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CYCLE 1
1st Semester | A.Y. 2021-2022

MODULE 2-3
Human Development Theories
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development,
Erick Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development,
Behaviorism; Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning,
Social Learning Theory of Albert Badura,
Ecological Systems Theory,
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory,
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

September 13-25, 2021

FTC 101
The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles
ROMMEL S. CARREON, PhD
Instructor

BEED 2A, BPED 2A, BSED ENG 2A, BSED MATH 2A

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THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES

First Semester AY 2021-2022
FTC 101
MODULE 2-3

Theories of Human Development

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Demonstrate in-depth understanding on the different theories of human development.
2. Recognize, compare and differentiate Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development, Erick
Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development, Behaviorism; Classical Conditioning and
Operant Conditioning, Social Learning Theory of Albert Badura, Ecological Systems Theory
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory, Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
3. Create and utilize learning materials appropriate on the different theories human development.

TOPIC OUTLINE
a. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development
b. Erick Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development
c. Behaviorism; Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
d. Social Learning Theory of Albert Badura

READINGS
Freud's Psychosexual Developmental Theory

Psychoanalytic theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. Through his clinical work with patients
suffering from mental illness, Freud came to believe that childhood experiences and unconscious desires influenced
behavior. According to Freud, conflicts that occur during each of these stages can have a lifelong influence on person-
ality and behavior. Freud proposed one of the best-known grand theories of child development. According to Freud’s
psychosexual theory, child development occurs in a series of stages focused on different pleasure areas of the body.
During each stage, the child encounters conflicts that play a significant role in the course of development. His theory
suggested that the energy of the libido was focused on different erogenous zones at specific stages. Failure to progress
through a stage can result in fixation at that point in development, which Freud believed could have an influence on
adult behavior.

So, what happens as children complete each stage? And what might result if a child does poorly during a
particular point in development? Successfully completing each stage leads to the development of a healthy adult per-
sonality. Failing to resolve the conflicts of a particular stage can result in fixations that can then have an influence on
adult behavior. While some other child development theories suggest that personality continues to change and grow
over the entire lifetime, Freud believed that it was early experiences that played the greatest role in shaping develop-
ment. According to Freud, personality is largely set in stone by the age of five.

Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic or Psychosexual Stages of Development

The psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior. Psychoanalytic theory
suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality
development and continue to influence behavior later in life. Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can
help build growth or stifle development, depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages are
completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage,
fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the
individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example, may be over-
dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and
sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation
through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who
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are responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If
fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral
fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel
movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs.
Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. According to Freud, success at this
stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for
using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.
Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the basis for people to become com-
petent, productive, and creative adults. However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children
need during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents. According to Freud, inappropriate
parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that
an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. If
parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in
which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age,
children also begin to discover the differences between males and females. Freud also believed that boys begin to view
their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess
the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for
these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety. The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar
set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy. Eventually,
the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls,
however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this
stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women.
Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a
concept she referred to as womb envy.

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children develop
social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family. The development of the ego and
superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become
more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. The latent period is a time of exploration in which
the sexual energy repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intel-
lectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills
and self-confidence. As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to become
fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling rela-
tionships as an adult.

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of psychosexual
development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but
last throughout the rest of a person's life. Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in
the welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life
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areas. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and
caring. Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully
formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of
the most basic needs and wants. Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges
against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

Criticisms of the Psychosexual Stages

The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female psychosexual devel-
opment. His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the libido are impossible to measure, and
therefore cannot be tested. The research that has been conducted tends to discredit Freud's theory. Future predictions
are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood experience? The length
of time between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the two variables.
Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections
of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of children.

Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Psychoanalytic theory was an enormously influential force during the first half of the twentieth century. Those
inspired and influenced by Freud went on to expand upon Freud's ideas and develop theories of their own. Of these
neo-Freudians, Erik Erikson's ideas have become perhaps the best known. Erikson’s eight-stage theory of psychosocial
development describes growth and change throughout life, focusing on social interaction and conflicts that arise during
different stages of development. While Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development shared some similarities with
Freud's, it is dramatically different in many ways. Rather than focusing on sexual interest as a driving force in develop-
ment, Erikson believed that social interaction and experience played decisive roles. His eight-stage theory of human
development described this process from infancy through death. During each stage, people are faced with a develop-
mental conflict that impacts later functioning and further growth. Unlike many other developmental theories, Erik
Erikson's psychosocial theory focuses on development across the entire lifespan. At each stage, children and adults face
a developmental crisis that serves as a major turning point. Successfully managing the challenges of each stage leads
to the emergence of a lifelong psychological virtue.

A brief summary of the eight stages:

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year of age and is
the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability
and quality of the child's caregivers. At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers
for everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide
adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life.

Outcomes

If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world.2 Caregivers who are
inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care.
Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. During the first
stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and
affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt.
Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When
this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness
that danger may be present. Subsequent work by researchers including John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth demonstrated
the importance of trust in forming healthy attachments during childhood and adulthood.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is
focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

The Role of Independence

At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to perform
basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and
gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy. The essential theme of this stage
is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty
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training plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy. Like Freud, Erikson believed that
toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's.
Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection. Children
who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of personal control. Success during
this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense
of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt
would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point in psychosocial
development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social
interactions. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire
these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

Outcomes

The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin asserting control
and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much
power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willing-
ness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11.
Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children
need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in
feelings of inferiority.

Outcomes

Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and
belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their
abilities to be successful. Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength
known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often-turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an essential
role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest
of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to
yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. During adolescence, children explore their
independence and develop a sense of self. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through per-
sonal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control.
Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

What Is Identity?

When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that help shape
and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability
to live by society's standards and expectations. While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development
was important, he placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense
of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion
stage of psychosocial development. According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences
and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on chal-
lenges that can help or hinder the development of identity.

Why Identity Is Important

Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures through our lives.
Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps
guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.
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Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relation-
ships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are
exploring personal relationships. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with
other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure. Remember
that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was
important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to
have less committed relationships and are more likely to struggler with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting,
meaningful relationships with other people.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive
change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in
shallow involvement in the world. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their
home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world. Care is the
virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children
grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. At this point in
development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived
or if they regret the things they did or didn't do. Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed
development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense
of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back on a life they feel
was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back
and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they
should have.

Outcomes

Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may experience many
regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments
will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.

Behavioral Child Development Theories

During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school of thought known as behaviorism rose to become
a dominant force within psychology. Behaviorists believed that psychology needed to focus only on observable and
quantifiable behaviors in order to become a more scientific discipline. According to the behavioral perspective, all
human behavior can be described in terms of environmental influences. Some behaviorists, such as John B. Watson
and B.F. Skinner, insisted that learning occurs purely through processes of association and reinforcement. Behavioral
theories of child development focus on how environmental interaction influences behavior and is based on the theories
of theorists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner. These theories deal only with observable behaviors.
Development is considered a reaction to rewards, punishments, stimuli, and reinforcement. This theory differs consid-
erably from other child development theories because it gives no consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead,
it focuses purely on how experience shapes who we are. Two important types of learning that emerged from this
approach to development are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning
by pairing a naturally occurring stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement
and punishment to modify behaviors. Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a major influence on the
school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical con-
ditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally
occurring stimulus.

Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov

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Although classical conditioning was not discovered by a psychologist at all, it had a tremendous influence over
the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism. Behaviorism is based on the assumption that: All learning
occurs through interactions with the environment & The environment shapes behavior

Classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic
experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in
response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus (food), the sound of the tone
alone could produce the salivation response.3

How Classical Conditioning Works

In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is important to become familiar
with the basic principles of the process. Classical conditioning involves forming an association between two stimuli
resulting in a learned response.4 There are three basic phases of this process.

Phase 1: Before Conditioning

The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically
elicit a response. Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally occurring stimulus. During
this phase of the processes, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) results in an unconditioned response (UCR).4 For exam-
ple, presenting food (the UCS) naturally and automatically triggers a salivation response (the UCR). At this point, there
is also a neutral stimulus that produces no effect—yet. It isn't until this neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS that it
will come to evoke a response.

