MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

Conservation of Mass

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass

Class 25: Conservation of Mass

In this class you learn about the principles of conservation of mass.
Lesson Content
➢ Conservation of Mass
➢ Mass & Volume Flow Rates
➢ Principle of Conservation of Mass in a Control Volume
➢ Mass Balance in Steady Flow Processes
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass

The conservation of mass principle is one of the most fundamental

principles in nature.
Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and it cannot be created or
destroyed during a process.
However, mass m and energy E can be converted to each other
according to the well-known formula proposed by Albert Einstein
(1879–1955):
E = mc 2
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, which is c = 3 × 108 m/s.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass

This equation suggests that the mass of a system changes when its
energy changes.
However, for all energy interactions encountered in practice, with the
exception of nuclear reactions, the change in mass is extremely small
and cannot be detected by even the most sensitive devices.
For example, when 1 kg of water is formed from oxygen and hydrogen,
the amount of energy released is 15,879 kJ, which corresponds to a
mass of 1.76 × 10−10 kg.
A mass of this magnitude is beyond the accuracy required by
practically all engineering calculations and thus can be disregarded.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass from RTT

Application of RTT for conservation of mass

Let E = mass of the system = m
Hence e = E/m = m/m = 1
Applying the RTT we have

dEsys d
= න ρ × e × dυ + න ρe V. n dA
dt dt
CV CS

dmsys d
= න ρ × 1 × dυ + න ρ 1 V. n dA
dt dt
CV CS
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass from RTT

Application of RTT for conservation of mass

However, a system is defined by a fixed mass and as such
dmsys
=0
dt
Hence we may write

d
0= න ρ × dυ + න ρ V. n dA
dt
CV CS
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass from RTT

Application of RTT for conservation of mass

Again ρ × dυ = dm, the mass in the elemental volume

d d d mcv
න ρ × dυ = න dm =
dt dt dt
CV CV

න ρ V. n dA = ෍ mሶ avg − ෍ mሶ avg
CS out in
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass from RTT

Application of RTT for conservation of mass

Substituting we have

d
0= න ρ × dυ + න ρ V. n dA
dt
CV CS

d mcv
0= + ෍ mሶ avg − ෍ mሶ avg
dt
out in

𝐝 𝐦𝐜𝐯
= ෍ 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠 − ෍ 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠
𝐝𝐭
𝐢𝐧 𝐨𝐮𝐭
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass – Steady Flow

For Steady Flow

𝐝 𝐦𝐜𝐯
=𝟎
𝐝𝐭

𝟎 = ෍ 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠 − ෍ 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠
𝐢𝐧 𝐨𝐮𝐭

෍ 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠 = ෍ 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠
𝐢𝐧 𝐨𝐮𝐭
For Steady Flow with one inlet and one exit
𝐦ሶ 𝐢𝐧 = 𝐦ሶ 𝐨𝐮𝐭 (average mass flow rate is implicit)
𝛒𝐢𝐧 𝐀 𝐢𝐧 𝐕𝐢𝐧 = 𝛒𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐀 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐕𝐨𝐮𝐭
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass – Steady Flow

For Incompressible Flow (flow of liquids)

𝛒𝐢𝐧 = 𝛒𝐨𝐮𝐭
Hence 𝐀 𝐢𝐧 𝐕𝐢𝐧 = 𝐀 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐕𝐨𝐮𝐭
This means that for flow of liquids: -
Volume flow rate at inlet = Volume flow rate at outlet
𝛖ሶ 𝐢𝐧 = 𝛖ሶ 𝐨𝐮𝐭
In terms of mass flow rate, 𝐦ሶ 𝐢𝐧 = 𝐦ሶ 𝐨𝐮𝐭
𝛒𝛖ሶ 𝐢𝐧 = 𝛒𝛖ሶ 𝐨𝐮𝐭 where ρ is the density of the flowing liquid
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass - Questions
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass - Numericals

Air enters a nozzle steadily at 2.21 kg/m3 and 30 m/s and leaves at
0.762 kg/m3 and 180 m/s. If the inlet area of the nozzle is 80 cm2
determine (a) mass flow rate through the nozzle (b) exit area of the
nozzle
Data Given Solution
kgൗ mሶ = ρin Ain Vin
ρin = 2.21
m3 mሶ = 2.21 × 𝟖𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 × 30
Vin = 30 mΤ𝑠 𝐤𝐠
𝐦ሶ = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝟎𝟒
Ain = 80 cm2 𝐬
kgൗ mሶ = ρout Aout Vout
ρout = 0.762
m3 0.5304 = 0.762 × Aout × 180
Vout = 180 mΤ𝑠 𝐀 𝐨𝐮𝐭 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐦𝟐 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟔𝟕 𝐜𝐦𝟐
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass - Numericals

A 1-m3 rigid tank initially contains air whose density is 1.18 kg/m3. The tank is connected
to a high pressure supply line through a valve. The valve is opened, and air is allowed to
enter the tank until the density of air in the tank rises to 7.20 kg/m3. Determine the
mass of air that has entered the tank.
Data Given Solution
ഥ=V
V ഥinitial = V
ഥfinal = 1 m3 ഥ = 1.18 × 1
minitial = ρinitial × V
kg minitial = 1.18 kgs
ρinitial = 1.18 ൗ 3
m ഥ = 7.20 × 1
mfinal = ρfinal × V
kg
ρfinal = 7.20 ൗ 3 mfinal = 7.20 kgs
m
For an unsteady flow process, in a given time span
min − mout = ∆msystem = mfinal − minitial
min = mfinal − minitial = 7.20 − 1.18 = 6.02 kgs
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass - Numericals

A 4-m-high, 3-m-diameter cylindrical water tank whose

top is open to the atmosphere is initially filled with
water. The discharge plug at the bottom of the tank is
pulled out, and a water jet whose diameter is 5 cm
streams out. The average velocity of the jet is given by
V = 2gh where h is the height of water in the tank
measured from the axis of the hole (height keeps
changing). Determine how long it will take for the
water level in the tank to reach 2-m from the bottom.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass - Numericals

Solution
For an unsteady flow process, in a given time span
d m CV
mሶ in − mሶ out =
dt
d m CV d ρV ഥ CV
−mሶ out = =
dt dt
d ρAtank h CV
ρAjet Vout =
dt
dh
ρAjet 2gh = ρAtank
dt
𝐀 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝟏 𝐝𝐡
𝐝𝐭 =
𝐀 𝐣𝐞𝐭 𝟐𝐠 𝐡
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass - Numericals

Solution
t h2
Atank 1 dh
න dt = න
0 Ajet 2g h1 h
Atank 1
t= 2 ℎ1 − ℎ2
Ajet 2g
Atank 1
t= h1 − h2
Ajet g
ൗ2

D2tank 1
t= h1 − h2
D2jet g
ൗ2
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Mass - Numericals

Solution
D2tank 1
t= h1 − h2
D2jet g
ൗ2

32 1
t= 4− 2
0.052 9.81ൗ
2
𝐭 = 𝟗𝟓𝟐. 𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐬
𝐭 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟖𝟕 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐭𝐞𝐬
THANK YOU

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

Class 26: Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

In this class you learn about the mechanical energy of fluid and the conversion
efficiencies
Lesson Content
➢ Definition of Mechanical Energy of a Fluid
➢ Efficiencies
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

Many fluid systems are designed to transport a fluid from one location
to another at a specified flow rate, velocity, and elevation difference,
and the system may generate mechanical work in a turbine or it may
consume mechanical work in a pump or fan during this process.
These systems do not involve the conversion of nuclear, chemical, or
thermal energy to mechanical energy.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

Also, they do not involve any heat transfer in any significant amount,
and they operate essentially at constant temperature.
Such systems can be analyzed conveniently by considering the
mechanical forms of energy only and the frictional effects that cause
the mechanical energy to be lost (i.e., to be converted to thermal
energy that usually cannot be used for any useful purpose).
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that can
be converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal
mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies are the familiar forms of mechanical
energy.
Thermal energy is not mechanical energy, however, since it cannot be
converted to work directly and completely (the second law of
thermodynamics).
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by raising its pressure,

and a turbine extracts mechanical energy from a fluid by dropping its
pressure.
Therefore, the pressure of a flowing fluid is also associated with its
mechanical energy.
In fact, the pressure unit Pa is equivalent to Pa = N/m2 = N - m/m3 =
J/m3, which is energy per unit volume, and the product pv or its
equivalent p/ρ has the unit J/kg, which is energy per unit mass.
Note that pressure itself is not a form of energy. But a pressure force
acting on a fluid through a distance produces work, called flow work,
in the amount of p/ρ, per unit mass.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

