Capacitance instability

The capacitance of certain capacitors decreases as the component ages. In ceramic capacitors, this is caused by degradation of the dielectric. The type of dielectric and the ambient operating and storage temperatures are the most significant aging factors, while the operating voltage has a smaller effect. The aging process may be reversed by heating the component above the Curie point. Aging is fastest near the beginning of life of the component, and the device stabilizes over time.[20] Electrolytic capacitors age as the electrolyte evaporates. In contrast with ceramic capacitors, this occurs towards the end of life of the component. Temperature dependence of capacitance is usually expressed in parts per million (ppm) per C. It can usually be taken as a broadly linear function but can be noticeably non-linear at the temperature extremes. The temperature coefficient can be either positive or negative, sometimes even amongst different samples of the same type. In other words, the spread in the range of temperature coefficients can encompass zero. See the data sheet in the leakage current section above for an example. Capacitors, especially ceramic capacitors, and older designs such as paper capacitors, can absorb sound waves resulting in amicrophonic effect. Vibration moves the plates, causing the capacitance to vary, in turn inducing AC current. Some dielectrics also generate piezoelectricity. The resulting interference is especially problematic in audio applications, potentially causing feedback or unintended recording. In the reverse microphonic effect, the varying electric field between the capacitor plates exerts a physical force, moving them as a speaker. This can generate audible sound, but drains energy and stresses the dielectric and the electrolyte, if any. [edit]Capacitor

types

Main article: Types of capacitor Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The type of internal dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device packaging all strongly affect the characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications. Values available range from very low (picofarad range; while arbitrarily low values are in principle possible, stray (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the limiting factor) to about 5 kF supercapacitors. Above approximately 1 microfarad electrolytic capacitors are usually used because of their small size and low cost compared with other technologies, unless their relatively poor stability, life and polarised nature make them unsuitable. Very high capacity supercapacitors use a porous carbon-based electrode material.

[edit]Dielectric

materials

Capacitor materials. From left: multilayer ceramic, ceramic disc, multilayer polyester film, tubular ceramic, polystyrene, metalized polyester film, aluminum electrolytic. Major scale divisions are in centimetres.

Most types of capacitor include a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance. These dielectrics are most often insulators. However, low capacitance devices are available with a vacuum between their plates, which allows extremely high voltage operation and low losses.Variable capacitors with their plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in radio tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil dielectric between the moving and stationary plates, with no significant air space between them. In order to maximise the charge that a capacitor can hold, the dielectric material needs to have as high a permittivity as possible, while also having as high a breakdown voltage as possible. Several solid dielectrics are available, including paper, plastic, glass, mica and ceramicmaterials. Paper was used extensively in older devices and offers relatively high voltage performance. However, it is susceptible to water absorption, and has been largely replaced by plastic film capacitors. Plastics offer better stability and aging performance, which makes them useful in timer circuits, although they may be limited to low operating temperatures and frequencies. Ceramic capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency applications, although their capacitance varies strongly with voltage and they age poorly. They are broadly categorized as class 1 dielectrics, which have predictable variation of capacitance with temperature or class 2 dielectrics, which can operate at higher voltage. Glass and mica capacitors are extremely reliable, stable and tolerant to high temperatures and voltages, but are too expensive for most mainstream applications. Electrolytic capacitors and supercapacitors are used to store small and larger amounts of energy, respectively, ceramic capacitors are often used in resonators, and parasitic capacitance occurs in circuits wherever the simple conductor-insulatorconductor structure is formed unintentionally by the configuration of the circuit layout. Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminum or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric layer. The second electrode is a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another foil plate. Electrolytic capacitors offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, gradual loss of capacitance especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage current. Poor quality capacitors may leak electrolyte, which is harmful to printed circuit boards. The conductivity of the electrolyte drops at low temperatures, which increases

equivalent series resistance. While widely used for power-supply conditioning, poor highfrequency characteristics make them unsuitable for many applications. Electrolytic capacitors will self-degrade if unused for a period (around a year), and when full power is applied may short circuit, permanently damaging the capacitor and usually blowing a fuse or causing arcing in rectifier tubes. They can be restored before use (and damage) by gradually applying the operating voltage, often done on antique vacuum tube equipment over a period of 30 minutes by using a variable transformer to supply AC power. Unfortunately, the use of this technique may be less satisfactory for some solid state equipment, which may be damaged by operation below its normal power range, requiring that the power supply first be isolated from the consuming circuits. Such remedies may not be applicable to modern high-frequency power supplies as these produce full output voltage even with reduced input. Tantalum capacitors offer better frequency and temperature characteristics than aluminum, but higher dielectric absorption and leakage.[21] OS-CON (or OC-CON) capacitors are a polymerized organic semiconductor solid-electrolyte type that offer longer life at higher cost than standard electrolytic capacitors. Several other types of capacitor are available for specialist applications. Supercapacitors store large amounts of energy. Supercapacitors made from carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, or highly porous electrode materials offer extremely high capacitance (up to 5 kF as of 2010) and can be used in some applications instead of rechargeable batteries. Alternating current capacitors are specifically designed to work on line (mains) voltage AC power circuits. They are commonly used in electric motor circuits and are often designed to handle large currents, so they tend to be physically large. They are usually ruggedly packaged, often in metal cases that can be easily grounded/earthed. They also are designed with direct current breakdown voltages of at least five times the maximum AC voltage. [edit]Structure

Capacitor packages: SMD ceramic at top left; SMD tantalum at bottom left; through-hole tantalum at top right; through-hole electrolytic at bottom right. Major scale divisions are cm.

The arrangement of plates and dielectric has many variations depending on the desired ratings of the capacitor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and less), ceramic disks use metallic coatings, with wire leads bonded to the coating. Larger values can be made by multiple stacks of plates and disks. Larger value capacitors usually use a metal foil or metal film layer deposited on the surface of a dielectric film to make the plates, and a dielectric film of impregnated paper or plastic these are rolled up to save space. To reduce the series resistance and inductance for long plates, the plates and dielectric are staggered so that connection is made at the common edge of the rolled-up plates, not at the ends of the foil or metalized film strips that comprise the plates. The assembly is encased to prevent moisture entering the dielectric early radio equipment used a cardboard tube sealed with wax. Modern paper or film dielectric capacitors are dipped in a hard thermoplastic. Large capacitors for high-voltage use may have the roll form compressed to fit into a rectangular metal case, with bolted terminals and bushings for connections. The dielectric in larger capacitors is often impregnated with a liquid to improve its properties. Capacitors may have their connecting leads arranged in many configurations, for example axially or radially. "Axial" means that the leads are on a common axis, typically the axis of the capacitor's cylindrical body the leads extend from opposite ends. Radial leads might more accurately be referred to as tandem; they are rarely actually aligned along radii of the body's circle, so the term is inexact, although universal. The leads (until bent) are usually in planes parallel to that of the flat body of the capacitor, and extend in the same direction; they are often parallel as manufactured. Small, cheap discoidal ceramic capacitors have existed since the 1930s, and remain in widespread use. Since the 1980s, surface mount packages for capacitors have been widely used. These packages are extremely small and lack connecting leads, allowing them to be soldered directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards. Surface mount components avoid undesirable high-frequency effects due to the leads and simplify automated assembly, although manual handling is made difficult due to their small size. Mechanically controlled variable capacitors allow the plate spacing to be adjusted, for example by rotating or sliding a set of movable plates into alignment with a set of stationary plates. Low cost variable capacitors squeeze together alternating layers of aluminum and plastic with a screw. Electrical control of capacitance is achievable with varactors (or varicaps), which are reverse-biased semiconductor diodes whose depletion region width varies with applied voltage. They are used in phase-locked loops, amongst other applications. [edit]Capacitor

