HANDLING

Vehicle Dynamics
Low Speed Turning
Tires need not develop
lateral force, thus they roll
with no slip angle.
Center of turn must lie on
the projection of the rear
axle.
The perpendicular from The steer angels:
each of the front wheels L L
should pass through the δo δi
t t
center of turn. R+ R−
2 2

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 2

Low Speed Turning

Ackerman Angle:
L
δ
R
– Average angle of the front wheels

Deviation from the left-right angles

– significant influence on front tire wear
– affect the centering torques in the steering system
(parallel steer – beyond certain point may diminish
and even become negative)

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 3

High Speed Cornering
Cornering Equations
∑ Fy m⋅ay

2
V
Fyf + Fyr M⋅
R

∑Mz 0

Fyf ⋅b − Fyr⋅c 0

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 4

High Speed Cornering
Cornering Forces
2 Wf V2
c V
Fyf M⋅ ⋅ ⋅
L R g R

2 Wr V2
b V
Fyr M⋅ ⋅ ⋅
L R g R

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 5

High Speed Cornering
Tire cornering
force

Fy C α ⋅α

Wf V2 Wr V2
Slip angles αf ⋅ αr ⋅
Cαf g⋅R Cαr g⋅R

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 6

High Speed Cornering
Steer angle

L
δ + αf − αr
R

L  Wf Wr  V2
δ + − ⋅
R
 Cαf Cαr  g⋅R

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 7

High Speed Cornering
Steer angle δ understeer
L ay
δ + K⋅ K
R g
L neutral
R
Understeer gradient
Wf Wr oversteer
K −
Cαf Cαr

ay
g

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 8

High Speed Cornering
Neutral steer : K=0, αf αr
– Constant radius turn, no change in steer angle will be
required as speed varied.
– The lateral acceleration at the CG causes an identical
increase in slip angle at both the front and rear
wheels
Understeer: K > 0, αf > αr
– On a constant-radius turn the steer angle will have to
increase with speed
Oversteer: K < 0, αf < αr
– On a constant-radius turn the steer angle will have to
decrease with speed

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 9

High Speed Cornering
Characteristic speed understeer
2
L
R

is the speed of

steer angle δ
at characteristic
K speed

understeer vehicle at
L
R

which the steer angle oversteer at critical speed

required to negotiate lateral acceleration

ay
g

any turn is twice the L

2
Ackerman Angle understeer R

steer angle δ
characteristic speed

L
R

L ⋅g L
Vchar K ⋅ay
R oversteer critical speed
K
speed V
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 10
High Speed Cornering
Critical speed is the speed of 2
L
oversteer vehicle at which the understeer R

steer angle required to

steer angle δ
at characteristic
K speed
negotiate any turn is zero. L
R

L ⋅g oversteer at critical speed

Vcrit − K ⋅ay −
L

K R
lateral acceleration
ay
g

L
2
understeer R
– Critical speed is dependent on

steer angle δ
the wheel base characteristic speed

– An oversteer vehicle can be L

driven at speed less than the R

critical, but is directionally

oversteer
unstable at and above the critical speed

critical speed
speed V
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 11
High Speed Cornering
Lateral Acceleration Gain
V
2 oversteer neutral
ay L
δ 2
V
1 + K⋅

lateral acceleration gain

L⋅g understeer

– neutral steer K=0, gain

(numerator only) is
proportional to speed squared
– oversteer K<0, at critical characteristic
speed dominator is zero speed
(infinite gain)
– understeer K>0, gain is
diminished by the second
term. critical speed

speed

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 12

High Speed Cornering
Yaw Velocity Gain
oversteer neutral
V
r L
2
1/L
δ V
1 + K⋅
L⋅g

yaw velocity gain

– neutral steer K=0, gain
(numerator only) is
proportional to speed understeer
– oversteer K<0, at critical
speed dominator is zero characteristic
(infinite gain) speed
– understeer K>0, yaw velocity
is speed at which the vehicle
is most responsive in yaw. critical speed

speed

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 13

High Speed Cornering
Side slip angle in a low-speed turn
– when the lateral acceleration is negligible, the rear
wheel tracks inboard of the front wheel

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 14

High Speed Cornering
Side slip angle in a high-speed turn
– At the high speed slip angle on the rear wheels causes the
sideslip angle at the CG to become negative, the rear wheel
tracks outboard of the front wheel