Flow work is expressed in terms of fluid properties, and it is

convenient to view it as part of the energy of a flowing fluid and call it
flow energy.
Therefore, the mechanical energy of a flowing fluid can be expressed
on a unit-mass basis as
p V2
emech = + + gz
ρ 2
p V2
where is the flow energy, is the kinetic energy, and gz is the
ρ 2
potential energy of the fluid, all per unit mass.
Then the mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible
flow becomes
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

Then the mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible

flow becomes
p2 − p1 𝑉22 − 𝑉12
∆emech = + + g z2 − z1
ρ 2
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

The transfer of mechanical energy is usually accomplished by a

rotating shaft, and thus mechanical work is often referred to as shaft
work.
A pump or a fan receives shaft work (usually from an electric motor)
and transfers it to the fluid as mechanical energy (less frictional
losses).
A turbine, on the other hand, converts the mechanical energy of a
fluid to shaft work.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

In the absence of any irreversibilities such as friction, mechanical

energy can be converted entirely from one mechanical form to
another.
Mechanical efficiency of a device or process can be defined as
Emech, out Emech, in − Emech, loss Emech, loss
ηmech = = =1−
Emech,in Emech,in Emech,in
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

In fluid systems, we usually are interested in

1. supplying mechanical energy to the fluid by a pump, a fan, or a
compressor (we will refer to all of them as pumps), driven by
motors.
2. extracting mechanical energy from a fluid by a turbine and
producing mechanical power in the form of a rotating shaft that
can drive a generator or any other rotary device.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

The degree of perfection of the conversion process between the

mechanical work supplied or extracted and the mechanical energy of the
fluid is expressed by the pump efficiency and turbine efficiency, defined as:
-
Mechanical energy increase of the fluid ∆Eሶ mech, fluid
ηpump = =
Mechanical energy input Wሶ shaft, input
Mechanical energy output Wሶ shaft, output
ηturbine = =
Mechanical energy decrease of the fluid ∆Eሶ mech, fluid
These efficiencies account for the losses due to frictional heating of the
fluid during the conversion process.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

The pump is run by a motor which converts electrical energy to shaft work
and the efficiency of conversion is expressed as : -
Mechanical energy of the shaft Wሶ shaft, output
ηmotor = =
Electrical energy input Wሶ electrical, in
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

The turbine is connected to a generator which converts mechanical energy

of the shaft to electrical energy and the efficiency of conversion is
expressed as : -
Electrical energy output Wሶ electrical, output
ηgenerator = =
Mechanical energy of the shaft Wሶ shaft, input
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

The overall efficiency of a pump includes the conversion efficiency from the
motor till the fluid, and the efficiency of conversion is expressed as : -
ηoverall, pump = ηmotor−pump = ηmotor × ηpump
Wሶ shaft, output ∆Eሶ mech, fluid
ηoverall, pump = ×
Wሶ electrical, in Wሶ shaft, input
∆Eሶ mech, fluid
ηoverall, pump =
Wሶ electrical, in
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

The overall efficiency of a turbine includes the conversion efficiency from the
fluid till the generator, and the efficiency of conversion is expressed as : -
ηoverall, turbine = ηturbine−generator = ηturbine × ηgenerator
Wሶ shaft, output Wሶ electrical, output
ηoverall, turbine = =
∆Eሶ mech, fluid Wሶ shaft, input
Wሶ electrical, output
ηoverall, turbine =
∆Eሶ mech, fluid
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

Sometimes the losses in the bearings and other connecting mechanical

elements are accounted for defining a term called
Mechanical Energy received by shaft
ηmechanical, pump =
Mechanical Energy imparted to rotor
Mechanical Energy received by generator
ηmechanical, turbine =
Mechanical Energy imparted to shaft
This term is also included in the overall efficiency expression.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency - Numericals

Consider a river flowing toward a lake at an average velocity of 3 m/s at a

rate of 500 m3/s at a location 90 m above the lake surface. Determine the
total mechanical energy of the river water per unit mass and the power
generation potential of the entire river at that location.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency - Numericals

Data Given Solution

m
V=3 p V2
s 3 emech = + + gz
ሶV = 500 m
ഥ ρ 2
s p = patm = 0 (gauge pressure)
z = 90 m
32
emech = + 9.81 × 90
2
𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐜𝐡 = 𝟖𝟖𝟕. 𝟒 𝐉/𝐤𝐠
ഥሶ × emech = 1000 × 500 × 887.4
Power = Wሶ = mሶ × emech = ρV
𝐖ሶ = 𝟒𝟒𝟑, 𝟕𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐬 = 𝟒𝟒𝟑. 𝟕 𝐌𝐖
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency - Numericals

Electric power is to be generated by installing a hydraulic turbine–generator

at a site 70 m below the free surface of a large water reservoir that can
supply water at a rate of 1500 kg/s steadily. If the mechanical power output
of the turbine is 800 kW and the electric power generation is 750 kW,
determine the turbine efficiency and the combined turbine–generator
efficiency of this plant. Neglect losses in the pipes.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency - Numericals

Data Given Solution

mሶ = 1500 kg/s
emech = gz = 9.81 × 70 = 686.7 J/kg
z = 70 m
Eሶ mech = mሶ × emech = 1500 × 686.7
Wሶ shaft = 800 kW
𝐄ሶ 𝐦𝐞𝐜𝐡 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝐤𝐖
Wሶ elect, out = 750 kW
Wሶ shaft 800
𝛈𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐞 = = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟔𝟔
Eሶ mech 1030.05
Wሶ elect, out 750
𝛈𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐛−𝐠𝐞𝐧 = = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝟖𝟏
ሶ
Wshaft 1030.05
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency - Numericals

Water is pumped from a lake to a storage tank 20 m above at a rate of 70 L/s

while consuming 20.4 kW of electric power. Disregarding any frictional losses
in the pipes and any changes in kinetic energy, determine (a) the overall
efficiency of the pump–motor unit and (b) the pressure difference between
the inlet and the exit of the pump.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency - Numericals

Data Given Solution

l m 3
ഥሶ = 70 = 0.07
V ഥሶ × gz
Eሶ mech = mሶ × emech = ρV
s s
∆z = z = 20 m Eሶ mech = 1000 × 0.07 × 9.81 × 20
Wሶ elect, in = 20.4 kW
𝐄ሶ 𝐦𝐞𝐜𝐡 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟕𝟑𝟒 𝐤𝐖
Eሶ mech 13.734
𝛈𝐩𝐮𝐦𝐩−𝐦𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐫 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟑𝟐
ሶ
Welect, in 20.4
∆ppump = ρg∆z = 1000 × 9.81 × 20
∆𝐩𝐩𝐮𝐦𝐩 = 𝟏𝟗𝟔. 𝟐 𝐤𝐏𝐚
THANK YOU

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

The Bernoulli Equation

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Bernoulli Equation

Class 27: The Bernoulli Equation

In this class you learn about the Bernoulli equation
Lesson Content
➢ Acceleration of Fluid Particle
➢ Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Acceleration of Fluid Particle

Acceleration of Fluid Particle

By definition, the acceleration of fluid particle is the time derivative of the
particle’s velocity,
dV
a=
dt
Along a streamline, V = V s, t and hence
dV 𝜕V ds 𝜕V dt
as = = +
dt 𝜕s dt 𝜕t dt
𝐝𝐕 𝛛𝐕 𝛛𝐕 ds
𝐚𝐬 = =𝐕 + since V =
𝐝𝐭 𝛛𝐬 𝛛𝐭 dt
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Acceleration of Fluid Particle

Acceleration of Fluid Particle

𝐝𝐕 𝛛𝐕 𝛛𝐕
𝐚𝐬 = =𝐕 +
𝐝𝐭 𝛛𝐬 𝛛𝐭
For steady flow
dV 𝜕V
as = =V
dt 𝜕s
dV 𝐝𝐕
𝐚𝐬 = =𝐕
dt 𝐝𝐬
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation - Derivation

Consider steady flow along a

streamtube as indicated.
Let dA be the area of cross-section of an
elemental streamtube of length ds with
ρ the density of the fluid.
Let W be the weight and θ the angle of
inclination with the horizontal as
indicated.
Let P be the pressure on the bottom
face while (P + dP) is the pressure on
the top face.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation - Derivation

Applying the law of conservation of linear momentum in the s-direction

we have

෍ Fs = mas

dV
PdA − P + dP dA − W × Sinθ = mV
ds
m = Density × Volume = ρ × ds × dA
W = mg = ρ × ds × dA × g
dz
Sinθ =
ds
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation - Derivation

Substituting for m, W and θ we have

dz dV
PdA − P + dP dA − ρ × ds × dA × g = ρ × ds × dA V
ds ds
Simplifying we have
−dP − ρ × g dz = ρ VdV
Dividing by ρ and rearranging we get
𝐝𝐏
+ 𝐕𝐝𝐕 + 𝐠𝐝𝐳 = 𝟎
𝛒
The above equation is famously known as Euler’s Equation of
Motion along a streamline.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation - Derivation

