The courses that were available to take for men

only were law, medicine, philosophy, and

pharmacy.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHING

AS A PROFESSION IN THE PHILIPPINES AMERICAN PERIOD

American soldiers served as the first teachers. In
Presidential Decree 1006 issued by President 1901, the Philippine Commission enacted into law
Ferdinand E. Marcos was the first legal document that Act 74 which created the Department of Public
professionalized teaching. Instruction, laid the foundations of the public
school system and offered free primary education
PD 1006 or Decree Professionalizing Teaching that for Filipinos.
teachers in the Philippines became professionalized

in 1976. The need to professionalize teaching was felt There was a shortage of teachers that's why the
"to ensure that in the immediacy and urgency of Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary
teacher recruitment, qualitative requirements are not of DPI to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers
overlooked..." and "although teaching requires a from the US, which were called the Thomasites.
number of years of collegiate study, it is the only

course that is not yet considered a profession" (PD Due to the urgent need for teachers, the
1006). Americans gave the Filipino students and
opportunity to take up higher education in
R.A. 7836 or Philippine Teachers Professionalization American colleges and universities financed by
Act of 1994, was passed to ..."promote quality the Philippine Government. They were called the
education by proper supervision and regulation of pensionados.
the licensure examination and professionalization of

the practice of teaching profession." (Section 2) In 1901, a two-year preparation for teachers was
given by Philippine Sschool. Then the two years
became four years since the two-year academic
preparation was seen inadequate. To ensure
quality teachers and to a four-year teacher
education course, passing a licensure
examination was made mandatory by R.A. 7836.
Notes
Teacher as a Professional
Professional, ethical, and has moral competence
Arduous years of professional education
Passed the LET
Abides the Code of Ethics
Must go/gone CPD
Demonstrates professionalism
professional knowledge
creates a favorable learning environment
has excellent IMs
Good in instructional delivery
classroom management
how you profess in front
Practice assessment
must be performance based
routines may lead to boredom
Mastery of the subject matter

SOCIETY's DEMANDS
FROM THE TEACHER AS The Philippine standards
A PROFESSIONAL for teachers (PPST)
TEACHER

According to the PPST, quality teachers in the

Philippines need to possess the following
The main responsibility of a teacher is to teach. characteristics:
The teacher's primary customer is the learner.
Since the main task of the professional teacher is 1. recognize the importance of mastery of
to teach, society's demands from him/her content knowledge and its
teaching competence. Teaching competence is interconnectedness within and across
spelled out in the PPST and in the four models of curriculum areas
effective teaching given in the preceding 2. provide learning environments that are safe,
paragraphs. This means she/he has to: secure, fair, and supportive in order to

promote learner responsibility and
1. prepare and plan very well for instruction achievement
2. execute or deliver that instruction very 3. establish learning environments that are
well because she/he has professional responsive to learner diversity
knowledge 4. interact with the national and local
3. create a conducive favorable learning curriculum requirements
environment for diverse groups of learners 5. apply a variety of assessment tools and
4. assess and report learner's progress strategies in monitoring, evaluating,
5. demonstrate professionalism as he/she documenting, and reporting learners' needs,
deals with superiors, colleagues, students, progress, and achievement
and parents 6. establish school-community partnerships

aimed at enriching the learning environment,
as well as the community's engagement in
the educative process
7. value personal growth and professional
development and exhibit high personal
regard for the profession by maintaining the
qualities that uphold the dignity of teaching
such as caring attitude, respect, and integrity.
SOCIETY's DEMANDS FROM THE PRAGMATISM/EXPERIMENTALISM -
TEACHER AS A PERSON William James; John Dewey - learn from
experiences through interaction to the
environment
- emphasizes the needs and interests
12 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN of the children

EFFECTIVE TEACHER:
PERENNIALISM - Robert Hutchins

-focuses on unchanging/universal
1. Prepared - come to class each day ready truths
to teach

2. Positive - optimistic attitude ESSENTIALISM - William Bagley - teaching

3. Hold high expectations - no limits on the basic/essential knowledge
students, believe everyone can be - focuses on basic skills and
successful knowledge
4. Creative - resourceful and innovative
5. Fair - handling and grading students fairly PROGRESSIVISM - Dewey/Pestalozzi
6. Display a personal touch - approachable - (process of development)
7. Cultivate a sense of belonging - have a - focuses on the whole child and the
way to make the students feel welcome cultivation of individuality
and comfortable in classroom

8. Compassionate - concerned about CONSTRUCTIVISM - Jean Piaget

students' personal problems - focused on how humans make
9. Have a sense of humor - make learning meaning in relation to the interaction
fun b/w their experiences and their ideas
10. Respect students - do not deliberately - nature of knowledge w/c represents
embarrass students; respect begets an epistemological stance
respect

11. Forgiving - do not hold grudges SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM - George

12. Admit mistakes - quick to admit being Counts
wrong - recognized that education was the
means of preparing people for
creating his new social order
- highlights social reform as the aim of
education
Philosophical foundations

of education ACCULTURATION - learning other culture;

the passing of customs, beliefs and
tradition through interaction and reading.
IDEALISM - Plato (own ideas) nothing exist
except in the mind of a man/ what we ENCULTURATION - the passing of group's
want the world to be custom, beliefs and traditions from one
generation to the next generation
REALISM - Aristotle; Herbart; Comenius;
Pestalozzi; Montessori; Hobbes; Bacon; Convergent questions - are those that
Locke typically have one correct answer.
- (experience) fully mastery of
knowledge Divergent questions - also called open-
ended questions are used to encourage
BEHAVIORISM always guided by many answers and generate greater
standards/by procedure; purpose is to participation of students. Higher order
modify the behavior thinking skills; to think more creatively.

