Conductors and Dielectrics

• Conductors
– Current, current density, drift velocity, continuity
– Energy bands in materials
– Mobility, micro/macro Ohm’s Law
– Boundary conditions on conductors
– Methods of Images
• Dielectrics
– Polarization, displacement, electric field
– Permittivity, susceptibility, relative permittivity
– Dielectrics research
– Boundary conditions on dielectrics
Conductors and Dielectrics
• Polarization
– Static alignment of charge in material
– Charge aligns when voltage applied, moves no further
– Charge proportional to voltage
• Conduction
– Continuous motion of charge through material
– Enters one side, exits another
– Current proportional to voltage
• Real-world materials
– Plastics, ceramics, glasses -> dielectrics (maybe some conductivity)
– Metals -> conductors, semiconductors, superconductors
– Cement, Biosystems -> Both (water high dielectric, salt conductivity)
Current and current density
• Basic definition of current C/s = Amps

• Basic current density (J perp. surface)

• Vector current density

n
Current density and charge velocity
• Basic definition of current
∆𝑄 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑣 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑆 ∆𝑥
𝐼= = = = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑆 𝑣
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

• Combining with earlier expression

• Gives current density

𝑱 = 𝜌𝑣 𝒗
Charge and current continuity
• Current leaving any closed surface is time rate of change of charge
within that surface

• Using divergence theorem on left

• Taking time derivative inside integral

Qi(t)

• Equating integrands
Example – charge and current continuity
• Given spherically symmetric current density
1
𝑱 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝒂𝒓
𝑟

• Current increasing from r = 5m to r= 6m at t=1s

1 −1 1 −1
𝐼 = 𝐽𝑟 𝑆 = 𝑒 4𝜋52 = 23.1𝐴 @ 5𝑚, 𝑒 4𝜋62 = 27.7@ 6𝑚
5 6
^^ Why is current
• Current density from continuity equation increasing ?
𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕 1 1
= −𝛻 ∙ 𝐽 = − 2 𝑟 2 𝑒 −𝑡 = − 2 𝑒 −𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

• Charge density ρ integral w.r.t. time

1 1 −𝑡
𝜌=− 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡(𝑟)
𝑟2 𝑟2

• Drift velocity is thus

1 −𝑡
𝐽𝑟 𝑒
𝑣𝑟 = = 𝑟 =𝑟 𝑚 𝑠 <<Some central
𝜌𝑣 1 −𝑡
𝑟2
𝑒 repulsive force!
Energy Band Structure in Three Material Types

Discrete quantum states broaden into energy bands in condensed materials with overlapping potentials
• Valence band – outermost filled band
• Conduction band – higher energy unfilled band

Band structure determines type of material

a) Insulators show large energy gaps, requiring large amounts of energy to lift electrons into the conduction
band. When this occurs, the dielectric breaks down.
b) Conductors exhibit no energy gap between valence and conduction bands so electrons move freely
c) Semiconductors have a relatively small energy gap, so modest amounts of energy (applied through heat,
light,or an electric field) may lift electrons from valence to conduction bands.
Ohm’s Law (microscopic form)
Free electrons are accelerated by an electric field. The applied force on an electron of charge Q = -e is

−𝑒𝐄
𝐚=
𝑚
But in reality the electrons are constantly bumping into things (like a terminal velocity) so they attain an
equilibrium or drift velocity:

where e is the electron mobility, expressed in units of m2/V-s. The drift velocity is used in the current density
through:

So Ohm’s Law in point form (material property)

With the conductivity given as:

S/m (electrons) S/m (electrons/holes)

Ohm’s Law (macroscopic form)
• For constant electric field
𝑎

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝑳 = 𝐸𝐿
𝑏
• Ohm’s Law becomes
𝐼 𝑉
= 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 = 𝜎
𝑆 𝐿

• Rearranging gives
𝜎𝑆 𝜎𝑆
𝐼= 𝑉 𝐺= 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝐿 𝐿
• Or
𝐿 𝐿 𝜌𝐿
𝑉= 𝐼 𝑅= = 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 (𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝜎𝑆 𝜎𝑆 𝑆

• Variation with geometry

• Conductance vs. Resistance
Ohm’s Law example 1

• Checking ohms law microscopic form

𝐴
7.65 × 106 = 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 = 5.8 × 107 𝑆 𝑚 (0.132 𝑉 𝑚)
𝑚2
• Mobility of copper is 0.0032 m2/V-s

𝑣𝑑 = −𝑢𝑒 𝐸 = .0032 𝑚2 𝑉𝑠 0.132 𝑉 = 0.000422 𝑚 𝑠

• Charge density
𝜎 = −𝜌𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝜌𝑒 = −1.81 × 1010 𝐶 𝑚3
Ohm’s Law example 2