𝐝𝐏
+ 𝐕𝐝𝐕 + 𝐠𝐝𝐳 = 𝟎
𝛒
Assumptions made in deriving the Euler’s equation of motion
along a streamline: -
1. Only pressure forces and gravity forces are considered
2. Flow is steady
3. Flow is non-viscous (inviscid)
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation - Derivation

Integration of the Euler’s Equation of Motion gives

dP
න + VdV + gdz = constant
ρ
Assuming incompressible flow (ρ is constant), integration gives
𝐏 𝐕𝟐
+ + 𝐠𝐳 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝛒 𝟐
The above equation is the Bernoulli Equation
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation - Derivation

𝐏 𝐕𝟐
+ + 𝐠𝐳 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝛒 𝟐
Assumptions made in deriving the Bernoulli equation: -
1. Only pressure forces and gravity forces are considered
2. Flow is steady
3. Flow is non-viscous (inviscid)
4. Flow is incompressible
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation

𝐏 𝐕𝟐
+ + 𝐠𝐳 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝛒 𝟐
It is noticed that the terms in the Bernoulli Equation are: -
P
→ Pressure or Flow Energy of the flowing fluid
ρ
V2
→ Kinetic Energy of the flowing fluid
2
gz → Potential Energy of the flowing fluid
Each term represents a form of the mechanical energy of a flowing
fluid and can be viewed as a form of mechanical energy balance of
a flowing fluid.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation

𝐏 𝐕𝟐
+ + 𝐠𝐳 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝛒 𝟐
Thus the Bernoulli Equation may be stated as follows: -
For steady, inviscid & incompressible flow of an ideal fluid the
sum of the flow energy, kinetic energy and potential energy along
a streamline is constant.
The value of the constant varies for different streamlines.
However, if the flow is irrotational, the constant is same for all
streamlines.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation

For any 2 points along the flow we may write

𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏𝟐 𝐏𝟐 𝐕𝟐𝟐
+ + 𝐠𝐳𝟏 = + + 𝐠𝐳𝟐
𝛒 𝟐 𝛒 𝟐
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation – Energy Form

𝐏 𝐕𝟐
+ + 𝐠𝐳 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝛒 𝟐
Each term in the Bernoulli equation shown above represents
energy per unit mass and has units J/kg
Thus this form is also referred to as the Energy Form of the
Bernoulli Equation.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation – Pressure Form

Multiplying the Bernoulli equation by ρ we get

𝛒𝐕 𝟐
𝐏+ + 𝛒𝐠𝐳 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝟐
Each term in the Bernoulli equation shown above has units of
pressure – Pa.
Thus this form is also referred to as the Pressure Form of the
Bernoulli Equation.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation – Pressure Form

The terms in the Pressure Form of the Bernoulli Equation are explained as follows: -
P → Static Pressure of the Flowing Fluid
ρV 2
→ Dynamic Pressure of the Flowing Fluid
2
𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
ρgz → Hydrostatic Pressure of the Flowing Fluid
Hydrostatic Pressure is not pressure in a strict sense and represents the pressure due to elevation effects.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation – Total Pressure

The sum of the three is referred to as Total Pressure which is the value of the
constant.
𝛒𝐕 𝟐
𝐏+ + 𝛒𝐠𝐳 = 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞
𝟐
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation – Stagnation Pressure

The sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure is called Stagnation Pressure
𝛒𝐕 𝟐
𝐏𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝐏 +
𝟐
From the above equation we may write

𝟐 𝐏𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 − 𝐏
𝐕=
𝛒
From the above expression we can measure velocity of a flowing fluid at a
location if the stagnation and static pressures at that location are determined.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation – Head Form

Multiplying the Bernoulli equation by g we get

𝐏 𝐕𝟐
+ + 𝐳 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝛒𝐠 𝟐𝐠
Each term in the Bernoulli equation shown above has units of
length – m.
This form is also referred to as the Head Form of the Bernoulli
Equation.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Bernoulli Equation – Head Form

The terms in the Head Form of the Bernoulli Equation are explained as follows: -
P
→ Pressure Head of the Flowing Fluid
ρg
V2
→ Velocity Head or Kinetic Head of the Flowing Fluid
2g
z → Potential Head of the Flowing Fluid
Each term represents the increase in height of the fluid column when it is brought to
rest isentropically.
THANK YOU

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

Applications of Bernoulli Equation

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Class 28: Applications of Bernoulli Equation

In this class you learn about the applications of the Bernoulli equation
Lesson Content
➢ Spraying of water into air
➢ Discharge Velocity from a Large Tank
➢ Siphoning out fuel from a tank
➢ Velocity Measurement using a Pitot Tube
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Spraying of water into air

Water is flowing from a hose attached to a water main, in which
the pressure is 300 kPa. The hose outlet is covered partially,
causing a thin jet to emerge. If the hose is held upward, as shown,
what is the maximum height that the jet can achieve.

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Spraying of water into air

Assumptions:-
1. Flow is (i) steady (ii) irrotational (iii) inviscid. Hence Bernoulli
equation can be applied.
2. The pressure remains same through out the hose and there
are no frictional losses
3. All other losses are negligible OR can be neglected

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Spraying of water into air

Pressure at point 1 = 300 kPa
Velocity inside the hose is treated as negligible → V1 ≅ 0
Treating point 1 as datum → z1 = 0
Pressure at point 2 = atmospheric pressure → p2 = 0
Velocity at point 2, is again zero → V2 = 0
It is required to determine z2.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Spraying of water into air

Applying the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2, we have
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + gz1 = + + gz2
ρ 2 ρ 2
𝐏𝟏
𝐳𝟐 =
𝛒𝐠
300 × 103
z2 = 3
10 × 9.81
𝐳𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟓𝟖 𝐦
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Velocity of Discharge from a Large Tank

A large tank open to the atmosphere is filled with water to
a height of 10 m from the outlet tap as shown. The outlet
is opened. With standard assumptions, apply the Bernoulli
theorem and obtain an expression for the velocity at the
outlet at any given point of time. What is the maximum
velocity of the water discharging out?

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. 2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Velocity of Discharge from a Large Tank

Pressure at point 1 = atmospheric pressure → p1 = 0
Velocity at the top is treated as negligible → V1 ≅ 0
z2 = 10 m
Pressure at point 2 = atmospheric pressure → p2 = 0
Velocity at point 2 → V2
Treating point 2 as datum → z2 = 0

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. 2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Velocity of Discharge from a Large Tank

Applying the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2,
we have
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + gz1 = + + gz2
ρ 2 ρ 2
V22
gz1 =
2
𝐕𝟐 = 𝟐𝐠𝐳𝟏
This is the expression for velocity at the outlet at any
given point of time and depends on the height of water
at that instant z1.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Velocity of Discharge from a Large Tank

Maximum velocity is when the water level is at the
maximum height = 10 m
Vmax = 2gz1 = 2 × 9.81 × 10
𝐦
𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟏𝟒
𝐬
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Siphoning out fuel from a tank

It is required to siphon out gasoline from the
fuel tank of a car. The physical situation is
shown in the sketch. The siphon diameter is 4
mm and frictional losses in the siphon are
disregarded. Determine (a) minimum time
required to withdraw 4 L of gasoline from the
tank to the can (b) pressure at point 3.
Take density of gasoline as 750 kg/m3.

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. 2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Siphoning out fuel from a tank

The siphon is a small-diameter tube.
In this situation one end of the siphon is in the gas tank while the
other end is in the gas can into which the gasoline needs to be
siphoned out.
To initiate the siphoning process, the entire tube is filled with
gasoline.
This is done by suction at the exit end and as soon as the gasoline
starts spilling out, the exit end is kept at a level lower than the
level of the gas tank, i.e. point 2 is kept lower than point 1.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Siphoning out fuel from a tank

Pressure at point 1 = atmospheric pressure → p1 = 0
Velocity at point 1is treated as negligible → V1 ≅ 0
z2 = 0.75 m
Pressure at point 2 = atmospheric pressure → p2 = 0
Velocity at point 2 → V2
Treating point 2 as datum → z2 = 0
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Siphoning out fuel from a tank

Applying the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2, we have
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + gz1 = + + gz2
ρ 2 ρ 2
V22
gz1 =
2
V2 = 2gz1 = 2 × 9.81 × 0.75
𝐦
𝐕𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟒
𝐬
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Siphoning out fuel from a tank

−3 2
ሶV = A V = π × 4 × 10 𝐦 𝟑
ഥ 2 2 × 3.84 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 −𝟓 ൗ𝐬
4
ഥ = 4 litres = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐦𝟑
Total volume of gasoline to be removed V
ഥሶ × t
ഥ=V
V
𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 × t
𝐭 = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟗𝟖 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐬
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Siphoning out fuel from a tank

Pressure at point 3 is obtained by writing the Bernoulli equation
between points 3 and 2
P3 V32 P2 V22
+ + gz3 = + + gz2
ρ 2 ρ 2
V3 = V2 since volume flow rate is same
Taking point 2 as datum z2 = 0
P3 = −ρgz3 = − 750 × 9.81 × 2.75
𝐩𝟑 = −𝟐𝟎. 𝟐𝟑 𝐤𝐏𝐚 (𝐠𝐚𝐮𝐠𝐞)
The negative indicates that the pressure is below atmospheric
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Siphoning out fuel from a tank

The maximum height to which a liquid can be siphoned out is given
by the relation
𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐦
𝐳𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
𝛒𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 × 𝐠
In this case
101325
zmax =
750 × 9.81
𝐳𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟕𝟕 𝐦
In the present case, it is being siphoned over a height of 2 m (z3 – z1)
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Velocity Measurement with a Pitot Tube

A Pitot Tube is an L shaped tube. One end of the tube
is placed facing the flow, while the other end is open
to the atmosphere, as shown in the sketch.
A Pitot Tube measures stagnation pressure while a
piezometer measures static pressure.