Let's take a closer look at the two critical components of this phase of classical conditioning:

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. For
example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell
of the food is the unconditioned stimulus. The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally
in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the
unconditioned response. In the before conditioning phase, an unconditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned
response. A neutral stimulus is then introduced.

Phase 2: During Conditioning

During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly
paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association between the previously neutral stim-
ulus and the UCS is formed. At this point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).
The subject has now been conditioned to respond to this stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral
stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned
response. In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a
whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times
with the smell, the whistle sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the
whistle is the conditioned stimulus. The during conditioning phase involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an uncon-
ditioned stimulus. Eventually, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus.

Phase 3: After Conditioning

Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned stimulus alone
will come to evoke a response even without the unconditioned stimulus. The resulting response is known as the con-
ditioned response (CR). The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our
example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle. In the after-
conditioning phase, the conditioned stimulus alone triggers the conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning- B. F. Skinner

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that employs
rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and
a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior. For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green
light is on, they receive a food pellet as a reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild
electric shock. As a result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light. But operant
conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings while training lab animals. It also plays a
powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and punishment take place in natural settings all the time, as well
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as in more structured settings such as classrooms or therapy s His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psy-
chologist Edward Thorndike, who had proposed what he called the law of effect.3 According to this principle, actions
that are followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes
are less likely to be repeated. Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise: Actions that are followed by
reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. If you tell a funny story in class and
everybody laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that story again in the future. If you raise your hand to ask a
question and your teacher praises your polite behavior, you will be more likely to raise your hand the next time you
have a question or comment. Because the behavior was followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the pre-
ceding action is strengthened. Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weak-
ened and less likely to occur again in the future. If you tell the same story again in another class but nobody laughs
this time, you will be less likely to repeat the story again in the future. If you shout out an answer in class and your
teacher scolds you, then you might be less likely to interrupt the class again.

Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and
imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory considers how both envi-
ronmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior.

In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of

1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.

2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.

Observational Learning

Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated during the famous Bobo
doll experiment (Bandura, 1961). Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded
by many influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within their peer
group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of behavior to observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and
feminine, pro and anti-social, etc. Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behavior.
At a later time, they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior they have observed. They may do this regardless of whether
the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but there are a number of processes that make it more likely that a child
will reproduce the behavior that its society deems appropriate for its gender. First, the child is more likely to attend to
and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by
people of the same gender. Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either
reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is
likely to continue performing the behavior. If a parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says “what a kind
girl you are,” this is rewarding for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat the behavior. Her behavior
has been reinforced (i.e., strengthened). Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative. If
a child wants approval from parents or peers, this approval is an external reinforcement, but feeling happy about being
approved of is an internal reinforcement. A child will behave in a way which it believes will earn approval because it
desires approval. Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the reinforcement offered externally
does not match with an individual's needs. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, but the important factor is that
it will usually lead to a change in a person's behavior. Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to
other people when deciding whether or not to copy someone’s actions. A person learns by observing the consequences
of another person’s (i.e., models) behavior, e.g., a younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a particular
behavior is more likely to repeat that behavior herself. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This relates to an
attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as rewarding. Children will have a number of models with
whom they identify. These may be people in their immediate world, such as parents or older siblings, or could be
fantasy characters or people in the media. The motivation to identify with a particular model is that they have a quality
which the individual would like to possess. Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking
on (or adopting) observed behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you are identifying. The
term identification as used by Social Learning Theory is similar to the Freudian term related to the Oedipus complex.
For example, they both involve internalizing or adopting another person’s behavior. However, during the Oedipus
complex, the child can only identify with the same sex parent, whereas with Social Learning Theory the person (child
or adult) can potentially identify with any other person. Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number
of behaviors being adopted, whereas imitation usually involves copying a single behavior.