markings

Most capacitors have numbers printed on their bodies to indicate their electrical characteristics. Larger capacitors like electrolytics usually display the actual capacitance together with the unit (for example, 220 F). Smaller capacitors like ceramics, however, use a shorthand consisting of three numbers and a letter, where the numbers show the capacitance in pF (calculated as XY x 10Z for the numbers XYZ) and the letter indicates the tolerance (J, K or M for 5%, 10% and 20% respectively). Additionally, the capacitor may show its working voltage, temperature and other relevant characteristics.

Uses of capacitors
o o o o o
1 Energy storage 2 Pulsed power and weapons 3 Power conditioning 3.1 Power factor correction 4 Supression and coupling 4.1 Signal coupling 4.2 Decoupling 4.3 Noise filters and snubbers 5 Motor starters 6 Signal processing 6.1 Tuned circuits 7 Sensing 8 Hazards and safety

Energy storage
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information in volatile memory.) UPSes can be equipped with maintenance-free capacitors to extend service life.[2] Capacitor symbols
Capacitor Polarized Variable capacitors capacitor

[edit]Pulsed

power and weapons

Groups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance high-voltage capacitors (capacitor banks) are used to supply huge pulses of current for many pulsed power applications. These includeelectromagnetic forming, Marx generators, pulsed lasers (especially TEA lasers), pulse forming networks, radar, fusion research, and particle accelerators. Large capacitor banks(Reservoir) are used as energy sources for the exploding-bridgewire detonatorsor slapper detonators in nuclear weapons and other specialty weapons. Experimental work is under way using banks of capacitors as power sources for electromagnetic armour and electromagneticrailguns or coilguns. [edit]Power

conditioning

Power conditioning
Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a full or half waverectifier. They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage. Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audioapplications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the lead-acid car battery. [edit]Power

factor correction

In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the values of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes reactive

(VAr). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like electric motors and transmission lines to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load center within a building or in a large utility substation. [edit]Supression [edit]Signal

and coupling

coupling

Main article: capacitive coupling Because capacitors pass AC but block DC signals (when charged up to the applied dc voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method is known as AC coupling or "capacitive coupling". Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not be accurately controlled, but whose reactance is small at the signal frequency, is employed. [edit]Decoupling Main article: decoupling capacitor A decoupling capacitor is a capacitor used to decouple one part of a circuit from another. Noise caused by other circuit elements is shunted through the capacitor, reducing the effect they have on the rest of the circuit. It is most commonly used between the power supply and ground. An alternative name is bypass capacitor as it is used to bypass the power supply or other high impedance component of a circuit. [edit]Noise

filters and snubbers

When an inductive circuit is opened, the current through the inductance collapses quickly, creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large enough, the energy will generate a spark, causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A snubber capacitor across the newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly found in contact breaker ignition systems, for instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be enough to damage the switch but will still radiateundesirable radio frequency interference (RFI), which a filter capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package. Capacitors are also used in parallel to interrupt units of a high-voltage circuit breaker in order to equally distribute the voltage between these units. In this case they are called grading capacitors.

In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often drawn vertically in circuit diagrams with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the device, if it is polarized (see electrolytic capacitor). [edit]Motor

starters

Main article: motor capacitor In single phase squirrel cage motors, the primary winding within the motor housing isn't capable of starting a rotational motion on the rotor, but is capable of sustaining one. To start the motor, a secondary winding is used in series with a non-polarized starting capacitorto introduce a lag in the sinusoidal current through the starting winding. When the secondary winding is placed at an angle with respect to the primary winding, a rotating electric field is created. The force of the rotational field is not constant, but is sufficient to start the rotor spinning. When the rotor comes close to operating speed, a centrifugal switch (or currentsensitive relay in series with the main winding) disconnects the capacitor. The start capacitor is typically mounted to the side of the motor housing. These are called capacitor-start motors, and have relatively high starting torque. There are also capacitor-run induction motors which have a permanently-connected phase-shifting capacitor in series with a second winding. The motor is much like a two-phase induction motor. Motor-starting capacitors are typically non-polarized electrolytic types, while running capacitors are conventional paper or plastic film dielectric types. [edit]Signal

processing

The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent information, either in binary form, as in DRAMs, or in analogue form, as inanalog sampled filters and CCDs. Capacitors can be used in analog circuits as components of integrators or more complex filters and innegative feedback loop stabilization. Signal processing circuits also use capacitors to integrate a current signal. [edit]Tuned

circuits

Capacitors and inductors are applied together in tuned circuits to select information in particular frequency bands. For example, radio receivers rely on variable capacitors to tune the station frequency. Speakers use passive analog crossovers, and analog equalizers use capacitors to select different audio bands. The resonant frequency f of a tuned circuit is a function of the inductance (L) and capacitance (C) in series, and is given by:

where L is in henries and C is in farads.

[edit]Sensing Most capacitors are designed to maintain a fixed physical structure. However, various factors can change the structure of the capacitor; the resulting change in capacitance can be used to sense those factors. Changing the dielectric: The effects of varying the physical and/or electrical characteristics of the dielectric can also be of use. Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric can be used to measure humidity in air. Capacitors are used to accurately measure the fuel level in airplanes; as the fuel covers more of a pair of plates, the circuit capacitance increases. Changing the distance between the plates: Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure. Industrial pressure transmitters used for process control use pressure-sensing diagphragms, which form a capacitor plate of an oscillator circuit. Capacitors are used as the sensor in condenser microphones, where one plate is moved by air pressure, relative to the fixed position of the other plate. Some accelerometers useMEMS capacitors etched on a chip to measure the magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector. They are used to detect changes in acceleration, e.g. as tilt sensors or to detect free fall, as sensors triggering airbag deployment, and in many other applications. Somefingerprint sensors use capacitors. Additionally, a user can adjust the pitch of a theremin musical instrument by moving his hand since this changes the effective capacitance between the user's hand and the antenna. Changing the effective area of the plates: Capacitive touch switches are now used on many consumer electronic products. [edit]Hazards

and safety

Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can cause dangerous or even potentially fatal shocks or damage connected equipment. For example, even a seemingly innocuous device such as a disposable camera flash unit powered by a 1.5 volt AA battery contains a capacitor which may be charged to over 300 volts. This is easily capable of delivering a shock. Service procedures for electronic devices usually include instructions to discharge large or high-voltage capacitors. Capacitors may also have built-in discharge resistors to dissipate stored energy to a safe level within a few seconds after power is removed. High-voltage capacitors are stored with the terminals shorted, as protection from potentially dangerous voltages due to dielectric absorption.