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. 2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Velocity Measurement with a Pitot Tube

Pressure at point 1 = static pressure → p1 = ρgh1
Pressure at point 2 = stagnation pressure → p2 = ρgh2
Velocity at point 1 → V1
Velocity at point 2 → V2 = 0
z1 = z2
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of Bernoulli Equation

Velocity Measurement with a Pitot Tube

Applying the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2, we
have
P1 V12 P2
+ =
ρ 2 ρ
V12 P2 − P1
=
2 ρ

𝟐 𝐏𝟐 − 𝐏𝟏 𝟐 𝐏𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 − 𝐏𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜
𝐕𝟏 = =
𝛒 𝛒
THANK YOU

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

Problems on Bernoulli Equation - 1

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Class 29: Problems on Bernoulli Equation

In this class you learn about the solving problems using the Bernoulli equation
Lesson Content
Problems on
➢ Spraying of water into air
➢ Siphoning out fuel from a tank
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Questions

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Questions

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

A glass manometer with oil as the working fluid is connected to an air

duct as shown in the figure. Will the oil in the manometer move as in a
or b? Explain. What would your response be if the flow direction is
reversed?

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Solution
By law of conservation of mass
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
For sub-sonic flow, density of air may be taken to be
almost constant, and hence, we may write
A1 V1 = A2 V2
Thus if A2 < A1, then to compensate V2 > V1.
Hence if cross-sectional area reduces in a flow, velocity of
the fluid will increase and vice-versa.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Solution
By Bernoulli equation
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ = +
ρ 2 ρ 2
If V2 > V1, then consequently P2 < P1.
Thus when cross-sectional area reduces in a flow, velocity will increase while
pressure of the fluid will decrease and vice-versa.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Solution
The limb exposed to higher pressure will record a lower
manometric level.
Thus it is clear that the oil in the manometer moves as in
Fig. a, since the limb exposed to the throat, which is at a
lower pressure, records a higher level.
If the flow is reversed, then too the levels of the oil move
as in Fig. a, since pressure would increase downstream of
the flow.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

The water level of a tank on a building is 20 m above the ground. A

hose leads from the tank bottom to the ground. The end of the hose
has a nozzle, which is pointed straight up. What is the maximum
height to which the water could rise? What factors would reduce this
height?
Solution
Mechanical energy of water at the end of the hose is equal to
J
emech = gz = 9.81 × 20 = 196.2
kg
When it is released through a nozzle, in the absence of losses all the
energy is converted to kinetic energy. Thus Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and
2
V Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
= 196.2 J/kg M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2 2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Solution
When the water is released vertically, it will reach a certain height
and then fall off.
If point 1 is the release point of the nozzle and point 2 is the highest
point reached by the water jet, applying the Bernoulli equation
between 1 and 2 we get
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + gz1 = + + gz2
ρ 2 ρ 2
V12
gz2 = = 196.2 J/kg
2
196.2
z2 =
9.81
𝐳𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎 𝐦
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Solution
Thus, the maximum height the jet will reach is equal to the height of
the water level in the tank, 20 m.
However, the actual height to which water is raised will be lesser
than 20 m, due to frictional losses in the hose, loss during energy
conversion in the nozzle etc.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

The water level in a tank is 20 m above the

ground. A hose is connected to the bottom of
the tank, and the nozzle at the end of the hose
is pointed straight up. The tank cover is
airtight, and the air pressure above the water
surface is 2 atm gage. The system is at sea
level. Determine the maximum height to which
the water stream could rise.

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Solution
Taking point 1 in the hose and 2 at the the highest point of the jet we write
Pressure at point 1 = p1 = pair + ρgh = 2 × 101325 + 103 × 9.81 × 20
p1 = 398.85 kPa
Velocity at point is negligible → V1 ≅ 0 2

Treating point 1 as datum → z1 = 0

Pressure at point 2 = atmospheric pressure → p2 ≅ 0
Velocity at point 2 → V2 ≅ 0
z2 = to be determined
1
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Solution
Applying the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2, we have 2

P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + gz1 = + + gz2
ρ 2 ρ 2
P1 398.85 × 103
z2 = =
ρg 1000 × 9.81
z2 = 40.66 m 1
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

It is proposed to siphon cold water over a 7-m-high wall. Is this

feasible? Explain.

Solution
zmax
The maximum height to which a liquid can be siphoned is given by
patm
zmax =
ρg
In case of water we have
101325
𝐳𝐦𝐚𝐱 = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟑 𝐦 Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and
1000 × 9.81 Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
Since the wall is 7-m-high, the proposal is feasible. M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

A student siphons water over a 8.5-m-high wall at sea level. She

then climbs to the summit of Mount Shasta (elevation 4390 m,
Patm = 58.5 kPa) and attempts the same experiment. Comment on
her prospects for success.
Solution
At Mount Shasta, the maximum height to which water can be
siphoned is given by
patm 58.5 × 103 Courtesy: “Fluid
𝐳𝐦𝐚𝐱 = = = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟔 𝐦
ρg 1000 × 9.81 Mechanics – Fundamental
and Applications” (in SI
Since the wall is 8.5-m-high, it will not be possible to siphon water. units), Yunus A.Cengel,
John M.Cimbala, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing
Co. Ltd. 2006.
THANK YOU

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

Problems on Bernoulli Equation - 2

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Class 30: Problems on Bernoulli Equation

In this class you will continue to learn about the solving problems using the
Bernoulli equation
Lesson Content
Problems on
➢ Discharge Velocity from a Large Tank
➢ Velocity Measurement using a Pitot Tube
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

A pressurized tank of water has a 10-

cm-diameter orifice at the bottom,
where water discharges to the
atmosphere. The water level is 3 m
above the outlet. The tank air pressure
above the water level is 300 kPa
(absolute) while the atmospheric
pressure is 100 kPa. Neglecting
frictional effects, determine the initial
discharge rate of water from the tank.
Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and
Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Solution
Taking point 1 on the water surface in the tank at the initial instant of time
and 2 at the outlet of the orifice we write
1
Pressure at point 1 = 300 kPa (absolute)
Velocity at point is negligible → V1 ≅ 0
Treating point 2 as datum → z1 = 3 m
Pressure at point 2 = atmospheric pressure → p2 ≅ 100 kPa (absolute) 2

Velocity at point 2 → V2 is to be determined

Treating point 2 as datum → z2 = 0
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Solution
Applying the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2, we have
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + gz1 = + + gz2 1
ρ 2 ρ 2
P1 − P2 300 − 100 × 103
V2 = 2 + gz1 = 2 + 9.81 × 3
ρ 1000
𝐕𝟐 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟒𝟐 𝐦/𝐬 (velocity at initial instant of time) 2
π × Dorifice 2 π × 0.12
ഥinitial
Initial discharge = V = Aorifice V2 = × V2 = × 21.42
4 4
𝐦𝟑
ഥ𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥
𝐕 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟖𝟐
𝐬
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

The velocity of a fluid flowing in a pipe is to be measured by two

different Pitot-type mercury manometers shown in the figure. Would
you expect both manometers to predict the same velocity for flowing
water? If not, which would be more accurate? Explain. What would your
response be if air were flowing in the pipe instead of water?