Mediational Processes
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SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between traditional learning theory (i.e., behaviorism) and the cognitive
approach. This is because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning. Unlike Skinner, Bandura
(1977) believes that humans are active information processors and think about the relationship between their behavior
and its consequences. Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. These mental
factors mediate (i.e., intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired. Therefore,
individuals do not automatically observe the behavior of a model and imitate it. There is some thought prior to imitation,
and this consideration is called mediational processes. This occurs between observing the behavior (stimulus) and imi-
tating it or not (response)

Social Learning Theory Mediational Processes

There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:

Attention: The individual needs to pay attention to the behavior and its consequences and form a mental representation
of the behavior. For a behavior to be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviors on a daily basis,
and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a behavior influences
others imitating it.

Retention: How well the behavior is remembered. The behavior may be noticed but is it not always remembered which
obviously prevents imitation. It is important therefore that a memory of the behavior is formed to be performed later
by the observer. Much of social learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those cases. Even if the
behavior is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to.

Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. We see much behavior
on a daily basis that we would like to be able to imitate but that this not always possible. We are limited by our physical
ability and for that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the behavior, we cannot. This influences our decisions whether
to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old-lady who struggles to walk watching Dancing on Ice.
She may appreciate that the skill is a desirable one, but she will not attempt to imitate it because she physically cannot
do it.

Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment that follow a behavior will be considered
by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the behavior will be more
likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer,
then they will not imitate the behavior.

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. It also looks at how these
thought processes influence how we understand and interact with the world. Theorist Jean Piaget proposed one of the
most influential theories of cognitive development. Piaget proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped revo-
lutionize how we think about child development: Children think differently than adults. His cognitive theory seeks to
describe and explain the development of thought processes and mental states. It also looks at how these thought
processes influence the way we understand and interact with the world. Piaget then proposed a theory of cognitive
development to account for the steps and sequence of children's intellectual development.

Sensorimotor Stage: A period of time between birth and age two during which an infant's knowledge of the world is
limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused
by sensory stimuli.

Pre-Operational Stage: A period between ages 2 and 6 during which a child learns to use language. During this stage,
children do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information and are unable to take the point
of view of other people.

Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages 7 and 11 during which children gain a better understanding of
mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events but have difficulty understanding abstract
or hypothetical concepts.

Formal Operational Stage: A period between age 12 to adulthood when people develop the ability to think about
abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this
stage

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

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Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
• Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
• Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
• They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
• They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory
experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through
basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses. It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of
dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries
about how the world works. The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short
period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as
crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget
also broke this stage down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor stage
that early representational thought emerges. Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy,
the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point
of development. By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own
outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
• Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete
terms. The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is the emergence
of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.3 Children become much
more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think very concretely about the world
around them. At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view
of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy. For example, a researcher might
take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play
with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat
shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the
same size.

Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development in Young Children

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
• They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal
to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example.
• Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
• Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become
much more adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at
thinking about how other people might view a situation. While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete
operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypo-
thetical concepts. During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people
might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to
them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Concrete Operational Stage in Cognitive Development

The Formal Operational Stage

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Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems.
Abstract thought emerges. Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues
that require theoretical and abstract reasoning. Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to
specific information. The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reason-
ing, and an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions
to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them. The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and
situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically
plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage. It
is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process; that is, kids
do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested
that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages.4 A child at
age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how
he thinks about the world.

Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

Important Concepts of Piaget

To better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive development, it is important first to
examine a few of the important ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget.

The following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and grow:

Schemas. A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas
are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world. In Piaget's view, a schema includes
both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new infor-
mation is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas. For example, a child may have a schema
about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe
that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child
will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these new observations.

Assimilation. The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as assimilation.
The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our
preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into
the child's dog schema.

Accommodation. Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new infor-
mation, a process known as. mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the stages of cognitive
development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing
behavior to account for new.

Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live.
Sociocultural theory also suggests that human learning is largely a social process. Sociocultural theory grew from
the work of seminal psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who believed that parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at
large were responsible for developing higher-order functions. According to Vygotsky, learning has its basis in
interacting with other people. Once this has occurred, the information is then integrated on the individual level.
Vygotsky was a contemporary of other great thinkers such as Freud, Skinner, and Piaget, but his early death at age
37 and the suppression of his work in Stalinist Russia left him in relative obscurity until fairly recently. As his work
became more widely published, his ideas have grown increasingly influential in areas including child development,
cognitive psychology, and education. Sociocultural theory focuses not only how adults and peers influence
individual learning, but also on how cultural beliefs and attitudes affect how learning takes place. According to
Vygotsky, children are born with basic biological constraints on their minds. Each culture, however, provides
"tools of intellectual adaptation." These tools allow children to use their abilities in a way that is adaptive to the
culture in which they live. For example, while one culture might emphasize memory strategies such as note-taking,
another might use tools like reminders or rote memorization.