𝑣𝑑
a) 𝐸=
𝑢𝑒
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸

b) 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
𝑉
c) 𝐸=𝑑 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸

𝐼
d) 𝐽 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Boundary conditions for conductors

• No electric field in interior

– Otherwise charges repel to the surface

• No tangential electric field at surface

– 𝐸𝑡 = 0
– Otherwise charges redistribute along surface

• Normal electric field at surface

– 𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠
– Displacement Normal equals Charge Density
(Gauss’s Law)
Boundary Condition for Tangential Electric Field E

Over the rectangular integration path, we use or

To find:

These become negligible as h approaches zero.

dielectric

n Therefore

More formally:

conductor
Boundary Condition for the Normal Displacement D
Gauss’ Law is applied to the cylindrical surface shown below:

This reduces to: as h approaches zero

dielectric
Therefore

n
More formally:

s
conductor
Summary

Tangential E is zero
At the surface:
Normal D is equal to the surface charge density
Example - Boundary Conditions for Conductors
• Potential given by

𝑉 = 100(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )

• Potential at (2,-1,3) is 300 V. Also 300 V

along entire surface where
300 = 100(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )

• Thus we can “insert” conductor in region

provided the conductor follow hyperbola
3 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2

• The Electric Field is at all times normal

to conducting surface
𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 = −200𝑥𝒂𝒙 + 200𝑦 𝒂𝒚

• Electric field at point 2,-1,3)

– Ex = -400 V/m, Ey = -200 V/m
– Down and to left
Example – Streamlines of Electric Field

• Slope of line equals electric field ratio

𝑑𝑦 𝐸𝑦 200 𝑦 𝑦
= 𝐸 = −200 𝑥 = − 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

• Rearranging
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
+ =0
𝑥 𝑦

ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦 = 𝐶1
𝑥𝑦 = 𝐶2
• Evaluate at P(2,-1,3)
𝑥𝑦 =-2
Boundary condition example (from my phone)*

* www.mathstudio.net
Method of Images
The Theorem of Uniqueness states that if we are given a configuration of charges and
boundary conditions, there will exist only one potential and electric field solution.

In the electric dipole, the surface along the plane of symmetry is an equipotential with V = 0.

The same is true if a grounded conducting plane is located there.

So the boundary conditions and charges are identical in the upper half spaces of both configurations
(not in the lower half).

In effect, the positive point charge images across the conducting plane, allowing the conductor to be
replaced by the image. The field and potential distribution in the upper half space is now found much
more easily!
Forms of Image Charges

Each charge in a given configuration will have its own image

Example of the Image Method

Want to find surface charge density on conducting plane at the point (2,5,0). A 30-nC line of charge
lies parallel to the y axis at x=0, z = 3.

First step is to replace conducting plane with image line of charge -30 nC at z = -3.
Example of the Image Method (continued)
Vectors from each line charge to observation point:

Electric Fields from each line charge

Add both fields to get: (x component cancels)

Example of the Image Method (continued)
Electric Field at P is thus:

Displacement is thus

Charge density is
n
𝜌𝑠 = 𝑫 ∙ 𝒏 𝑆 = −2.20 𝒂𝒛 ∙ 𝒂𝒛

= −𝟐. 𝟐𝟎 nC/𝑚2
D
Image Method using Potentials
• Conducting plane at x = 4 with vertical wire in front.

• Potential for wire in front at x = 6, y=3:

𝜌𝑙
𝑉 𝜌 =− ln 𝜌 +𝑘
2𝜋𝜀𝑜

• Boundary condition for wire in front at x = 6, y=3:

40 𝑛𝐶
0=− ln 2 +𝑘 𝑘 = 498.6
2𝜋𝜀𝑜

• Boundary condition for image wire in back at x=2, y=3:

−40 𝑛𝐶
0=− ln 2 +𝑘 𝑘 = −498.6
2𝜋𝜀𝑜
Image Method using Potentials (cont)
• Total potential becomes
40 𝑛𝐶 −40 𝑛𝐶
𝑉 𝜌 =− ln 𝜌 − ln 𝜌𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 2𝜋𝜀𝑜

• At point (7,-1,5) 𝜌 = 17 𝜌𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 41 gives

40 𝑛𝐶 40 𝑛𝐶
𝑉 𝜌 =− ln 17 + 41 = −1019 + 1335 = 316
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 2𝜋𝜀𝑜