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

The arrangement B measures the total head and static head at

the same location, and thus it is more accurate.
The static probe in arrangement A will indicate D/2 less water
head (D – pipe diameter), and thus the difference between the
static and stagnation pressures (the dynamic pressure) will be
larger.
Consequently, arrangement A will indicate a higher velocity.
Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics –
In the case of air, the static pressure difference corresponding Fundamental and Applications” (in SI
to the elevation head of D/2 is negligible, and thus both units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
arrangements will indicate the same velocity. M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co. Ltd. 2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

A Pitot-static probe is used to measure the velocity of a passenger

aircraft flying at 30,000 ft (𝝆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟒𝟏 𝒌𝒈ൗ𝒎𝟑 ). If the differential
pressure reading is 0.4 kPa, determine the velocity of the aircraft.
Solution
A Pitot-static probe measures the difference between stagnation and
static pressures i.e., dynamic pressure.
Pstagnation − Pstatic = 0.4 kPa

2 Pstagnation − Pstatic 2 0.4 × 103

Vaircraft = =
ρ 0.01841
𝐦 𝐤𝐦 𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐞𝐬
𝐕𝐚𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐫𝐚𝐟𝐭 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟒𝟔 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 = 𝟒𝟔𝟔. 𝟏
𝐬 𝐡𝐫 𝐡𝐫
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

A Pitot-static probe
connected to a water
manometer is used to
measure the velocity of air. If
the deflection (the vertical
distance between the fluid
levels in the two arms) is 7.3
cm, determine the air
velocity. Take the density of
air to be 1.25 kg/m3.
Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and
Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation

Solution
A Pitot-static probe gives the difference between stagnation and
static pressures.
Writing the gauge equation for the manometer, we have
Pstatic + ρw gz = Pstagnation
Pstagnation − Pstatic = ρw gz = 1000 × 9.81 × 0.073 = 716.13 Pa

2 Pstagnation − Pstatic 2 × 716.13

Vair = =
ρ 1.25
𝐦
𝐕𝐚𝐢𝐫 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟖𝟓
𝐬
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Problems on Bernoulli Equation – Practise Problem

In a hydroelectric power plant, water enters the turbine nozzles

at 700 kPa absolute with a low velocity. If the nozzle outlets are
exposed to atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa, determine the
maximum velocity to which water can be accelerated by the
nozzles before striking the turbine blades.

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
THANK YOU

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

The Linear Momentum Equation

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation

Class 31: The Linear Momentum Equation

In this class you learn about the linear momentum equation.
Lesson Content
➢ Newton’s Laws and Conservation of Momentum
➢ Choosing a Control Volume
➢ Forces Acting on a Control Volume
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Newton’s Laws and Conservation of Momentum

By Newton’s 2nd Law for Linear Motion we have

dV d mV
F = ma = m =
dt dt m
‘The rate of change of the momentum of a body is
equal to the net force acting on the body’
d mV V
If F = 0, then = 0 → mV = constant m
dt
Linear momentum = mV
Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum
If the net force acting on a fluid element is zero, then
its linear momentum is constant OR is conserved.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Newton’s Laws and Conservation of Momentum

By Newton’s 2nd Law for Angular Motion we have

dω d Iω
T = Iα = I =
dt dt
‘The rate of change of angular momentum of a body
is equal to the net torque acting on the body’
d Iω
If T = 0, then = 0 → Iω = constant
dt
Principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum
If the net torque acting on a fluid element is zero,
then its angular momentum is constant OR is
conserved.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Choosing a Control Volume

A control volume can be selected as any arbitrary region in space

through which fluid flows, and its bounding control surface can be
fixed, moving, and even deforming during flow.
The application of a basic conservation law is simply a systematic
procedure for bookkeeping or accounting of the quantity under
consideration, and thus it is extremely important that the boundaries
of the control volume are well defined during an analysis.
Also, the flow rate of any quantity into or out of a control volume
depends on the flow velocity relative to the control surface, and thus
it is essential to know if the control volume remains at rest during flow
or if it moves.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Choosing a Control Volume

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Choosing a Control Volume

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Choosing a Control Volume

Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and

Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Forces Acting on a Control Volume

The forces acting on a control volume may be classified as:

1. Body Forces that act through out the body of the
control volume.
e.g. Gravity, electric and magnetic forces
2. Surface Forces that act at the control surface.
e.g. pressure forces, viscous forces, reaction forces at
the point of contact
In control volume analysis, the sum of all forces acting on
the control volume at a particular instant in time is
represented by

෍ F = ෍ Fbody + ෍ Fsurface
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Forces Acting on a Control Volume

Gravity Force on Control Volume

The most common body force is that of gravity, which
exerts a downward force on every differential element of
the control volume.
ഥ
Gravitational Force acting on a fluid element dFg = ρgdV

ഥ = mCV g
Total Gravitational Force = Fg = න ρgdV
CV
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Forces Acting on a Control Volume

Components of surface forces on a control volume

THANK YOU

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

Conservation of Linear Momentum

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Conservation of Linear Momentum

Class 32: Conservation of Linear Momentum

In this class you learn about conservation of linear momentum.
Lesson Content
➢ Application of RTT for conservation of Linear Momentum
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Application of RTT for Conservation of Linear Momentum

We have the Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT) in its general form

dEsys d
= න ρ × e × dυ + න ρe Vr . n dA
dt dt
CV CS

Choosing linear momentum as the extensive property we have Esys = mV

E mV
e= = =V
m m
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Application of RTT for Conservation of Linear Momentum

Applying the RTT we have

d mV sys d
= න ρ × V × dυ + න ρV V. n dA
dt dt
CV CS

But from Newton’s 2nd Law we know that

d mV sys
෍F =
dt

d
෍F = න ρ × V × dυ + න ρV V. n dA
dt
CV CS
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Application of RTT for Conservation of Linear Momentum

In most practical engineering applications of the

RTT, fluid crosses the boundary of the control
volume at a finite number of well-defined inlets
and outlets.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Application of RTT for Conservation of Linear Momentum

In such cases, it is convenient to cut the control

surface directly across each inlet and outlet and
replace the surface integral in the RTT with
approximate algebraic expressions at each inlet and
outlet based on the average values of fluid
properties crossing the boundary.
We define ρavg , Vavg as the average values of
ρ and V respectively, across an inlet or outlet of
cross-sectional area A
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Application of RTT for Conservation of Linear Momentum

In the CV shown in the sketch we have inlet at 1 and outlets

at 2 & 3.
Let
A1, A2 & A3 be the cross-sectional areas at 1, 2 & 3
respectively.
ρavg, 1 , ρavg, 2 , ρavg, 3 be the average densities across cross-
sectional areas A1, A2 & A3 respectively.
Vavg, 1 , Vavg, 2 , Vavg, 3 be the average velocities across cross-
sectional areas A1, A2 & A3 respectively.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Application of RTT for Conservation of Linear Momentum

Assuming uniform values of density and e across

the entire area we may pull them out of the integral
sign with their average values: -

න ρV V. n dA = ρavg,1 × Vavg,1 න V. n dA
𝐴1 𝐴1

If the control surface is so chosen that V is always

normal to the area, then
V. n = V cos θ = V
If this velocity is assumed to be uniform then we
may treat it as constant and equal to Vavg,1
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Application of RTT for Conservation of Linear Momentum

Thus

න ρV V. n dA = ρavg,1 × Vavg,1 × Vavg,1 න dA

𝐴1 𝐴1

න ρV V. n dA = ρavg,1 Vavg,1 A1 Vavg,1

𝐴1

But ρavg Vavg A1 = mሶ avg, 1

Hence → න ρV V. n dA = mሶ avg, 1 Vavg,1

𝐴1
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Application of RTT for Conservation of Linear Momentum

On the same lines

න ρe V. n dA = mሶ avg, 2 Vavg,2
𝐴2

න ρe V. n dA = mሶ avg, 3 Vavg,3
𝐴3
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Application of RTT for Conservation of Linear Momentum

Applying the RTT for the CV we may write

d mV sys d
෍F = = න ρ × V × dυ + න ρV V. n dA
dt dt
CV CS

d mV sys d
෍F = = න ρ × V × dυ + mሶ avg,2 Vavg,2 + mሶ avg,3 Vavg−,3 − mሶ avg,1 Vavg,1
dt dt
CV
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Application of RTT for Conservation of Linear Momentum

In general

𝐝 𝐦𝐕 𝐬𝐲𝐬 𝐝
෍ 𝐅Ԧ = = න 𝛒 × V × 𝐝𝛖 + ෍ 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐠 − ෍ 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐠
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭
𝐂𝐕 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐢𝐧

For steady flow

𝐝 𝐦𝐕 𝐬𝐲𝐬
෍ 𝐅Ԧ = = ෍ 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐠 − ෍ 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐠
𝐝𝐭
𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐢𝐧
For single inlet and outlet
𝐝 𝐦𝐕 𝐬𝐲𝐬
෍ 𝐅Ԧ = = 𝐦ሶ 𝐨𝐮𝐭, 𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐕𝐨𝐮𝐭, 𝐚𝐯𝐠 − 𝐦ሶ 𝐢𝐧, 𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐕𝐢𝐧, 𝐚𝐯𝐠
𝐝𝐭
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Application of RTT for Conservation of Linear Momentum

Treat the flow through the control

volume as steady and write the
equation for conservation of linear
momentum.
THANK YOU

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

Applications of the Linear Momentum Equation - 1

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of The Linear Momentum Equation - 1

Class 33: Applications of The Linear Momentum Equation - 1

In this class you will learn about the applications of the linear momentum
equation.
Lesson Content
➢ Momentum Flux Correction Factor
➢ The Linear Momentum Equation for Steady Flows
➢ Water Jet Striking a Plate
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Momentum Flux Correction Factor

The velocity across most inlets and outlets in practical engineering

situations is not uniform.
In such situations the control surface integral is converted into an algebraic
expression by using a non-dimensional correction factor called the
momentum-flux correction factor β.