Piaget vs. Vygotsky: Key Differences

12

How does Vygotsky's sociocultural theory differ from Piaget's theory of cognitive development? First,
Vygotsky placed a greater emphasis on how social factors influence development. While Piaget's theory stressed
how a child's interactions and explorations influenced development, Vygotsky stressed the essential role that social
interactions play in cognitive development. Another important difference between the two theories is that while
Piaget's theory suggests that development is largely universal, Vygotsky asserts that cognitive development can
differ between different cultures. The course of development in Western culture, for example, might be different
than it is in Eastern culture. In his text, "Social and Personality Development," David R. Shaffer explains that while
Piaget believed that cognitive development was fairly universal, Vygotsky believed that each culture presents
unique differences. Because cultures can vary so dramatically, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory suggests that both
the course and content of intellectual development are not as universal as Piaget believed.
The Zone of Proximal Development
An important concept in sociocultural theory is known as the zon e of proximal development.2 According
to Vygotsky, this "is the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers." Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot
yet understand or perform on their own, but is capable of learning with guidance. As children are allowed to
stretch their skills and knowledge, often by observing someone who is slightly more advanced than they are, they
are able to progressively extend this zone of proximal development.
Practical Applications for Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Sociocultural theory has gained popularity in recent years, particularly in educational settings. Here's how
this theory can be put into practice in the real world. In the Classroom. Understanding the zone of proximal
development can be helpful for teachers.3 In classroom settings, teachers may fi rst assess students to determine
their current skill level. Educators can then offer instruction that stretches the limits of each child's capabilities. At
first, the student may need assistance from an adult or a more knowledgeable peer, but eventually, t heir zone of
proximal development will expand. Teachers can help promote this expansion by: Planning and organizing their
instruction and lessons: For example, the teacher might organize the class into groups where less skilled children
are paired with students who have a higher skill level. Using hints, prompts, and direct instruction to help kids
improve their ability levels. Scaffolding, where the teacher provides specific prompts to move the child
progressively forward toward a goal.
In Socialization and Play. Vygotsky's theory also stressed the importance of play in learning.4 Teachers and parents
can use this knowledge by providing children plenty of opportunities for play experiences. Vygotsky believed that
through playing and imagining, children were able to further stretch their conceptual abilities and knowledge of
the world. Types of play that can foster learning include imaginary play, role-playing, games, and reenactments of
real events. Such activities help promote the growth of abstract thought.

The Ecological Systems Theory – Urie Bronfenbrenner

The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different environments throughout our lifespan that
may influence our behavior in varying degrees. These systems include the micro system, the me sosystem, the
exosystem, the macro system, and the chronosystem.
1. The Microsystem
The microsystem's setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family, friends, classmates, teachers,
neighbors and other people who have a direct contact w ith you are included in your micro system. The micro
system is the setting in which we have direct social interactions with these social agents. The theory states that
we are not mere recipients of the experiences we have when socializing with these people in the micro system
environment, but we are contributing to the construction of such environment.
2. The Mesosystem
The mesosytem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one's life. This means that your family
experience may be related to your school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may
have a low chance of developing positive attitude towards his teachers. Also, this child may feel awkward in the
presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates.
3. The Exosystem
The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in the person does not have any
active role, and the context where in is actively participating. Suppose a child is more attached to his father than
his mother. If the father goes abroad to work for several months, there may be a conflict between the mother and
the child's social relationship, or on the other hand, this event may result to a tighter bond between the mother
and the child.
4. The Macrosystem
The macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an individual. The cultural contexts involve the socioeconomic
status of the person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a third world country.
For example, being born to a poor family makes a person work harder every day.
5. The Chronosystem
The chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one's lifespan. This may also involve the socio -historical
contexts that may influence a person. One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may
13

affect not only the couple's relationship but also their children's behavior. According to a majority of research,
children are negatively affected on the first year after the divorce. The next years after it would reveal that the
interaction within the family becomes more stable and agreeable.