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 15

High Speed Cornering
Side slip angle β at the CG:
2
c Wr ⋅V
β −
R Cαr ⋅g⋅R

Speed at which the sideslip angle

becomes zero (independent of the radius of turn):
g⋅c ⋅Cαr
Vβ
Wr

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 16

High Speed Cornering
Static Margin
– the neutral steer point is
point on the vehicle where a
side force will produce no
steady-state yaw velocity
– the neutral steer line is the
locus of points in the x-z plane
along which external lateral
force produce no steady-state
yaw velocity – positive static margin, neutral steer
point is behind the CG and the vehicle is
– the static margin is defined as understeer
the distance the neutral steer – static margin is zero and the vehicle is
point falls behind the CG, neutral steer
normalized by the wheel base – negative static margin, neutral steer
point is ahead of the CG and the vehicle
is oversteer
static margin = e/L
– on typical vehicles the static margin falls
in the range 0.05 to 0.07 behind the CG.
VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 17
SUSPENSION EFFECTS ON CORNERING

Roll Moment Distribution

Camber Change
Roll Steer
Lateral Force Compliance Steer
Aligning Torque
Steering system

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 18

Roll Moment Distribution
Roll Moment Distribution
– the cornering forces of tires are
dependent on, and nonlinear with
the load
– load is transferred in the lateral
direction in cornering due to the
elevation of the vehicle CG above
the ground
– the average lateral force from both
tires will be reduced
– consequently, the tires will have to
assume a greater slip angle to
maintain lateral force necessary
for the turn
– Ii these are front tires, the front
will plough out and the vehicle will
understeer
– if on the rear, the rear will slip out
and the vehicle will oversteer

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 19

Roll Moment Distribution
Roll stiffness of the
solid axle
2
Kφ 0.5 ⋅Ks ⋅s

KΦ = Roll stiffness of the

suspension
Ks = Vertical rate of each of the
left and right springs
s = lateral separation between the
springs
(In the case of independent suspension
use the tread as the separation distance)

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 20

Roll Moment Distribution
The load difference from side to side

hr φ
Fzo − Fzi 2 ⋅Fy⋅ + 2 ⋅Kφr ⋅ 2 ⋅∆Fz
t t
Fzo = load on the outside wheel in the turn
Fzi = load on the inside wheel in the turn
Fy = Fyi+Fio lateral force
hr = roll centre height
t = tread (track width)
KΦ = roll stiffness of the suspension
Φ = roll angle of the body

2 Fy hr/t – lateral load transfer due to cornering forces. Lateral force acting on the axle
at its roll center and this mechanism is thus an instantaneous effect. It is independent
on the roll moment distribution
2 KΦ Φ/t – lateral load transfer due to vehicle roll. The effect depends on the roll
dynamics an thus may lag the changes in cornering conditions. It is directly
dependent on front/rear roll distribution.

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 21

Roll Moment Distribution
Moment about the roll
axis
 ay 
Mφ W ⋅h1 ⋅ + φ
g 
( Kφf + Kφr) ⋅φ

Roll angle
ay
W ⋅h1 ⋅
g
φ
( Kφf + K φr − W ⋅h1 )

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 22

Roll Moment Distribution
Roll moment on the front axles
ay
ay W ⋅h1 ⋅
g
Mφfw Wf ⋅hf ⋅ + Kφf ⋅ ∆Fzf ⋅tf
g Kφf + Kφr − W ⋅h1

Roll moment on the rear axles

ay
ay W ⋅h1 ⋅
g
Mφrw Wr ⋅hr ⋅ + Kφr ⋅ ∆Fzr⋅tr
g Kφf + Kφr − W ⋅h1

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 23

Roll Moment Distribution
Lateral force Fy Cα ⋅α  a ⋅F − b ⋅F 2 ⋅α
 z z 

Cα = Cornering stiffness of one tire

a = first coefficient in the cornering stiffness polynomial
b = second coefficient in the cornering stiffness polynomial
Fz = load on one tire

Lateral force of both tires

 ( z z) ( z z) ( z z) ( z z) 
Fy  a ⋅ F + ∆F − b ⋅ F + ∆F 2 + a ⋅ F − ∆F − b ⋅ F − ∆F 2  ⋅α