Some old, large oil-filled capacitors contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). It is known that waste PCBs can leak into groundwater under landfills. Capacitors containing PCB were labelled as containing "Askarel" and several other trade names. PCB-filled capacitors are found in very old (pre 1975) fluorescent lamp ballasts, and other applications. High-voltage capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may create arcing that vaporizes dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-current applications can overheat, especially in the center of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used within high-energy capacitor banks can violently explode when a short in one capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. High voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventive maintenance can help to minimize these hazards. High-voltage capacitors can benefit from a pre-charge to limit in-rush currents at powerup of high voltage direct current (HVDC) circuits. This will extend the life of the component and may mitigate high-voltage hazards.

Types of capacitor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Types of capacitors)

Practical capacitors are often classified according to the material used as the dielectric, with the dielectrics divided into two broad categories: bulk insulators and metal-oxide films (socalled electrolytic capacitors).
Contents
[hide]

o o o o

1 Capacitor construction 2 Types of dielectric 3 Fixed capacitor comparisons 4 Variable capacitors 5 Non-ideal properties of practical capacitors 5.1 Breakdown voltage 5.2 Q factor, dissipation and tan-delta 5.3 Equivalent series resistance (ESR) 5.4 Equivalent series inductance (ESL)

o o o o o o o o

5.5 Maximum voltage and current 5.6 Temperature dependence 5.7 Aging 5.8 Dielectric absorption (soakage) 5.9 Voltage non-linearities 5.10 Leakage 6 Component values and identification 6.1 Standard values 6.2 Capacitor markings 6.2.1 Numerical markings 6.2.2 Colour coding

7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links

[edit]Capacitor

construction

Structure of a surface mount (SMT) film capacitor.

Capacitors have thin conducting plates (usually made of metal), separated by a layer of dielectric, then stacked or rolled to form a compact device. Many types of capacitors are available commercially, with capacitance ranging from the picofarad, microfarad range to more than a farad, and voltage ratings up to hundreds of kilovolts. In general, the higher the capacitance and voltage rating, the larger the physical size of the capacitor and the higher the cost.Tolerances in capacitance value for discrete capacitors are usually specified as a percentage of the nominal value. Tolerances ranging from 50% (electrolytic types) to less than 1% are commonly available.

Another figure of merit for capacitors is stability with respect to time and temperature, sometimes called drift. Variable capacitors are generally less stable than fixed types. The electrodes need round edges to avoid field electron emission. Air has a low breakdown voltage, so any air inside a capacitor - especially at plate edges - will reduce the voltage rating. Even closed air bubbles in the insulator or between the insulator and the electrode lead to gas discharge, particularly in AC or high frequency applications. Groups of identically constructed capacitor elements are often connected in series for operation at higher voltage. High voltage capacitors need large, smooth, and round terminals to prevent corona discharge.

[edit]Types

of dielectric

Capacitor

Polarized Capacitor

Variable Capacitor

Capacitor symbols
Air-gap: air-gap capacitors have a low dielectric loss. Large-valued, tunable capacitors

that can be used for resonating HF antennas can be made this way.

Ceramic: the main differences between ceramic dielectric types are the temperature

coefficient of capacitance, and the dielectric loss. C0G and NP0 (negative-positive-zero, i.e. 0) dielectrics have the lowest losses, and are used in filters, as timing elements, and for balancing crystal oscillators. Ceramic capacitors tend to have low inductance because of their small size. NP0 refers to the shape of the capacitor's temperature coefficient graph (how much the capacitance changes with temperature). NP0 means that the graph is flat and the device is not affected by temperature changes.

C0G or NP0: typically 1 pF to 0.1 F, 5%. High tolerance and good temperature

performance. Larger and more expensive.

X7R: typically 100 pF to 22 F, 10%. Good for non-critical coupling, timing

applications. Subject to microphonics. Temperature up to 125C

150C

X8R: typically 100 pF to 10 F, 25-100v, 5-10%. Good for high temperature up to

Z5U or 2E6: typically 1 nF to 10 F, 20%. Good for bypass, coupling applications.

Low price and small size. Subject to microphonics.

Ceramic chip: 1% accurate, values up to about 1 F, typically made from Lead

zirconate titanate (PZT) ferroelectric ceramic

Gimmick: these capacitors are made by twisting together 2 pieces of insulated wire.

Values usually range from 3 pF to 15 pF. Usually used in homemade VHF circuits for oscillation feedback.

Trimmer: these capacitors have a rotating plate (which can be rotated to change the

capacitance) separated from a fixed plate by a dielectric medium. Typically values range from 5 pF to 60 pF.

Glass: used to form extremely stable, reliable capacitors. Paper: common in antique radio equipment, paper dielectric and aluminum foil layers

rolled into a cylinder and sealed with wax. Low values up to a few F, working voltage up to several hundred volts, oil-impregnated bathtub types to 5 kV used for motor starting and highvoltage power supplies, and up to 25 kV for large oil-impregnated energy discharge types.

Polycarbonate: good for filters, low temperature coefficient, good aging, expensive. Polyester, (PET film): (from about 1 nF to 10 F) signal capacitors, integrators. Polystyrene: (usually in the picofarad range) stable signal capacitors. Polypropylene: low-loss, high voltage, resistant to breakdown, signal capacitors. PTFE or Teflon: higher performing and more expensive than other plastic dielectrics. Silver mica: These are fast and stable for HF and low VHF RF circuits, but expensive. Electrolytic capacitors have a larger capacitance per unit volume than other types,

making them valuable in relatively high-current and low-frequency electrical circuits, e.g. in power-supply filters or as coupling capacitors in audio amplifiers. High-capacity electrolytics, also known as supercapacitors or ultracapacitors, have applications similar to those of rechargeable batteries, e.g. in electrically powered vehicles.

Printed circuit board: metal conductive areas in different layers of a multi-layer printed

circuit board can act as a highly stable capacitor. It is common industry practice to fill unused areas of one PCB layer with the ground conductor and another layer with the power conductor, forming a large distributed capacitor between the layers, or to make power traces broader than signal traces.

In integrated circuits, small capacitors can be formed through appropriate patterns of

metallization on an isolating substrate.

Vacuum: vacuum variable capacitors are generally expensive, housed in a glass or

ceramic body, typically rated for 5-30 kV. Typically used in high power RF transmitters because the dielectric has virtually no loss and is self-healing. May be fixed or adjustable.

[edit]Fixed

capacitor comparisons
Dielectric used Features/applications Disadvantages

Capacitor type

Paper Capacitors

Paper or oilimpregnated paper

Large size. Also, paper is highly hygroscopic, absorbing moisture fro Impregnated paper was m extensively used for older the atmosphere despite capacitors, using wax, oil, or plastic enclosures and epoxy as an impregnant. Oil-Kraft impregnates. paper capacitors are still used in Absorbed moisture certain high voltage applications. degrades performance Has mostly been replaced by increasing by plastic film capacitors. dielectric losses (power factor) and decreasinginsulation r esistance.