REFERENCES

Websites:
- https://www.verywellmind.com/issues-in-developmental-psychology-2795069
- https://www.verywellmind.com/child-development-theories-2795068
- https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962
- https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYCBdZLCDBQ
- https://www.simplypsychology.org/ bandura.html
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aSfPSLBw-Nc
- https://explorable.com/ecological-systems-theory
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhcgYgx7aAA
- https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457
- https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-sociocultural-theory-2795088
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8I2hrSRbmHE
-
Books:
- B.Corpuz, M. Lucas, H. Borabo & P. Lucido (2018) The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learn-
ing Principles, Lorimar Publishing Anomat, R. (2014). Child and Adolescent Development. Man-
daluyong City: Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.
- Ledesma, O, (2021) PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles,
PDFCOFFEE.COM

Instructors’ Contact details:

Name: Rommel S. Carreon

Mobile Numbers: 09098746059
Email Add: [email protected]/[email protected]
Messenger Account: Rommel Serrano Carreon
Online Office Days/Hours: Tuesday/6:00PM-9:00PM, Thursday/6:00PM-9:00PM,
Saturday/12:00pm-3:00PM, 6:00PM-9:00PM

FTC 101 Module 2-3 Worksheet:

Student No.
Name:
Course/Year & Section:

A. Multiple Choice:
✓ To be posted at Edmodo Classroom
✓ Due Date: September 25, 2021

B. Blog:
✓ Since you are unable to safely observe a preschooler in a classroom setting, you will ob-
serve a video clip of an observation: https://youtu.be/Z9tJBluH1Zw. The focus of the
taped observation is one child but this child does interact with other children and with a
teacher/teaching assistant. Answer the following questions and relate it on your learnings
on the different theories of human development.
A. Choose a group of children who are playing together. What are the themes and
plots of the play? What roles do children choose or assign one another? Is the play
gender-segregated or not? How do the children deal with disruptions of the play
scenario caused by conflicts over whose fantasy will prevail? What reflections of
the mass media do you see in the play?
14

B. Choose two or three children who are playing together, either in dramatic play,
building play, or other activities. Can you discern elements of friendship in t he way
they relate to one another? How do they resolve conflicts that arise? To what ex-
tent are other children allowed to enter or excluded from the play activity?
C. How much do the children interact with their teachers versus other children? Do
you see attachment-seeking behavior? Do you see different styles of relating to
teachers – such as friendly interaction, clinging, or withdrawal?
D. Observe for potentially stressful situations – conflict with another child, having to
wait to get the teacher’s attention, and the like. What strategies for self-regulation
do you observe? Do you see instances of aggression? What seems to have precipi-
tated aggressive behavior? Do you see instances of prosocial behavior?
✓ Due Date: September 25, 2021

Instructions
1. For students (ONLINE), upload your written work in the edmodo.com
2. For students (HUB), write your written work on a clean sheet of paper and submit it back to the
DIGIHUB you are stationed and make sure your work is properly secured and labelled.
3. Do not download or copy any samples from the internet.
4. Please make sure to have a copy of your written works (as a remedy for lost written works).
5. Rubric for scoring:

Criteria Your Score

Observation Exercise 15
Brief Literature Review 10
Quality of Writing 5
TOTAL 30

Disclaimer:
It is not the intention of the author/s nor the publisher of this module to have monetary gain in
using the textual information, imageries, and other references used in its production. This module is only
for the exclusive use of a bona fide student of Mabalacat City College.
In addition, this module or no part of it thereof may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, and/or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Mabalacat City College.

Prepared by: Reviewed by:

ROMMEL S. CARREON, PhD MAUREEN P. SANTOS, LPT, EdD

Instructor FoSH, BSED/BTVTEd

MARILYN S. ARCILLA, MAN, RN, LPT

Assistant Dean, IASTE