Fy  2 ⋅a ⋅F − 2 ⋅b ⋅F 2 − 2 ⋅b ⋅∆F 2 ⋅α  2 ⋅C − 2 ⋅b ⋅∆F 2 ⋅α
 z z z   αw z 

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 24

Roll Moment Distribution
Lateral force of the two tires on the front
ay
Fyf  C − 2 ⋅b ⋅∆F 2 ⋅α Wf ⋅
 αf zf  g
Lateral force of the two tires on the rear
ay
Fyr  C − 2 ⋅b ⋅∆F 2 ⋅α Wr ⋅
 αr zr  g
Steer angle ay ay
Wf ⋅ Wr ⋅
L L g g
δ + αf − αr + −
R R 2 2
Cαf − 2 ⋅b ⋅∆Fzf Cαr − 2 ⋅b ⋅∆Fzr

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 25

Roll Moment Distribution
Steer angle
 ay ay  ay a
   2 W ⋅ y 
2 ⋅b ⋅∆Fzr 
Wf ⋅ Wr ⋅ Wf ⋅ 2
L  g g  L g  2 ⋅b ⋅∆Fzf r g 
δ + − + ⋅ 1+ − ⋅ 1 +
R   2  Cαf 
2 ⋅b ⋅∆Fzf   2 ⋅b ⋅∆Fzr  
2 R Cαf
     Cαr  Cαr

 Cαf ⋅ 1 − C Cαr ⋅ 1 −
Cαr  
  αf  

 W  2 2 
L  f Wr  f
W 2 ⋅b ⋅∆F zf W r 2 ⋅b ⋅∆F zr  ay
δ +  − + ⋅ − ⋅  ⋅
R
 Cαf Cαr   Cαf Cαf Cαr Cαr
 g

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 26

Roll Moment Distribution
Steer angle
 W W   W 2 ⋅b ⋅∆F 2 W 2 ⋅b ⋅∆F 2  a
L  f r  f zf r zr  y
δ +  − + ⋅ − ⋅ ⋅ g
R Cαf Cαr Cαf Cαf Cαr Cαr
   
Understeer gradient arising from the nominal cornering
stiffness of the tires
Wf Wr
Ktires −
Cαf Cαr

Understeer gradient arising from lateral load transfer

2 2
Wf 2 ⋅b ⋅∆Fzf Wr 2 ⋅b ⋅∆Fzr
Kllt ⋅ − ⋅
Cαf Cαf Cαr Cαr

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 27

Camber Change
Total camber angle during
cornering

γg γb + φ

γg = camber angle with respect to the

ground
γb = camber angle ot the wheel with
respect to the body
Φ = roll angle of the vehicle

Camber gradient - from kinematic

analysis of suspension
dγ
= fγ (track width, suspension geometry , roll angle )
dφ

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 28

Camber Change
Roll angle
ay
W ⋅h1 ⋅
g
φ
( Kφ f + K φ r − W ⋅h1 )
Roll rate
dφ W ⋅h1
dAy ( Kφf + Kφr − W ⋅h1)
ay
Ay
g

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 29

Camber Change
Tire cornering force Fy C α ⋅α + C γ ⋅γ

Fy Cγ
Slip angle α − γ
Cα Cα

Wf ay Cγ dγf dφ ay
Front slip angle αf ⋅ − ⋅ ⋅
Cα g Cα dφ dAy g

Wr ay Cγ dγr dφ ay
Rear slip angle αr ⋅ − ⋅ ⋅
Cα g Cα dφ dAy g

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 30

Camber Change
Steer angle
L  Wf Wr   Cγ dγf dφ
 Cγ dγr dφ  ay
⋅
δ +  − + ⋅ ⋅ − ⋅ ⋅
R  Cαf Cαr  
   Cα dφ dAy Cα dφ dAy  g

Understeer gradient
 Cγ dγf Cγ dγr  dφ
Kcamber ⋅ − ⋅ ⋅
 Cα dφ Cα dφ dAy
 

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 31

Camber Change
On solid axle
– Small camber angles and camber changes
– Change of lateral force by 10% or less

On independent wheel suspensions

– Important roll in cornering

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 32

Roll Steer
Roll steer is the steering motion of the front or rear
wheels with respect to the sprung mass that is due to the
rolling motion of the sprung mass.
Roll steer coefficient

ε = degrees steer / degree roll

– Positive roll steer coefficient cases the wheels to steer to the

right in a right-hand roll
– Positive roll steer on the front axle steers out of the turn. Vehicle
is understeer.
– Positive roll steer on the rear axle steers out of the turn. Vehicle
is oversteer.