MetalizedPaper Capacitors

Paper

Comparatively smaller in size than paper-foil capacitors

Suitable only for lower current applications. Has been largely superseded by metalized film capacitors

PET filmCapacitor

Polyester film

Smaller in size when compared to paper or polypropylene capacitors of comparable specifications. May use plates of foil, metalized film, or a combination. PET film capacitors have almost completely replaced paper capacitors for most DCelectronic applications. Operating voltages up to 60,000 V DC and operating temperatures up to 125 C. Low moisture absorption.

Temperature stability is poorer than paper capacitors. Usable at low (AC power) frequencies, but inappropriate for RFapplications due to excessive dielectric heating.

KaptonCapacitor

Kapton polyimide fi Similar to PET film, but lm significantly higher operating temperature (up to 250 C).

Higher cost than PET. Temperature stability is poorer than paper capacitors. Usable at low (AC power) frequencies, but

inappropriate for RF applications due to excessive dielectric heating.

Polystyrene Capacitor Polystyrene

Excellent general purpose plastic film capacitor. Excellent stability, low moisture pick-up and a slightly negativetemperature coefficient that can be used to match the positive temperature co-efficient of other components. Ideal for low power RF and precision analog applications

Maximum operating temperature is limited to about +85 C. Comparatively bigger in size.

Polycarbonate Plastic Polycarbonate Film Capacitor

Superior insulation resistance, dis sipation factor, and dielectric absorption versus polystyrene capacitors. Moisture pick-up is Maximum operating less, with about 80 ppm temperature limited to temperature coefficient. Can use about 125 C. full operating voltage across entire temperature range (55 C to 125 C)

Polypropylene Plastic Polypropylene Film Capacitors

Has become the most popular capacitor dielectric[citation needed]. Extremely low dissipation factor, higher dielectric strength than polycarbonate and polyester films, low moisture absorption, and high insulation resistance. May use plates of foil, metalized More susceptible to film, or a combination. Film is damage from transient compatible with self-healing over-voltages or technology to improve reliability. voltage reversals than Usable in high frequency oil-impregnated Kraft applications and high frequency paper for pulsed high power applications such power energy as induction heating (often discharge applications. combined with water-cooling) due to very low dielectric losses. Larger value and higher voltage types from 1 to 100 F at up to 440 V AC are used as run capacitors in some types of single phase electric motors.

Polysulphone Plastic Polysulfone Film Capacitors

Similar to polycarbonate. Can Very limited withstand full voltage at availability and higher comparatively higher cost temperatures. Moisture pick-up is

typically 0.2%, limiting its stability.

Lowest loss solid dielectric. Operating temperatures up to 250 PTFE Fluorocarbon Polytetra- fluoroeth C, extremely high insulation (TEFLON) Film ylene resistance, and good stability. Capacitors Used in stringent, mission-critical applications

Large size (due to low dielectric constant), and higher cost than other film capacitors.

Polyamide Plastic Film Polyamide Capacitors

Operating temperatures of up to 200 C. High insulation Large size and high resistance, good stability and low cost. dissipation factor.

Reliable and significantly smaller Thin plates limit Metalized Plastic Film Polyester orPolycar in size. Thin metalization can be maximum currentcarr Capacitors bonate used to advantage by making ying capability. capacitors "self healing".

Stacked Plate Mica Capacitors

Mica

Unless properly sealed, susceptible to Advantages of mica moisture pick-up capacitors arise from the fact that which will increase the dielectric material (mica) the power factor and is inert. It does not decrease insulation change physicallyor chemically w resistance. Higher cost ith age and it has good due to scarcity of high temperature stability. Very grade dielectric resistant to corona damage material and manually-intensive assembly.

Metalized Mica or Mica Silver Mica Capacitors

Silver mica capacitors have the above mentioned advantages. In Higher cost addition, they have much reduced moisture infiltration.

Glass Capacitors

Glass

Similar to Mica Capacitors. Stability and frequency characteristics are better High cost. than silver mica capacitors. Ultrareliable, ultra-stable, and resistant to nuclear radiation.

Class-I Temperature Mixture of Low cost and small size, excellent Capacitance changes Compensating Type complexTitanate co high frequencycharacteristics and with change in applied Ceramic Capacitors mpounds good reliability. voltage, with

Predictable linearcapacitance cha nge with operating temperature. frequency and with Available in voltages up to 15,000 aging effects. volts

Class-II High dielectric strength Type Ceramic Capacitors

Barium titanate based dielectrics

Smaller than Class-I type due to higher dielectric strength of ceramics used. Available in voltages up to 50,000 volts.

Not as stable as ClassI type with respect to temperature, and capacitance changes significantly with applied voltage.

AluminumElectrolytic Aluminum oxide Capacitors

Dielectric leakage is high, large internal resistance andinductance limits Very large capacitance to volume high frequency ratio, inexpensive, polarized. performance, poor low Primary applications are as temperature stability smoothing and reservoir and loosetolerances. capacitors in power supplies. May vent or burst open whenoverloaded and/o r overheated. Limited to about 500 volts.

Lithium Ion Capacitors

Lithium ion

The lithium ion capacitors have a higher power density as compared to batteries and LICs are safer in use than LIBs in which thermal runaway reactions may occur. Compared to electric double layer New technology. capacitor (EDLC), the LIC has a higher output voltage. They both have similar power densities, but energy density of an LIC is much higher.

Tantalum Electrolytic Tantalum oxide Capacitors

Higher cost than Large capacitance to volume aluminum electrolytic ratio, smaller size, good stability, capacitors. Voltage wide operating temperature range, limited to about 50 long reliable operating life. volts. Explodes quite Extensively used in miniaturized violently when voltage equipment and computers. rating, current rating, Available in both polarized and or slew rates are unpolarized exceeded, or when a varieties. Solidtantalum capacitors polarized version is have much better characteristics subjected to reverse than their wet counterparts. voltage.

Extremely large capacitance to volume ratio, small size, low ESR. Available in hundreds, or thousands, of farads. A relatively new capacitor technology. Often used to temporarily provide Electrolytic doublepower to equipment during Thin Electrolyte lay layer capacitors battery replacement. Can rapidly er and Activated Relatively high cost. (EDLC)Supercapacito absorb and deliver larger currents Carbon rs than batteries during charging and discharging, making them valuable for hybrid vehicles. Polarized, low operating voltage (volts per capacitor cell). Groups of cells are stacked to provide higher overall operating voltage.

Alternating current oil-filled Capacitors

Oil-impregnated paper

Usually PET or polypropylene film dielectric. Primarily designed to provide very large capacitance for industrial AC applications to Limited to low withstand large currents and high frequency applications peak voltages at power due to high dielectric linefrequencies. The applications losses at higher include AC motor starting and frequencies. running, phase splitting, power factor correction, voltageregulation, control equipment, etc..

Direct current oilfilled capacitors

Paper or Paperpolyester film combination

Operating voltage rating must Primarily designed for DC be derated as per the applications such curve supplied by the as filtering,bypassing, coupling, a manufacturer if the rc suppression, voltage doubling, DC contains ripple. etc... Physically larger than polymer dielectric counterparts.

Energy Storage Capacitors

Kraft capacitor paper impregnated withelectrical grade castor oil or similar high dielectric constant fluid, with extended foil plates

Designed specifically for Physically large and intermittent duty, high current heavy. Significantly discharge applications. More lower energy density tolerant of voltage reversal than than polymer many polymer dielectrics. Typical dielectric systems. Not applications include pulsed self-healing. Device power, electromagnetic forming, may fail pulsed lasers, Marx generators, catastrophically due to and pulsed welders. high stored energy.