• To get electric field must write V(ρ) as V(x,y) and take gradient
40 𝑛𝐶 2 2
40 𝑛𝐶 2 2
𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦 = − ln 𝑥−6 + 𝑦−3 + ln 𝑥−2 + 𝑦−3
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 2𝜋𝜀𝑜

𝜕𝑉
𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦 𝐸𝑥 = − =
𝜕𝑥

40 𝑛𝐶 2(𝑥 − 6) 2(𝑥 − 2)
= −
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 2 𝑥−6 2 + 𝑦−3 2 𝑥−6 2 + 𝑦−3 2 2 𝑥−2 2 + 𝑦−3 2 𝑥−2 2 + 𝑦−3 2

7−6 7−2
= 719.34 − = −45.3 𝑉/𝑚
7 − 6 2 + −1 − 3 2 7 − 2 2 + −1 − 3 2
Dielectrics

• Material has random oriented dipoles

• Applied field aligns dipoles (negative at (+) terminal, positive at (-)
terminal
• Effect is to cancel applied field, lower voltage
• OR, increase charge to maintain voltage
• Either increases capacitance C= Q/V
Review Dipole Moment
• Define dipole moment

𝒑 = 𝑄𝒅
• Potential for dipole

• Written in terms of dipole

moment and position

• Dipole moment determines “strength” of polar molecule

amount of charge (Q) and offset (d) of charge
Polarization as sum of dipole moments
(per volume)
Introducing an electric field may increase the charge separation in each dipole, and possibly re-orient dipoles so that
there is some aggregate alignment, as shown here. The effect is small, and is greatly exaggerated here!

E The effect is to increase P.

= 𝑛𝒑 = 𝑛𝑄𝒅

n = charge/volume
p = polarization of individual dipole
P = polarization/volume
Polarization near electrodes
• From diagram
– Excess positive bound charge near top negative
electrode
----------------
positive – Excess negative bound charge near bottom
E positive electrode
– Rest of material neutral

• Excess charge in bound (red) volumes

∆𝑄 = 𝑛𝑄𝑑 ∆𝑆
neutral

• Writing in terms of polarization

∆𝑄 = 𝑷 ∆𝑆

• Writing similar to Gauss’s law

negative
+++++++++++++ 𝑄𝑏 = − 𝑃 ∙ 𝑑𝑠

(Note dot product sign, outward normal

leaves opposite charge enclosed)
Combining total, free, and bound charge
• Total, free, and bound charge
---------------- 𝑄𝑡 = 𝑄𝑓 + 𝑄𝑏
positive
E • Total
𝑄𝑡 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑠

• Free
neutral
𝑄𝑓 = 𝐷 ∙ 𝑑𝑠

• Bound
𝑄𝑏 = − 𝑃 ∙ 𝑑𝑠
negative
+++++++++++++ • Combining

𝐷 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 + 𝑃
D, P, and E in Dielectric
• D continuous
• Polarization increases
• E decreases
• 𝑫 = 𝜀𝑜 𝑬 + 𝑷
• C/m2
Charge Densities

Taking the previous results and using the divergence theorem, we find the point form expressions:

Bound Charge:

Total Charge:

Free Charge:
Electric Susceptibility and the Dielectric Constant

A stronger electric field results in a larger polarization in the medium. In a linear medium, the relation
between P and E is linear, and is given by:

where e is the electric susceptibility of the medium.

We may now write:

where the dielectric constant, or relative permittivity is defined as:

Leading to the overall permittivity of the medium: where

Isotropic vs. Anisotropic Media

In an isotropic medium, the dielectric constant is invariant with direction of the applied electric field.

This is not the case in an anisotropic medium (usually a crystal) in which the dielectric constant will vary
as the electric field is rotated in certain directions. In this case, the electric flux density vector components
must be evaluated separately through the dielectric tensor. The relation can be expressed in the form:
Permittivity of Materials
• Typical permittivity for various solids and liquids.
– Teflon – 2
– Plastics - 3-6
– Ceramics 8-10
– Titanates>100
– Acetone 2 1
– Water 78

• Actual dielectric “constant” varies with:

– Temperature
– Direction
– Field Strength
– Frequency
– Real & Imaginary components
Variation with frequency
• Charge polarization due to:
– Ionic (low frequency)
– Orientation (medium, microwave)
– Atomic (IR)
– Electronic (Visible, UV)

• Dielectric relaxation
– As frequency is raised, molecule can
no longer “track”.
– Real permittivity decreases and
imaginary permittivity peaks

• In medium and microwave range

– Rotation, reorientation, etc >>
• Modeling:
– Permittivity & impedance diagrams.
– Statistical relaxation functions
(Debye, Cole Davidson).
IEEE – March 2005

Application to Polymer Composites

• Dielectric Permittivity in Epoxy Resin 10Hz -10 MHz

• Polar-group rotation in epoxy resin.