Momentum Flux across an inlet or outlet: න ρV V. n dA = β mሶ avg Vavg

CS
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Momentum Flux Correction Factor

This correction factor is required whenever average velocity term is used to

convert a control surface integral to an algebraic expression, in the manner
shown above.

From the expression න ρV V. n dA = β mሶ avg Vavg we may write

CS

‫׬‬CS ρV V. n dA
β=
mሶ avg Vavg
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Momentum Flux Correction Factor

The algebraic form of the linear momentum equation is written as:

𝐝
෍ 𝐅Ԧ = න 𝛒 × 𝐕 × 𝐝𝛖 + ෍ 𝛃 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐠 − ෍ 𝛃 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐠
𝐝𝐭
𝐂𝐕 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐢𝐧

where a unique value of β is applied to each inlet and outlet in the control
surface.
Note that β = 1 for the case of uniform flow across an inlet or outlet.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Significance of Momentum-flux Correction Factor β

The value of β is not very close to unity for laminar flow (of the order of
1.33) and hence it should not be ignored for such situations.
However for turbulent flow β values are found to in the range of 1.01 – 1.04.
Since these values are close to unity, this is neglected in such situations and
the error is insignificant.
However it is wise to include β in all our calculations in order to improve the
accuracy of our calculations.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Steady Flow

Steady Flow System

෍ 𝐅Ԧ = ෍ 𝛃 𝐦𝐕
ሶ − ෍ 𝛃 𝐦𝐕
ሶ
𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐢𝐧
One inlet and one outlet:

෍ 𝐅Ԧ = 𝐦ሶ 𝛃𝟐 𝐕𝟐 − 𝛃𝟏 𝐕𝟏

Along x-coordinate
Courtesy: “Fluid Mechanics – Fundamental and
Applications” (in SI units), Yunus A.Cengel, John
෍ 𝐅Ԧ𝒙 = 𝐦ሶ 𝛃𝟐 𝐕𝟐,𝒙 − 𝛃𝟏 𝐕𝟏,𝒙 M.Cimbala, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
2006.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Water Jet Striking a Plate

Consider a water jet with velocity 𝐕𝟏

striking a stationary plate as shown.
Let 𝐕𝟏 be in the x-direction.
After striking the plate, the jet splashes
off in the plane of the plate and leaves
with a velocity 𝐕𝟐 in the y-direction as
indicated.
Identifying a control volume (CV) as
shown by the dotted lines we make the
analysis.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Water Jet Striking a Plate

Applying the linear momentum equation for the control volume

෍ 𝐅Ԧ𝒙 = 𝐦ሶ 𝛃𝟐 𝐕𝟐,𝒙 − 𝛃𝟏 𝐕𝟏,𝒙

−𝐅Ԧ𝑹 = 𝐦ሶ 𝛃 −𝐕𝟏,𝒙
Taking 𝛃 = 𝟏, for situation such as a water jet, we have
𝐅Ԧ𝐑 = 𝐦ሶ 𝐕𝟏,𝒙
The force of impact 𝐅Ԧ𝐈 = 𝐅Ԧ𝐑 but will be in a direction opposite to that
of 𝐅Ԧ𝐈 (i.e., 𝐅Ԧ𝐈 will be in the direction of the jet)
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Water Jet Striking a Plate

FI = mሶ V = mass flow rate strking the plate × velocity of jet on impact

We knowሶ that mሶ = ρAV
FI = mሶ V = ρAV × V
𝐅Ԧ𝐈 = 𝛒𝐀𝐕 𝟐
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Water Jet Striking a Moving Plate

Consider a water jet with velocity 𝐕𝟏

striking a plate moving with a velocity
𝐮 as shown.
Let 𝐕𝟏 and 𝐮 both be in the x-direction.
After striking the plate, the jet splashes
off in the plane of the plate and leaves
with a velocity 𝐕𝟐 in the y-direction as
indicated.
Identifying a control volume (CV) as
shown by the dotted lines we make the
analysis.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Water Jet Striking a Moving Plate

Force of Impact = FI = mass flow rate strking the plate × velocity of jet on impact
Mass flow rate striking the plate = mሶ = ρAVR = ρA V − u
Velocity of jet on impact = VR = V − u
FI = mሶ V = ρA V − u × V − u
𝐅Ԧ𝐈 = 𝛒𝐀 𝐕 − 𝐮 𝟐
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Water Jet Striking a Moving Plate

In general for all cases, involving a water jet striking stationary

and moving plates, we may write
𝐅Ԧ𝐈 = 𝛒𝐀𝐕𝐑𝟐
𝐕𝐑 = 𝐕 − 𝐮 when both the jet and plate are moving in the same
direction
𝐕𝐑 = 𝐕 − −𝐮 = 𝐕 + 𝐮 when the jet and plate are moving in
opposite directions
For water striking a stationary plate u = 0 and hence the
equation reduces to
𝐅Ԧ𝐈 = 𝛒𝐀𝐕 𝟐
THANK YOU

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

Applications of the Linear Momentum Equation - 2

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of The Linear Momentum Equation - 2

Class 34: Applications of The Linear Momentum Equation - 2

In this class you will continue to learn about the linear momentum equation.
Lesson Content
➢ Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

A horizontal water jet from a nozzle of constant exit cross section

impinges normally on a stationary vertical flat plate. A certain force F
is required to hold the plate against the water stream. If the water
velocity is doubled, will the necessary holding force also be doubled?
Explain.
Solution
Force required to hold a plate stationary = F = ρAV 2
2
If the velocity is doubled, the new force Fnew = ρA 2V
Fnew = 4 ρAV 2 = 4F
Thus the necessary holding force being proportional to the square of
the velocity increases by 4 times.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

A horizontal water jet from a nozzle of constant cross section

impinges normally on a stationary vertical flat plate. A certain force
F is required to hold the plate against the water stream. If the
water velocity is reduced by 75%, what is the percentage reduction
in the F? Explain.
Solution
F = ρAV2
Vnew=0.75V
Fnew= ρA(0.75V)2
= 0.5625 ρAV2
= 0.5625 F
The force will be reduced by (1 – 0.5625)*100 = 43.75 %.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

A horizontal water jet of constant velocity V impinges

normally on a vertical flat plate and splashes off the
sides in the vertical plane. The plate is moving
towards the oncoming water jet with a velocity equal
𝟏
to 𝐕. If F is the force required to maintain the plate
𝟐
stationary, what multiple of F would be the force
required to move the plate towards the water jet.
Solution
For a stationary plate, F = ρAV 2
2
Fmoving plate = ρAVr2 = ρA V— −0.5V
Fmoving plate = ρA 1.5V 2 = 2.25 ρAV 2
Fmoving plate = 2.25 F
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

A horizontal water jet of constant velocity V impinges normally on a

vertical flat plate and splashes off the sides in the vertical plane. The
plate is required to move towards the oncoming water jet with a
velocity equal to 0.6V. If F is the force required to maintain the plate
stationary, what multiple of F would be the force required to move the
plate towards the water jet with a velocity 0.6V.
Solution
For a stationary plate, F = ρAV 2
2
Fmoving plate = ρAVr2 = ρA V— −0.6V = ρA 1.6V 2
= 2.56 ρAV 2
Fmoving plate = 2.56 F
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

A constant-velocity horizontal water from a stationary nozzle impinges

normally on a vertical flat plate that is held in a nearly frictionless track.
As the water hots the plate, it begins to move due to the water force.
Will the acceleration of plate remain constant or change? Explain
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

Answer
The force of impact of the water jet is given by
𝐅Ԧ𝐈 = 𝛒𝐀𝐕𝐑𝟐 = 𝛒𝐀 𝐕 − 𝐮 𝟐
At the initial instant of time u = 0 and hence
𝐅Ԧ𝐈 = 𝛒𝐀𝐕 𝟐 and is maximum and goes decreasing as plate
velocity increases and becomes zero when u = V.
FI = mass of plate × acceleration of plate
Since FI is maximum at the initial instant of time it follows that
acceleration of the plate is maximum at the initial instant of
time.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