Vacuum Capacitors Vacuum capacitors Extremely low loss. Used for high Very high cost, use highly voltage high fragile, physically

evacuated glass or ceramic chamber with concentric cylindrical electrodes.

power RFapplications, such as transmitters and induction heating where even a small amount of large, and relatively dielectric loss would cause low capacitance. excessive heating. Can be selfhealing if arc-over current is limited.

A 12 pF, 20 kV fixed vacuum capacitor

Two 8 F, 525 V paper electrolytic capacitors in a 1930s radio.[1]

Images of different types of capacitors

[edit]Variable

capacitors

Main article: Variable capacitor Variable capacitors may have their capacitance intentionally and repeatedly changed over the life of the device. They include capacitors that use a mechanical construction to change the distance between the plates, or the amount of plate surface area which overlaps, and variable capacitance diodes that change their capacitance as a function of the applied reverse bias voltage. Variable capacitance is also used in sensors for physical quantities, including microphones, pressure and hygro sensors.

[edit]Non-ideal

properties of practical capacitors

[edit]Breakdown

voltage

Main article: Breakdown voltage The breakdown voltage of the dielectric limits the power density of capacitors. For a particular dielectric, the breakdown voltage is proportional to the thickness of the dielectric. If a manufacturer makes a new capacitor with the same dielectric as some old capacitor, but with half the thickness of the dielectric, the new capacitor has half the breakdown voltage of the old capacitor. Because the plates are closer together, the manufacturer can put twice the parallel-plate area inside the new capacitor and still fit it in the same volume (capacitor size) as the old capacitor. Since the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by:

this new capacitor has 4 times the capacitance as the old capacitor. Since the energy stored in a capacitor is given by:

this new capacitor has the same maximum energy density as the old capacitor. The energy density depends only on the dielectric. Making a few thick layers of dielectric (which can support a high voltage, but results in a low capacitance), or making many very thin layers of dielectric (which results in a low breakdown voltage, but a higher capacitance) has no effect on the energy density.

[edit]Q

factor, dissipation and tan-delta

Capacitors have Q (quality) factor (and the inverse, dissipation factor, D or tan-delta) which relates capacitance at a certain frequency to the combined losses due to dielectric leakage and series internal resistance (also known as ESR) dissipation factor (dielectric loss). The lower the Q, the lossier the capacitor. Aluminum electrolytic types have typically low Q factors. High Q capacitors tend to exhibit low DC leakage currents. Tan-delta is the tangent of the phase angle between voltage and current in the capacitor. This angle is sometimes called the loss angle. It is related to the power factor which is zero for an ideal capacitor.

[edit]Equivalent

series resistance (ESR)

This is an effective resistance that is used to describe the resistive parts of the impedance of certain electronic components. The theoretical treatment of devices such as capacitors and inductors tends to assume they are ideal or "perfect" devices, contributing only capacitance or inductance to the circuit. However, all physical devices

are constructed of materials with finite electrical resistance, which means that all realworld components contain some resistance in addition to their other properties. A low ESR capacitor typically has an ESR of 0.01 . Low values are preferred for highcurrent, pulse applications. Low ESR capacitors have the capability to deliver huge currents into short circuits, which can be dangerous. For capacitors, ESR takes into account the internal lead and plate resistances and other factors. An easy way to deal with these inherent resistances in circuit analysis is to express each real capacitor as a combination of an ideal component and a small resistor in series, the resistor having a value equal to the resistance of the physical device.

[edit]Equivalent

series inductance (ESL)

ESL in signal capacitors is mainly caused by the leads used to connect the plates to the outside world and the series interconnects used to join sets of plates together internally. For any real-world capacitor, there is a frequency above DC at which it ceases to behave as a pure capacitance. This is called the (first) resonant frequency. This is critically important with decoupling high-speed logic circuits from the power supply. The decoupling capacitor supplies transient current to the chip. Without decouplers, the IC demands current faster than the connection to the power supply can supply it, as parts of the circuit rapidly switch on and off. Large capacitors tend to have much higher ESL than small ones. As a result, electronics will frequently use multiple bypass capacitorsa small 0.1 F rated for high frequencies and a large electrolytic rated for lower frequencies, and occasionally, an intermediate value capacitor.

[edit]Maximum

voltage and current

Important properties of capacitors are the maximum working voltage (potential, measured in volts) and the amount of energy lost in the dielectric. For high-power or high-speed capacitors, the maximum ripple current, peak current, fault current, and percent voltage reversal are further considerations. Typically the voltage is 66% of the rated voltage. A voltage higher than that, usually reduces the life expectancy depending on manufacturer. The time for a voltage to discharge is 6 time constants.

[edit]Temperature

dependence

Another major non-ideality is temperature coefficient (change in capacitance with temperature) which is usually quoted in parts per million (ppm) per degree Celsius.

[edit]Aging
When refurbishing old (especially audio) equipment, it is a good idea to replace all of the electrolyte-based capacitors. After long storage, the electrolyte and dielectric layer within electrolytic capacitors may deteriorate; before powering up equipment with old

electrolytics, it may be useful to apply low voltage to allow the capacitors to reform before applying full voltage. Deteriorating capacitors are a frequent cause of hum in aging audio equipment. Non-polarised capacitors also suffer from aging, changing their values slightly over long periods of time. In high voltage DC applications, accumulated capacitor stress due to in-rush currents at circuit power-up can be minimized with a pre-charge circuit.

[edit]Dielectric

absorption (soakage)

Some types of dielectrics, when they have been holding a voltage for a long time, maintain a "memory" of that voltage: after they have been quickly fully discharged and left without an applied voltage, a voltage will gradually be established which is some fraction of the original voltage. For some dielectrics 10% or more of the original voltage may reappear. This phenomenon of unwanted charge storage is called dielectric absorption or soakage, and it effectively creates a hysteresis or memory effect in capacitors. The percentage of the original voltage restored depends upon the dielectric and is a non-linear function of original voltage.[2] In many applications of capacitors dielectric absorption is not a problem but in some applications, such as long-time-constantintegrators, sample-and-hold circuits, switched-capacitor analog-to-digital converters, and very low-distortion filters, it is important that the capacitor does not recover a residual charge after full discharge, and capacitors with low absorption are specified[3]. For safety, high-voltage capacitors are often stored with their terminals short circuited. Some dielectrics have very low dielectric absorption, e.g., polystyrene, polypropylene, NPO ceramic, and Teflon. Others, in particular those used in electrolytic and supercapacitors, tend to have high absorption.

[edit]Voltage

non-linearities

Capacitors may also change capacitance with applied voltage. This effect is more prevalent in high k ceramic and some high voltage capacitors. This is a small source of non-linearity in low-distortion filters and other analog applications.

[edit]Leakage
The resistance between the terminals of a capacitor is never truly infinite, leading to some level of d.c. 'leakage'; this ultimately limits how long capacitors can store charge. Before modern low-leakage dielectrics were developed this was a major source of problems in some applications (long time-constant timers, sample-and-holds, etc.).