• Low-frequency range 10 Hz – 10 MHz.
• Permittivity-loss transition at 1 MHz, at –4°C.
• Transition frequency increases with temperature.

www.msi-sensing.com
IEEE – March 2005

Dielectric Permittivity in Epoxy Resin 1 MHz -1 GHz

• Aerospace resin Hexcel 8552.

• High frequency range 1 MHz – 1 GHz.
• Temperature constant 125°C, transition decreases with cure.
• TDR measurement method.

www.msi-sensing.com
IEEE – March 2005

Permittivity in Epoxy Resin during Complete Cure Cycle

www.msi-sensing.com
IEEE – March 2005

Application to cement hydration

• Cement Conductivity - Variation with Cure

• Imaginary counterpart of real permittivity (’’).

• Multiply by  to remove power law (o’’).

• Decrease in ion conductivity, growth of intermediate feature with cure

• Frequency of intermediate feature does not match permittivity

www.msi-sensing.com
IEEE – March 2005

Cement Cure -Dielectric Relaxation Model

Requirements:
• Provide free-relaxation, two intermediate-frequency relaxations
• Provide conductivity and electrode polarization

Debye for free & medium. Cole-Davidson for low. (literature, biosystems)

Cm C
 ( )     ( )     l
1 i  m
(1 i  ) 
l
Combined
   C 
C
 C p 
 C
Re
 l 
  Re m   Re f 
( permittivity)
 (1 i )  1 i m  
1 i 

 l  f
   C 
C  C
 
 o  m     Im f 
 Im   o   Ci
l Im (conductivity)
 (1 i )   1 i m  1 i
o
 f 
 l 

9 variables fit over entire range, real & imaginary, 2-stage fit, f = 8.2 ps

www.msi-sensing.com
IEEE – March 2005

Cement Cure - Model Fitting

• Fits permittivity – both low and free relaxation.

• Fits conductivity – both medium and free relaxation.

• Fits permittivity polarization.

• Fits conductivity baseline.

www.msi-sensing.com
IEEE – March 2005

Other applications
• Other Applications
– Bio
– Liquid Crystal
– Composite polymers
– Titanates
– Wireless characterization
– MRI dyes
– Ground water monitoring
– Oil Drilling fluid characterization (GPR)
Boundary Condition for Tangential Electric Field E
Since E is conservative, we setup line integral straddling both dielectrics:

Left and right sides cancel, so

Leading to Continuity for tangential E

And Discontinuity for tangential D

E same, D higher in high permittivity material

Boundary Condition for Normal Displacement D
Apply Gauss’ Law to the cylindrical volume straddling both dielectrics

n
s

Flux enters and exits only through top and bottom

surfaces, zero on sides

Leading to Continuity for normal D (for ρS = 0)

And Discontinuity for normal E

D same. E lower in high permittivity material

𝜀1 𝐸𝑁1 = 𝜀2 𝐸𝑁2
Bending of D at boundary

• Boundary conditions
– DN continuous
𝐷𝑇1 𝜀1
– =
𝐷𝑇2 𝜀2

• Trigonometry
𝐷𝑇1
high
– tan 𝜃1 =
𝐷𝑁
𝐷𝑇2
– tan 𝜃2 =
𝐷𝑁 low

• Eliminating DN
tan 𝜃1 𝐷𝑇1 𝜀1
= =
tan 𝜃2 𝐷𝑇2 𝜀2
Example
• Teflon εr = 2.1

• Displacement and Polarization outside

𝑫 = 𝜀𝑜 𝑬𝒐 + 𝑷 𝑃 = χ 𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜 = 0 𝑫 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜

• Displacement and Polarization inside

𝑫 = 𝜀𝑜 𝑬𝒐 + 𝑷 𝑷 = χ 𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜 = (𝜀𝑟 − 1) 𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜

𝑫 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜 𝑬𝒐

• At boundary D is continuous, so inside

𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡
• 𝐸𝑖𝑛 = = 0.476 𝐸𝑜
𝜀𝑟

• 𝑷 = (𝜀𝑟 −1) 𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑖𝑛 = (𝜀𝑟 −1) 𝜀𝑜 (0.476) 𝐸𝑜 = 0.524 𝜀𝑜 𝐸𝑜

Example (continued)
• Polarization up, E field down, D maintains continuity
Example
Quiz 2 – Problem 4.21