A horizontal water jet of constant-velocity V from a stationary nozzle

impinges normally on a vertical flat plate that is held in a nearly
frictionless track. As the water hots the plate, it begins to move due to
the water force. What is the highest velocity the plate can attain?
Explain

V
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

Answer
The force of impact of the water jet is given by
𝐅Ԧ𝐈 = 𝛒𝐀𝐕𝐑𝟐 = 𝛒𝐀 𝐕 − 𝐮 𝟐
At the initial instant of time u = 0 and hence
𝐅Ԧ𝐈 = 𝛒𝐀𝐕 𝟐 and is maximum and goes decreasing as plate
velocity increases.
The maximum velocity that the plate can attain is the jet
velocity i.e., u = V.
At this instant of time, FI becomes zero.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

Water accelerated by a nozzle to 30 m/s strikes the

vertical back surface of a cart moving horizontally at a
constant velocity of 6 m/s in the flow direction. The mass
flow rate of water issuing out of the nozzle is 25 kg/s.
After the strike, the water stream spatters off in all
directions in the plane of the back surface. (a) Determine
the braking force needed to prevent the cart from
accelerating. (b) If the braking force was instead, used to
generate power, determine the maximum power that can
be generated.
If the mass of the cart is 300 kg and the brakes fail,
determine the acceleration of the cart when the water
first strikes it. Assume the mass of water that wets the
back surface is negligible.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

Solution
Braking Force = −Force of Impact
Hence, Braking Force = −ρAVr2
𝐦
Vr = relative velocity of jet with respect to plate = V − u = 30 − 6 = 𝟐𝟒
𝐬
Mass flow rate of jet issuing out of nozzle = ρAV
Mass flow rate of jet issuing out of nozzle 25
Hence ρA = = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑 𝐤𝐠/𝐦
Jet velocity 30
Braking Force = −0.833 × 242 = −𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝐍
Power wasted due to braking = Braking Force × Plate Velocity = 480 × 6 = 𝟐𝟖𝟖𝟎 𝐖
Maximum power that can be generated from braking force = 2880 W
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

Solution
When the brakes fail, the force of impact will lead to acceleration of the cart.
Force of Impact at the initial time instant = FI, initial = 480 N
FI, initial = mass of cart × acceleration of cart at the initial time instant
480 = 300 × acart, initial
𝐚𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐭, 𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝐦/𝐬 𝟐
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

A horizontal 5-cm-diameter water jet with a velocity of 18 m/s

impinges normally upon a vertical plate of mass 1000 kg. The plate is
held in a nearly frictionless track and is initially stationary. When the
jet strikes the plate, the plate begins to move in the direction of the
jet. The water always spatters in the plane of the retreating plate.
Determine (a) acceleration of the plate when the jet first strikes it
(time = 0), (b) the time it will take for the plate to reach a velocity of
9 m/s, (c) the plate velocity 20 s after the jet first strikes it.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

Solution
d = jet diameter = 5 cm = 0.05 m
πd2 π × 0.052
A = jet area = = = 0.001963 m2
4 4
V = jet velocity = 18 m/s
mp = mass of plate = 1000 kg
Force of Impact = FI = ρAVr2 = ρA V − u 2

When the jet first strikes the plate, at t = 0, u = 0,

FI, initial = ρA V − u 2 = 1000 × 0.001963 × 18 − 0 2

FI, initial = 636.17 N

MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

Solution
FI, initial = mp ap, initial
636.17 = 1000 × ap
𝐚𝐩,𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝟏𝟕 𝐦ൗ 𝟐
𝐬
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

Solution
FI = mp ap

2
du
ρA V − u = mp ×
dt
mp
dt = 2
du
ρA V − u
mp du
dt = 2
ρA V−u
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

Solution
t mp 9
du
න dt = න 2
0 ρA 0 V − u
9
mp 1 1000 1 1
t= = −
ρA V−u 0
1000 × 0.001963 18 − 9 18 − 0
𝐭 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟑 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐬
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Numericals on Water Jet Striking a Plate

Solution
20 mp u
du
න dt = න 2
0 ρA 0 V − u
u
mp 1 1000 1 1
20 = = −
ρA V−u 0
1000 × 0.001963 18 − u 18 − 0
𝐦
𝐮 = 𝟕. 𝟒𝟓
𝐬
THANK YOU

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

Applications of the Linear Momentum Equation - 3

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of The Linear Momentum Equation - 3

Class 35: Applications of The Linear Momentum Equation - 3

In this class you will continue to learn about the linear momentum equation.
Lesson Content
➢ Force on a Pipe Bend
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

A reducing elbow in a horizontal pipe is used to

deflect water, flowing at a rate of 30 kg/s, by an
angle of 450 with the flow direction, while
accelerating it. The elbow discharges water into
the atmosphere. The cross sectional areas at the
inlet and exit are respectively 150 cm2 and 25
cm2. The axis of the pipe at the exit section of the
bend is 40 cm above the inlet section. The mass of
the elbow and the water in it is 50 kg. Determine
the anchoring force needed to hold the elbow in
place. Take the momentum flux correction factor
as 1.03 for both the inlet and exit sections and
density of water to be 1000 kg/m3.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

Data provided
mሶ = 30 kg/s
A1 = Inlet cross − sectional area = 150 cm2
A2 = Outlet cross − sectional area = 25 cm2
z2 − z1 = 0.4 m
melbow with water = 50 kg
θ = angle of bend = 450
β = Momentum flux correction factor at inlet and exit = 1.03
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

Solution
I - Determination of velocity of water at elbow inlet and exit
mሶ 30
Water velocity at elbow inlet = V1 = = −4
= 2 m/s
ρA1 1000 × 150 × 10
mሶ 30 m
Water velocity at elbow exit = V2 = = −4
= 12
ρA2 1000 × 25 × 10 s
Components of velocity
m
V1𝑥 = V1 = 2 ; V1𝑧 = 0
s
m
V2𝑥 = V2 cos 450 = 8.48 ; V2𝑧 = V2 sin 450 = 8.48 m/s
s
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

Solution
II - Determination of pressure of water at elbow inlet
Applying the Bernoulli equation between inlet and exit, we have
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + gz1 = + + gz2
ρ 2 ρ 2
V22 V12 122 22
P1 = ρ − + g z2 − z1 = 1000 × − + 9.81 0.4
2 2 2 2
𝑷𝟏 = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟗𝟐 𝐤𝐏𝐚
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

Solution
III - Determination of Anchoring Force
Applying the Linear Momentum Equation for the x− direction,
we have

෍ 𝐅Ԧ𝒙 = 𝐦ሶ 𝛃𝟐 𝐕𝟐,𝒙 − 𝛃𝟏 𝐕𝟏,𝒙

𝐩𝟏 𝐀 𝟏 + 𝐅Ԧ𝐑𝐱 = 𝛃𝐦ሶ 𝐕𝟐,𝒙 − 𝐕𝟏,𝒙

73.92 × 103 × 150 × 10−4 + FRx = 1.03 × 30 × 8.48 − 2
𝐅Ԧ𝐑𝐱 = −𝟗𝟎𝟖. 𝟒𝟏 𝐍
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

Solution
III - Determination of Anchoring Force
Applying the Linear Momentum Equation for the z− direction,
we have

෍ 𝐅Ԧ𝒛 = 𝐦ሶ 𝛃𝟐 𝐕𝟐,𝒛 − 𝛃𝟏 𝐕𝟏,𝒛

𝐅Ԧ𝐑𝐳 − 𝐖 = 𝛃𝐦ሶ 𝐕𝟐,𝒛

FR𝑧 − −50 × 9.81 = 1.03 × 30 × 8.48
𝐅Ԧ𝐑𝐱 = 𝟕𝟓𝟐. 𝟓𝟑 𝐍
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

Solution
III - Determination of Anchoring Force
2 2
Anchoring Force = FR = FRx + FRz = −908.41 2 + 752.532

𝐅Ԧ𝐑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟗. 𝟔𝟐 𝐍
𝐅𝐑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟗. 𝟔𝟐 𝐍
FRz 752.53 𝐅𝐑𝐳 = 𝟕𝟓𝟐. 𝟓𝟑 𝐍
tan α = =
FRx 908.41
𝛂 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟔𝟒𝟎
𝛂 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟔𝟒𝟎
𝐅𝐑𝐱 = −𝟗𝟎𝟖. 𝟒𝟏 𝐍
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

A 90° elbow is used to direct water flow at a rate

of 25 kg/s in a horizontal pipe upward. The
diameter of the entire elbow is 10 cm. The elbow
discharges water into the atmosphere, and thus
the pressure at the exit is the local atmospheric
pressure. The weight of the elbow and the water
in it is considered to be negligible. Determine (a)
the gage pressure at the center of the inlet of the
elbow and (b) the anchoring force needed to hold
the elbow in place. Take the momentum-flux
correction factor to be 1.03.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