[edit]Component [edit]Standard

values and identification

values

Before 1960 electronic components values were not standardised. The more common, but not the only, values for capacitors were 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 5.0, 6.0, and 8.0 as base numbers multiplied by some negative or positive power of ten. Values of 0.001 F and above were stated in microfarads (F, or often mF); lower values were stated in micromicrofarads (F, now called picofarads, pF). In the late 1960s a standardized set of geometrically increasing preferred values was introduced. According to the number of values per decade, these were called the E3, E6, E12, etc. series

Serie s

Values

E3

1.0

2.2

4.7

E6

1.0

1.5

2.2

3.3

4.7

6.8

E12 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.7 5.6 6.8 8.2

In many applications capacitors need not be specified to tight tolerance (they often need only to exceed a certain value); this is particularly true for electrolytic capacitors, which are often used for filtering and bypassing. Consequently capacitors, particularly electrolytics, often have a tolerance range of 20% and need to be available only within E6 (or E3) series values. Other types of capacitors, e.g. ceramic, can be manufactured to tighter tolerances and are available in E12 or closer-spaced values (e.g. 47 pF, 56 pF, 68 pF). With the introduction of S.I. submultiples of micro, nano, and pico, it became customary to specify capacitors with a number between 1 and 999 followed by farad, microfarad, nanofarad, or picofarad. While supercapacitors of up to 5,000 farads are produced, it is not usual to use kilofarad or millifarad.

[edit]Capacitor

markings

Capacitors, like most other electronic components, have markings in their bodies to indicate their electrical characteristics, in particularcapacitance, tolerance, working voltage and polarity (if relevant). For most types of capacitor, numerical markings are used, whereas some capacitors, especially older types, use colour coding.

[edit]Numerical markings
On capacitors that are large enough (e.g. electrolytic capacitors) the capacity and working voltage are printed on the body without encoding. Sometimes the markings also include the maximum working temperature, manufacturer's name and other information. Smaller capacitors use a shorthand notation, to display all the relevant information in the limited space. The most commonly used format is: XYZ J/K/M VOLTS V, where XYZ represents the capacitance (calculated as XY10Z pF), the letters J, K or M indicate the tolerance (5%, 10% and 20% respectively) and VOLTS V represents the working voltage. Polarised capacitors, for which one electrode must always be positive relative to the other, have clear polarity markings, usually a stripe or a "-" sign on the side of the negative electrode. Also, the negative lead is usually shorter. Examples: An electrolytic capacitor might be marked with the following information: 47F 160V 105C A capacitor with the following text on its body: 105K 330V has a capacitance of 10105 pF = 1 F (10%) with a working voltage of 330 V. A capacitor with the following text: 473M 100V has a capacitance of 47103 pF = 47 nF (20%) with a working voltage of 100 V.

[edit]Colour coding
Main article: Electronic color code Capacitors may be marked with 3 or more coloured bands or dots. 3-colour coding encodes most significant digit, second most significant digit, and multiplier. Additional bands have meanings which may vary from one type to another. Low-tolerance capacitors may begin with the first 3 (rather than 2) digits of the value. It is usually, but not always, possible to work out what scheme is used by the particular colours used. Cylindrical capacitors marked with bands may look like resistors.

Significa Multiplie Colour nt digits r

DC Capacitan Operating Characterist workin EIA/vibratio ce temperatu ic g n tolerance re voltage

Black

20%

55 C to 10 to 55 Hz +70 C

Brown

10

1%

100

Red

100

2%

55 C to +85 C

Orang e

1,000

300

Yellow

10,000

55 C to +125C

10 to 2000 Hz

Green

5%

500

Blue

55 C to +150 C

Violet

Grey

White

EIA

Gold

0.5%*

1000

Silver

10%

*Or 0.5 pF, whichever is greater.

Electric double-layer capacitor

Maxwell Technologies "MC" and "BC" series supercapacitors (up to 3000 faradcapacitance)

An electric double-layer capacitor, also known as supercapacitor, supercondenser,pseudocapacitor, electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC), or ultracapacitor, is an electrochemical capacitor that has an unusually high energy density when compared to common capacitors, typically on the order of thousands of times greater than a high capacityelectrolytic capacitor. For instance, a typical D-cell sized electrolytic capacitor will have acapacitance in the range of tens of millifarads. The same size electric double-layer capacitor would have a capacitance of several farads, an improvement of about two or three orders of magnitude in capacitance, but usually at a lower working voltage. Larger double-layer capacitors have capacities up to 5,000 farads as of 2010.[1] The highest energy density in production is 30 Wh/kg,[2] below rapid-charging Lithium-titanate batteries. EDLCs have a variety of commercial applications, notably in "energy smoothing" and momentaryload devices. They have applications as energy-storage devices used in vehicles, and for smaller applications like home solar energy systems where extremely fast charging is a valuable feature. Note: all references to batteries in this article should be taken to refer to rechargeable, not primary (aka disposable), batteries.
Contents
[hide]

o o o o

1 Concept 2 History 3 Technology 3.1 Disadvantages 3.2 Advantages 3.3 Materials 4 Applications 4.1 Vehicles

o o
5 Price 6 Market 7 See also

4.1.1 Heavy and public transport 4.1.2 Private vehicles 4.1.3 Motor racing 4.2 Consumer electronics 4.3 Alternative energy sources

8 References 9 External links

[edit]Concept

Comparison of construction diagrams of three capacitors. Left: "normal" capacitor, middle: electrolytic, right: electric double-layer capacitor

In a conventional capacitor, energy is stored by the removal of charge carriers, typically electrons, from one metal plate and depositing them on another. This charge separation creates a potential between the two plates, which can be harnessed in an external circuit. The total energy stored in this fashion is proportional to both the amount of charge stored and the potential between the plates. The amount of charge stored per unit voltage is essentially a function of the size, the distance, and the material properties of the plates and the dielectric(i.e. the material in between the plates), while the potential between the plates is limited by dielectric breakdown of the substance separating the plates. Different materials sandwiched between the plates to separate them result in different voltages to be stored. Optimizing the material leads to higher energy densities for any given size of capacitor. EDLCs do not have a conventional dielectric. Rather than two separate plates separated by an intervening substance, these capacitors use "plates" that are in fact two layers of the same substrate, and their electrical properties, the so-called "electrical double layer", result in the effective separation of charge despite the vanishingly thin (on the order of nanometers) physical separation of the layers. The lack of need for a bulky layer of dielectric permits the packing of "plates" with much larger surface area into a given size, resulting in extraordinarily high capacitances in practical-sized packages. In an electrical double layer, each layer by itself is quite conductive, but the physics at the interface where the layers are effectively in contact means that no significant current can flow between the layers. However, the double layer can withstand only a low voltage, which means that electric double-layer capacitors rated for higher voltages must be made of matched seriesconnected individual EDLCs, much like series-connected cells in higher-voltage batteries.