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 33

Roll Steer
Understeer gradient
Kroll_steer ( )
εf − εr ⋅
dφ
dAy

Independent suspensions
– Roll steer coefficient must be evaluated from
the kinematics of the suspension

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 34

Roll Steer
Solid axle
– If the initial orientation of a
rear axle trailing arm is angled
downward, the effect of the
trailing arm angle change is to
pull inside wheel forward while
pushing the outside wheel
rearward.
– Roll steer of the solid axle
contribute to oversteer.
– Roll steer coefficient is equal
to the inclination angle of the
trailing arms (ε=β, in radians).
– Roll understeer is achieved by
keeping the transverse pivots
of the trailing arms below the
wheel center.

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 35

Lateral Force Compliance Steer
Compliance steer
– The change of steer
angle of front or rear
wheels resulting from
compliance in
suspension and
steering linkages and
produced by forces
and/or moments
applied at the tire-road
contact

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 36

Lateral Force Compliance Steer
Compliance steer
– The change of steer angle of front or rear wheels resulting from
compliance in suspension and steering linkages and produced
by forces and/or moments applied at the tire-road contact
Compliance steer coefficient
dδc
A (degrees steer / lateral force)
dFy

– Positive coefficient - the front axle steers out of the turn. Vehicle
is understeer.
– Positive coefficient - the rear axle steers out of the turn. Vehicle
is oversteer.

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 37

Lateral Force Compliance Steer
Compliance steer coefficient
dδc
A (degrees steer / lateral force)
dFy

– Positive coefficient - the front axle steers out of the turn. Vehicle
is understeer.
– Positive coefficient - the rear axle steers out of the turn. Vehicle
is oversteer.
ay ay
Steer angles δ cf Af ⋅Wf ⋅ δ cr Ar ⋅Wr ⋅
g g

Understeer gradient Klfcs Af ⋅Wf − Ar ⋅Wr

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 38

Lateral Force Compliance Steer
Solid axle
– compliance steer can be
represented as rotation about a
yaw center
– forward yaw center on rear axle,
the compliance allows the axle to
steer toward the outside of the turn,
thus causing oversteer
– rearward yaw center on rear axle
results in understeer
– forward yaw center on front axle is
understeer
– rearward yaw center on front axle
is oversteer
Independent wheel suspension
– The kinematics of linkages must be
analyzed and taken into accoun to
determine the coefficients

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 39

Aligning Torque
The direct handling influence
– the lateral force are developed at a distance p (pneumatic trail)
behind each wheel

Kat W⋅
p (⋅ Cαr + Cαf)
L Cαf ⋅Cαr

– the aligning torque effect is ever positive – understeer (Cα and p

values are positive)
– the understeer due to this mechanism is normally less than 0.5
deg/g
The indirect handling influence
– additional and more significant understeer mechanism is through
its influence on the steering system

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 40

Steering system
Undertseer gradient (at conditions in
which lateral, forces and aligning
torques are dominant – neglecting
vertical force effects)

Wf ⋅( c + p) Wf ⋅( r ⋅ν + p)
Kstrg
Kss Kss

Kstrg = understeer increment due to

steering system
Wf = front wheel load
c = caster offset
r = wheel radius
p = pneumatic trail associated with
aligning torque
ν = caster angle (rad)
Kss = steering stiffness between road
wheel and steering wheel

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 41

Experimental measurement
Understeer gradient
The quantity obtained
by subtracting the
Ackerman steer angle
gradient from the ratio
of the steering wheel
angle gradient to the
overall steering ratio.
L ay
δ + K⋅
R g

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 42

Experimental measurement
Constant Radius
Method
– The steer angle
(divided by the
steering ratio to obtain
the road wheel angle)
is plotted as a function
of lateral acceleration

– Understeer gradient

dδ dδ K
K
day day g
g

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 43

Experimental measurement
Constant Speed Method
– Understeer is measured at
constant speed by varying the
steer angle
– The radius of turn is derived from
the measurements using

2
V V
R
ay r

ay ay
– Steer angle Ackerman steer angle gradient is neutral steer.
δ L⋅ + K⋅
2 g
V • understeer - in regions where the steer angle
gradient is grater than that of Ackerman

dδ L⋅g • neutral steer - at point where the steer angle

– Understeer gradient K − gradient is equal to Ackerman gradient
day 2
V • oversteer - in regions where the steer angle
g
gradient is less than that of Ackerman

VEHICLE DYNAMICS Handling 44