Data provided
mሶ = 25 kg/s
d = diameter of the pipe = 0.1 m
πd2 π × 0.12
A1 = A2 = Cross − sectional areas at inlet and exit = = = 0.007853 m2
4 4
z2 − z1 = 0.35 m
β = Momentum flux correction factor at inlet and exit = 1.03
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

Solution
I - Determination of velocity of water at elbow inlet and exit
mሶ 25
Water velocity at inlet & exit = V1 = V2 = = = 3.18 m/s
ρA1 1000 × 0.007853
Components of velocity
m
V1𝑥 = V1 = 3.18 ; V1𝑧 = 0
s
V2𝑥 = 0; V2𝑧 = V2 = 3.18 m/s
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

Solution
II - Determination of pressure of water at elbow inlet
Applying the Bernoulli equation between inlet and exit, we have
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + gz1 = + + gz2
ρ 2 ρ 2
P1 = ρg z2 − z1 = 1000 × 9.81 × 0.35
𝐏𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟑 𝐤𝐏𝐚
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

Solution
III - Determination of Anchoring Force
Applying the Linear Momentum Equation for the x− direction,
we have
𝐅𝐑𝐳
෍ 𝐅Ԧ𝒙 = 𝐦ሶ 𝛃𝟐 𝐕𝟐,𝒙 − 𝛃𝟏 𝐕𝟏,𝒙
𝐩𝟏 𝐀 𝟏
𝐩𝟏 𝐀 𝟏 + 𝐅Ԧ𝐑𝐱 = 𝛃𝐦ሶ −𝐕𝟏,𝒙
𝐅𝐑𝐱
3.43 × 103 × 0.007853 + FRx = 1.03 × 25 × −3.18
𝐅Ԧ𝐑𝐱 = −𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟖𝟐 𝐍
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

Solution
III - Determination of Anchoring Force
Applying the Linear Momentum Equation for the z− direction,
we have
𝐅𝐑𝐳
෍ 𝐅Ԧ𝒛 = 𝐦ሶ 𝛃𝟐 𝐕𝟐,𝒛 − 𝛃𝟏 𝐕𝟏,𝒛
𝐩𝟏 𝐀 𝟏
𝐅Ԧ𝐑𝐳 = 𝛃𝐦ሶ 𝐕𝟐,𝒛
𝐅𝐑𝐱
FR𝑧 = 1.03 × 25 × 3.18
𝐅Ԧ𝐑𝐱 = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟗 𝐍
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Force on a Pipe Bend

Solution
III - Determination of Anchoring Force
2 2
Anchoring Force = FR = FRx + FRz = −108.82 2 + 81.92

𝐅Ԧ𝐑 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔. 𝟐 𝐍
𝐅𝐑 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔. 𝟐 𝐍
𝐅𝐑𝐳 = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟗 𝐍
FRz 81.9
tan α = =
FRx 108.82 𝛂 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟗𝟔𝟎

𝛂 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟗𝟔𝟎
𝐅𝐑𝐱 = −𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟖𝟐 𝐍
THANK YOU

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS

Applications of the Linear Momentum Equation - 4

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
Applications of The Linear Momentum Equation - 4

Class 36: Applications of The Linear Momentum Equation - 4

In this class you will continue to learn about the applications of the linear
momentum equation.
Lesson Content
➢ Flow with no External Forces
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Flow with no External Forces

A common situation for space vehicles and

satellites is that there are no external forces
such as weight, pressure and reaction forces
acting on the body.
As such

෍ 𝐅Ԧ = 𝟎
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Flow with no External Forces

From the RTT we may write

𝐝
𝟎= න 𝛒 × V × 𝐝𝛖 + ෍ 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐠 − ෍ 𝐦ሶ 𝐚𝐯𝐠 𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐠
𝐝𝐭
𝐂𝐕 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐢𝐧

𝐝 𝐝 𝐦𝐕 𝐂𝐕
න 𝛒 × 𝐕 × 𝐝𝛖 =
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭
𝐂𝐕
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Flow with no External Forces

For space vehicles and satellites, we may treat the mass m of

the control volume to be nearly constant, and hence
𝐝 𝐦𝐕 𝐂𝐕 𝐝 𝐕 𝐂𝐕
= 𝐦 𝐂𝐕 = 𝐦𝐚 𝐂𝐕
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭
We may treat the control volume as a solid body and write
𝐦𝐚 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 = 𝐦𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 = 𝐓𝐡𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 = 𝐅Ԧ𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Flow with no External Forces

Re-writing the RTT we have

𝐝
𝟎= ሶ 𝐑 − ෍ 𝛃 𝐦𝐕
න 𝛒 × V × 𝐝𝛖 + ෍ 𝛃 𝐦𝐕 ሶ 𝐑
𝐝𝐭
𝐂𝐕 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐢𝐧

𝐝 𝐦𝐕 𝐂𝐕
𝟎= ሶ 𝐑 − ෍ 𝛃 𝐦𝐕
+ ෍ 𝛃 𝐦𝐕 ሶ 𝐑 (since there is no fluid entering the CV)
𝐝𝐭
𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐢𝐧
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Flow with no External Forces

ሶ 𝐑
𝟎 = 𝐦𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 + ෍ 𝛃 𝐦𝐕
𝐨𝐮𝐭

𝐦𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 = 𝐅Ԧ𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 = 𝐓𝐡𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐭 = − ෍ 𝛃 𝐦𝐕

ሶ 𝐑
𝐨𝐮𝐭
This equation can be used to determine the linear
acceleration of a space vehicle when the rockets are fired.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Flow with no External Forces

In the above equation

𝐕𝐑 = − 𝐕𝐠𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐬 − −𝐕𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 if the gases and the body are
travelling in opposite directions. This is taken with a negative
sign since the direction of movement of the body is always
taken as positive.
𝐕𝐑 = 𝐕𝐠𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐬 − 𝐕𝐛𝐨𝐝𝐲 if the gases and the body are
travelling in the same direction.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Flow with no External Forces

An orbiting satellite has a mass of 5000 kg and is traveling at a

constant velocity of V0. To alter its orbit, an attached rocket
discharges 100 kg of gases from the reaction of solid fuel at a
velocity of 3000 m/s relative to the satellite in a direction
opposite to V0. The fuel discharge rate is constant for 2 s.
Determine (a) the acceleration of the satellite during this 2-s
period, (b) the change of velocity of the satellite during this time
period, and (c) the thrust exerted on the satellite.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Flow with no External Forces

Data provided
msatellite = 5000 kg
100
mሶ gas = = 50 kg/s
2
V0 = velocity of the satellite
m
Vgas,relative = −3000
s
(negative sign since velocity of gases is opposite to the direction of V0 )
t = time of discharge of gases = 2 seconds
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Flow with no External Forces

Solution
mspacecraft × aspacecraft = −mሶ gas × Vgas,relative
−mሶ gas × Vgas,relative 50 × −3000
𝐚𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐜𝐫𝐚𝐟𝐭 = =− = 𝟑𝟎 𝐦/𝐬 𝟐
mspacecraft 5000
Change in velocity = aspacecraft × time = 30 × 2 = 𝟔𝟎 𝐦/𝐬
Fthrust = mspacecraft × aspacecraft = 5000 × 30
𝐅Ԧ𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐭 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝐤𝐍
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Flow with no External Forces

A spacecraft cruising in space at a constant velocity of 500 m/s has a mass

of 8200 kg. To slow down the spacecraft, a solid fuel rocket is fired, and the
combustion gases leave the rocket at a constant rate of 70 kg/s at a
velocity of 1500 m/s in the same direction as the spacecraft for a period of
5 seconds. Assuming that the change in the mass of the spacecraft to be
negligible, determine (i) the deceleration of the spacecraft during this 5
second period (ii) the change in velocity of the spacecraft during this period
and (iii) the thrust exerted on the spacecraft.
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Flow with no External Forces

Data provided
mspacecraft = 8200 kg
mሶ gas = 70 kg/s
Vsat = velocity of the satellite = 500 m/s
Vgases = velocity of the gases = 1500 m/s
t = time of discharge of gases = 5 seconds
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Flow with no External Forces

Solution
mspacecraft × aspacecraft = −mሶ gas × Vgas,relative = −mሶ gas × Vgases − Vsat
−mሶ gas × Vgases − Vsat 70 × 1500 − 500
𝐚𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐜𝐫𝐚𝐟𝐭 = =−
mspacecraft 8200
𝐚𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐜𝐫𝐚𝐟𝐭 = −𝟖. 𝟓𝟒 𝐦/𝐬 𝟐
Change in velocity = aspacecraft × time = −8.54 × 5 = −𝟒𝟐. 𝟕 𝐦/𝐬
Fthrust = mspacecraft × aspacecraft = 8200 × −8.54
𝐅Ԧ𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐭 = −𝟕𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝐤𝐍
THANK YOU

V. Krishna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]