In general, EDLCs improve storage density through the use of a nanoporous material, typically activated charcoal, in place of the conventional insulating barrier. Activated charcoal is a powder made up of extremely small and very "rough" particles, which, in bulk, form a low-density volume of particles with holes between them that resembles a sponge. The overall surface area of even a thin layer of such a material is many times greater than a traditional material like aluminum, allowing many more charge carriers (ions or radicalsfrom the electrolyte) to be stored in any given volume. The charcoal, which is not a good insulator, is taking the place of the excellent insulators used in conventional devices, so in general EDLCs can only use low potentials on the order of 2 to 3 V. Activated charcoal is not the "perfect" material for this application. The charge carriers are actually (in effect) quite largeespecially when surrounded by solvent moleculesand are often larger than the holes left in the charcoal, which are too small to accept them, limiting the storage. Most recent research in EDLCs has focused on improved materials that offer even higher usable surface areas. Experimental devices developed at MIT replace the charcoal with carbon nanotubes, which can store about the same charge as charcoal (which is almost pure carbon) but are mechanically arranged in a much more regular pattern that exposes a much greater suitable surface area.[3] Other teams are experimenting with custom materials made of activated polypyrrole, and nanotube-impregnated papers.

Ragone chart showing energy density vs. power density for various energy-storage devices

The energy density of existing commercial EDLCs ranges from around 0.5 to 30 Wh/kg, with the standardized cells available from Maxwell Technologies rated at 6 Wh/kg and ACT in production of 30 Wh/kg.[4][5] ACT's capacitor is actually a lithium ion capacitor, known also as a "hybrid capacitor". Experimental electric double-layer capacitors from the MIT LEES project have demonstrated densities of 30 Wh/kg and appear to be scalable to 60 Wh/kg in the short term,
[6]

while EEStorclaims their examples will offer energy densities of about 400 Wh/kg. For

comparison, a conventional lead-acid battery stores typically 30 to 40 Wh/kg and modern lithium-

ion batteries about 160 Wh/kg.Gasoline has a net calorific value (NCV) of around 12,000 Wh/kg; automobile applications operate at about 20% tank-to-wheel efficiency, giving an effective energy density of 2,400 Wh/kg. EDLCs have much higher power density than batteries. Power density combines the energy density with the speed that the energy can be delivered to the load. Batteries, which are based on the movement of charge carriers in a liquid electrolyte, have relatively slow charge and discharge times. Capacitors, on the other hand, can be charged or discharged at a rate that is typically limited by current heating of the electrodes. So while existing EDLCs have energy densities that are perhaps 1/10th that of a conventional battery, their power density is generally 10 to 100 times as great (see diagram, right).

[edit]History
The EDLC effect was first noticed in 1957 by General Electric engineers experimenting with devices using porous carbon electrodes.[7] It was believed that the energy was stored in the carbon pores and it exhibited "exceptionally high capacitance", although the mechanism was unknown at that time. General Electric did not immediately follow up on this work, and the modern version of the devices was eventually developed by researchers at Standard Oil of Ohio in 1966, after they accidentally re-discovered the effect while working on experimental fuel celldesigns.[8] Their cell design used two layers of activated charcoal separated by a thin porous insulator, and this basic mechanical design remains the basis of most electric double-layer capacitors to this day. Standard Oil also failed to commercialize their invention, licensing the technology to NEC, who finally marketed the results as supercapacitors in 1978, to provide backup power for maintaining computer memory.[8] The market expanded slowly for a time, but starting around the mid-1990s various advances in materials science and simple development of the existing systems led to rapidly improving performance and an equally rapid reduction in cost. The first trials of supercapacitors in industrial applications were carried out for supporting the energy supply to robots.[9] In 2005 aerospace systems and controls company Diehl Luftfahrt Elektronik GmbH chose ultracapacitors Boostcap (of Maxwell Technologies) to power emergency actuation systems for doors and evacuation slides in airliners, including the new Airbus 380 jumbo jet. Also in 2005, the ultracapacitor market was between US $272 million and $400 million, depending on the source. In 2006 Joel Schindall and his team at MIT began working on a "super battery", using nanotube technology to improve upon capacitors. They hope to put them on the market within five years. [10][11]

In 2007[12] all solid state micrometer-scale electric double-layer capacitors based on advanced superionic conductors have been for future low-voltage electronics such as deep-sub-voltage nanoelectronics and related technologies (the 22 nm technological node of CMOS and beyond).

[edit]Technology
Supercapacitors have several disadvantages and advantages relative to batteries, as described below.[13]

[edit]Disadvantages
The amount of energy stored per unit weight is considerably lower than that of an

electrochemical battery (35 Wh/kg for an ultracapacitor as of 2010 compared to 30-40 Wh/kg for a lead acid battery), and about 1/1,000th the volumetric energy density of gasoline.

As with any capacitor, the voltage varies with the energy stored. Effective storage and

recovery of energy requires complex electronic control and switching equipment, with consequent energy loss

Has the highest dielectric absorption of any type of capacitor. High self-discharge - the rate is considerably higher than that of an electrochemical

battery.

Cells have low voltages - serial connections are needed to obtain higher voltages. Voltage

balancing is required if more than three capacitors are connected in series.

Linear discharge voltage prevents use of the full energy spectrum. Due to rapid and large release of energy (albeit over short times), EDLC's have the

potential to be deadly to humans. One example is the case of rescue workers accidentally discharging an ultracap in hybrid electrics during automobile accidents.

[edit]Advantages
Long life, with little degradation over hundreds of thousands of charge cycles. Due to the

capacitor's high number of charge-discharge cycles (millions or more compared to 200 to 1000 for most commercially available rechargeable batteries) it will last for the entire lifetime of most devices, which makes the device environmentally friendly. Rechargeable batteries wear out typically over a few years, and their highly reactive chemical electrolytes present a disposal and safety hazard. Battery lifetime can be optimised by only charging under favorable conditions, at an ideal rate and, for some chemistries, as infrequently as possible. EDLCs can help in conjunction with batteries by acting as a charge conditioner, storing energy from other sources for load balancing purposes and then using any excess energy to charge the batteries at a suitable time.

Low cost per cycle

Good reversibility Very high rates of charge and discharge. Extremely low internal resistance (ESR) and consequent high cycle efficiency (95% or

more) and extremely low heating levels

High output power High specific power. According to ITS (Institute of Transportation Studies, Davis,

California) test results, the specific power of electric double-layer capacitors can exceed 6 kW/kg at 95% efficiency[14]

Improved safety, no corrosive electrolyte and low toxicity of materials. Rapid chargingsupercapacitors charge in seconds. Simple charge methodsno full-charge detection is needed; no danger of overcharging.

[edit]Materials
Activated carbon, graphene, carbon nanotubes and certain conductive polymers, or carbon aerogels, are practical for supercapacitors: Virtually all commercial supercapacitors manufactured by Panasonic, Nesscap, Maxwell Technologies, Nippon Chemi-Con, Axion Power, and others use powdered activated carbon made from coconut shells.[15] Some companies also build higher performance devices, at a significant cost increase, based on synthetic carbon precursors that are activated with potassium hydroxide (KOH).[15]

Graphene has excellent surface area per unit of gravimetric or volumetric densities, is

highly conductive and can now be produced in various labs. It will not be long before large volumes of Graphene are produced for use in supercapacitors.