EXISTENTIALISM - Kierkegaard; Sartre;

"Man shapes his being as he lives."
- focuses on self/individual

GLOBAL AND GLOCAL

TEACHER

A globally competent teacher: 21st Century

Has a knowledge of world, critical global learning goals
issues and their local impacts, and the
cultural backgrounds of learners 21st century content : global awareness,

financial, economic, business and
Has to manifest intercultural sensitivity entrepreneurial literacy, civic literacy ,
and acceptance of difference and health and environmental awareness.
incorporates this knowledge and
sensitivity into classroom practice and Learning and thinking skills: critical
develops the skills to foster these thinking and problem solving skills ,
disposition, knowledge and performances communication, creativity and innovation,
in learners. collaboration , contextual learning ,
information and media literacy.
ICT literacy - using technology in the
GLOBAL EDUCATION GOALS context of learning so students know how
to learn.
(UNESCO) Life skills: leadership, ethics, accountability
, personal responsibility , self direction
to develop countries worldwide and is others.
aimed at educating all people in 21st century assessments: authentic
accordance with world standards assessments that measure

increased knowledge about the peoples of

the world to resolutions of global
How to become a global teacher?
problems
You should be equipped with:
wider range of knowledge of the various
increased fluency in foreign languages
educational systems outside the country
master skills and competencies which can
development of more tolerant attitudes
address global demands,
towards other cultures and peoples
possess attitudes and values that are
acceptable to multicultural communities.
UNESCO’S EDUCATION 2030 INCHEON
DECLARATION DURING THE WORLD
EDUCATION FORUM: Towards inclusive and
equitable quality educational lifelong learning
for all.

By 2030, SDG 4 MUST HAVE:

Universal primary and secondary education
Early childhood development and universal
pre – primary education
Equal access to technical/vocational and
higher education
Relevant skills for decent work
Gender equality and inclusion
Universal youth literacy
Education for sustainable development and
global citizenship.
What is Glocal Education?
Glocal Education is about diversity, MASTER PLAN FOR
understanding the differences and teaching the TEACHER EDUCATION:
different cultural groups in their own context to
achieve the goals of global education. Cultural and historical rootedness – building
on the culture and the history of the learners
Who is a Glocal teacher? and place
A global teacher who is competent and armed Ability to contextualize teaching – learning by
with enough skills , appropriate attitude and using local and indigenous material
universal values to teach learners at home or materials, content and pedagogy whenever
abroad but is equipped with both time tested appropriate
as well as modern technologies in education in Excellence in personal and professional
any time and any place in the world. competence , leadership, research,
technology innovation and creativity
A global outlook adapted to the local condition Responsiveness through social involvement
or a local outlook adapted to the global and service
condition. Accountability and integrity - role model with
strong moral character • Ecological
A glocal teacher is someone who thinks and sensitivity - steward of the environment
acts both locally and globally with worldwide Nationalism/Filipinism - by being a
perspectives but is teaching in the communities responsible citizen
, localities, towns, provinces and regions where Faith in the Divine Providence
he is situated.

As a future teacher YOU HAVE TO BLEND BOTH

GLOBAL AND LOCAL PERSPECTIVES. THINK
GLOBALLY BUT ACT LOCALLY OR THINK LOCAL
BUT ACT GLOBAL

A GLOCAL FILIPINO TEACHER MUST:

Understand how this world is
interconnected
Recognize that the world has rich variety of
ways of life
Have a vision of the future and sees what
the future would be for himself and the
students
Be creative and innovative
Understand, respect and tolerant of the
diversity of cultures
Believe and take action for education that
will sustain the future
Facilitate digitally mediated learning
Posses good communication skills
Aware of international teacher standards
and framework
Master the competencies of the beginning
teacher in the Philippine Professional
Standards for Teachers
LAWS IN EDUCATION

PRC BR 435
Code of Ethics for Professional Teacher

PD 1006
Decree Professionalizing Teachers

RA NO. 4670
Magna Carta for Public School Teachers

RA 7722
Commission on Higher Education

RA 7796
TESDA Act of 1994

RA 7836
Phil. Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994

RA 9155
BEGA (Basic Educ.) or DepEd Law

RA 10533
K-12 Law

RA 2706
Private School Law

COMMONWEALTH ACT NO. 578

"persons in authority"

PHIL. CONSTITUTION ACT 14

Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports

RA 1079
No limit of Civil Service eligibility

RA 6655
Free Public Secondary Educ. Act of 1988

RA 6728
Act Providing Government Assistance to Students and Teachers in Private Education

RA 7277
Magna Carta for PWD

RA 7610
Anti-Child Abuse Law (Amendment: RA 9231)