Carbon nanotubes have excellent nanoporosity properties, allowing tiny spaces for the

polymer to sit in the tube and act as a dielectric. MIT's Laboratory of Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems (LEES) is researching using carbon nanotubes.[16]

Some polymers (eg. polyacenes) have a redox (reduction-oxidation) storage mechanism

along with a high surface area.

Supercapacitors are also being made of carbon aerogel. This is a unique material

providing extremely high surface area of about 400-1000 m/g. The electrodes of aerogel supercapacitors are usually made of non-woven paper made from carbon fibers and coated with organic aerogel, which then undergoes pyrolysis. The paper is a composite material where the carbon fibers provide structural integrity and the aerogel provides the required large surface. Small aerogel supercapacitors are being used as backup

electricity storage in microelectronics, but applications for electric vehicles are expected. Aerogel capacitors can only work at a few volts; higher voltages would ionize the carbon and damage the capacitor. Carbon aerogel capacitors have achieved 325 J/g (90 Wh/kg) energy density and 20 W/g power density.[17]

The company Reticle claims to be able to make supercapacitors from solid activated

carbon, which they call consolidatedamorphous carbon (CAC). It can have a surface area exceeding 2800 m2/g and according to US patent 6787235 may be cheaper to produce than aerogel carbon.

Systematic pore size control and H2 adsorption treatment showed by Y-Carbon[18] to

produce tunable nanoporous carbon can be used to increase the energy density by as much as 75% over what is commercially available as of 2005.[19]

The company Tartu Technologies developed supercapacitors from mineral-based carbon.

This nonactivated carbon is synthesised from metal or metalloid carbides, e.g. SiC, TiC, Al4C3, etc. as claimed in US patent 6602742 and WO patent 2005118471 . The synthesised nanostructured porous carbon, often called Carbide Derived Carbon (CDC), has a surface area of about 400 m/g to 2000 m/g with a specific capacitance of up to 100 F/mL (in organic electrolyte). As of 2006 they claimed a supercapacitor with a volume of 135 mL and 200 g weight having 1.6 kF capacitance. The energy density is more than 47 kJ/L at 2.85 V and power density of over 20 W/g.[20]

In August 2007 a research team at RPI developed a paper battery with aligned carbon

nanotubes, designed to function as both a lithium-ion battery and a supercapacitor (called bacitor), using an ionic liquid, essentially a liquid salt, as the electrolyte. The sheets can be rolled, twisted, folded, or cut into numerous shapes with no loss of integrity or efficiency, or stacked, like printer paper (or avoltaic pile), to boost total output. Further, they can be made in a variety of sizes, from postage stamp to broadsheet. Their light weight and low cost make them attractive for portable electronics, aircraft, automobiles, and toys (such as model aircraft), while their ability to use electrolytes in blood make them potentially useful for medical devices such as pacemakers. They are biodegradable.[21]

[edit]Applications [edit]Vehicles [edit]Heavy and public transport

Some of the earliest uses were motor startup capacitors for large engines in tanks and submarines, and as the cost has fallen they have started to appear on diesel trucks and railroad locomotives.[22] More recently they have become a topic of some interest in the green energy world, where their ability to store energy much faster than batteries makes them particularly suitable for regenerative brakingapplications. New technology in development could potentially make EDLCs with high enough energy density to be an attractive replacement for batteries in allelectric cars and plug-in hybrids, as EDLCs charge quickly and are stable with temperature. China is experimenting with a new form of electric bus (capabus) that runs without powerlines using power stored in large onboard EDLCs, which are quickly recharged whenever the bus is at any bus stop (under so-called electric umbrellas), and fully charged in theterminus. A few prototypes were being tested in Shanghai in early 2005. In 2006, two commercial bus routes began to use electric double-layer capacitor buses; one of them is route 11 in Shanghai.[23] In 2001 and 2002 VAG, the public transport operator in Nuremberg, Germany tested an hybrid bus that uses a diesel-electric battery drive system with electric double-layer capacitors.[24] Since 2003 Mannheim Stadtbahn in Mannheim, Germany has operated an LRV (light-rail vehicle) that uses electric double-layer capacitors to store braking energy.[25][26] Other companies from the public transport manufacturing sector are developing electric doublelayer capacitor technology: The Transportation Systems division of Siemens AG is developing a mobile energy storage based on double-layer capacitors called Sibac Energy Storage[27] and also Sitras SES, a stationary version integrated into the trackside power supply.[28] The company Cegelec is also developing an electric double-layer capacitor-based energy storage system.[29] Proton Power Systems has created the world's first triple hybrid Forklift Truck, which uses fuel cells and batteries as primary energy storage and EDLCs to supplement this energy storage solution.[30]

[edit]Private vehicles
Ultracapacitors are used in some electric vehicles, such as AFS Trinity's concept prototype, to store rapidly available energy with their high power density, in order to keep batteries within safe resistive heating limits and extend battery life.[31][32] The ultrabattery combines a supercapacitor and a battery in one unit, creating an electric vehicle battery that lasts longer, costs less and is more powerful than current technologies used in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).[33]

[edit]Motor racing
The FIA, the governing body for many motor racing events, proposed in the Power-Train Regulation Framework for Formula 1 version 1.3 of 23 May 2007 that a new set of power train regulations be issued that includes a hybrid drive of up to 200 kW input and output power using "superbatteries" made with both batteries and supercapacitors.[34]

[edit]Consumer

electronics

EDLCs can be used in PC Cards, flash photography devices in digital cameras, flashlights, portable media players, and in automated meter reading,[35] particularly where extremely fast charging is desirable. In 2007, a cordless electric screwdriver that uses an EDLC for energy storage was produced.[36] It charges in 90 seconds, retains 85% of the charge after 3 months, and holds enough charge for about half the screws (22) a comparable screwdriver with a rechargeable battery will handle (37). Two LED flashlights using EDLCs were released in 2009. They charge in 90 seconds[37]

[edit]Alternative

energy sources

The idea of replacing batteries with capacitors in conjunction with novel alternative energy sources became a conceptual umbrella of the Green Electricity (GEL) Initiative [2], [3], introduced by Dr. Alexander Bell. One particular successful implementation of the GEL Initiative concept was a muscle-driven autonomous solution that employs a multi-farad EDLC (hecto- and kilofarad range capacitors are now available) as an intermediate energy storage to power a variety of portable electrical and electronic devices such as MP3 players, AM/FM radios, flashlights, cell phones, and emergency kits.[38] As the energy density of EDLCs is bridging the gap with batteries, thevehicle industry is deploying ultracapacitors as a replacement for chemical batteries. Several companies have begun capitalizing on this maturing technology, which can provide significant power and energy from a small component. Companies that have been conducting research and technology for this emerging industry are listed below:

CAP-XX Ltd EnerG2 Fluidic Energy Inc. Graphene Energy Inc. Maxwell Technologies Ioxus, Inc.

[edit]Price
Costs have fallen quickly, with cost per kilojoule dropping faster than cost per farad. As of 2006 the cost of supercapacitors was 1 cent per farad and $2.85 per kilojoule, and was expected to drop further.[39]

[edit]Market

According to Innovative Research and Products (iRAP), ultracapacitor market growth will continue during 2009 to 2014. Worldwide business, over US$275 million in 2009, will continue to grow at an AAGR of 21.4% through 2014.[40]