FACTORS AFFECTING CROP

PRODUCTION
Crop production can be viewed from two properties
1- at the CROPS level
2- at the SYSTEMS level
Crop production at the crop level:
in the form of an equation:
Y= f [(G+ E+ ( G x E )]
Where: Y= yield
G= genotype
E= environment
G x E= interaction of genotype and environment
Genotype and Environment
 Genotype – Genetic design of a plant which dictates the ceiling of how
much a variety/ cultivar can yield.

- Genes controlling a chapter (yield, plant height, taste, color, etc.)

- Varies among and even within species

- Sets the ultimate limit for plant variation

 Environment – Any factor external to the plant that influences its
growth and development.
- May be biotic or abiotic; examples are climate, soil, topography,
pest and diseases
G x E Interaction

 A high yielding variety grown under poor environment will have low yield.

 A low yielding variety grown in optimum (good) environment will still have low yield.

 An ideal genotype therefore is one that has a wide range of environment

 An optimum environment is one that poses a minimum of constraints to crop growth

and development

 Through G x E interaction, some particular elements of the environment may draw

varying responses from different genotypes.

Practical implicants:

1. Develop management practices that can remove or avoid environmental constraints.

2. Continuously asses G x E interaction

3. Need for continuous development of improved varieties

In a production systems:
 Inputs- controllable, manageable resources such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.
 Output- yield
 Environment- uncontrollable factors external to the system
 System- component crops, processes and activities

Practical implications:
1. Man (management has only partial control of the system.
2. Certain factors/ conditions are given to which the system has to fit or adjust
3. The design of the system emanates from man (his needs, objectives, knowledge and
capabilities)
Environmental Factors
 Includes CLIMATIC or above-ground factors and EDAPHIC or soil factors (abiotic
factors)
 Also includes pest and beneficial organism (biotic factors)

Abiotic factors
A. CLIMATIC FACTORS
a. Climate
- The seasonal pattern of a particular place occurring from year to year.
- A composite of day to day weather conditions described in averages and
variability
b. Weather
- A momentary state of the atmosphere brought about the combination of
elements, ex, temperature, pressure, moisture content, air movements, radiation,
etc.
- Day-to-day changes of the state or condition of the atmosphere
c. Macroclimate
- The climatic environment one meter above the plant canopy

d. Microclimate
- Generally refers to the climatic environment one meter below the
canopy in the case of tall plants or the climate within the leaf canopy
for short (below one meter) plants.
The Climatic Elements:
1. Precipitation- is any form of water particles falling on the ground in liquid or solid form
(rainfall, hail, snow, etc.)

Role of water in plants

a) As a reactants in many biological reactions
b) Enters into the structure of biological molecules
c) Serves as medium of transport of nutrients and other substances
d) Helps regulate plants temperature

Categories of plants based on need for moisture

a) Xerophytes- desert plants
b) Hydrophytes- aquatic plants
c) Mesophytes- land plants; most economically important plants
The Climatic Elements:
Factors affecting amount of distribution of rainfall

• Topography influences the amount and distribution of rainfall

• Mountain ranges present barriers to clouds, causing them to rise to higher elevations and
generally colder temperatures causing vapor to condense and water to fall on the windward
sides as the clouds pass over, leaving the leeward side relatively dry. Examples are Los Banos in
Laguna and Sto Tomas in Batangas. Sto. Tomas is drier than Los Banos ue to the presence of Mt.
Makiling.
• Air circulation patterns affect the seasonal distribution of precipitation
Rain formation requires
a) High relative humidity (RH)
b) Sufficiently low temperature (below condensation point)
c) Condensation nuclei
d) Sufficiently low pressure

Drought- insufficiently low of rainfall/moisture which seriously

affects plant growth.
• Absolute drought- 29 consecutive days without rainfall of at least
0.25 mm.
• Partial drought- 15 consecutive days without rainfall of at least
0.25 mm.
2. Temperature
• The degree of hotness and coldness of a body
• Every chemical, physiological and biological process in plants is influence
by temperature.

Three (3) cardinal temperatures:

a. Minimum temperature- that temperature below which the velocity of the
reaction becomes zero, due to the deactivation of enzymes.
b. Optimum temperature- temperature where the velocity of the reaction is
at maximum.
c. Maximum temperature- that temperature above which the velocity of
the reaction becomes zero, due to the desaturation of enzymes.
Temperature of the environment depends upon:
a) Solar radiation- vertical rays are more energy efficient/unit area than oblique rays ( in
polar regions.)
b) Surrounding land masses or bodies of water.
c) Altitude- for every 100 meter rise in elevation, there is a 0.6 ºC decrease in temperature.

In the Philippines:
 High elevation- 13.2-24.6C
 Low elevation- 23.3-31.5C
Classification of crops according to temperature requirement
a) Cool season crops- ex., cole crops like cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower
b) Warm season crops-ex., rice, banana
c) Tropical-ex., coconut
d) Sub-tropical- ex., citrus

Effect of temperature on crops:

 Vernalization requirement of certain corps for flowering ( Ex., celery seed exposed to 4.4-10C
for 10 days under imbibed condition)
 Effect on crop maturation ( crops mature faster in hotter environments than in colder ones)
3. Wind or air in horizontal motion
• Normal wind speed in the Philippines= 7.2 km/hr
• At 30 km/hr = leaf tearing may already occur especially in banana and abaca
Effect of wind in plants:
a) Increase transpiration
b) Destructive effects of strong winds, typhoon (Ex., crop lodging, grain shattering)
c) Sterility due to loss of pollens
d) Disease spore dispersal
e) Reduced CO2 levels specially in closed spaces
f) Affects plant form
 Air circulation in the atmosphere results from the sun’s radiation falling more
directly on the tropical regions than on polar regions, the warmer air rises and flow
forward the poles, cools and sinks as cold polar air and then returns toward the
equator as ground flow
 The interactions cause the establishment of regions, large and small, each with a
different climate.
4. Solar radiation or light
- Energy given out by the sun through radiation

Three aspects important to plants

1. Light intensity- expressed in foot-candle or lux.
• Plants are generally spaced so that maximum leaf area is exposed to
sunlight
• Some plants do not require high light intensity ( shade-loving) because
thy have low light saturation point.
• Some plants require subdued light to survive. Ex., some ornamentals
2. Duration or day length- expressed in hours per day
3. Wavelength- expressed in Angstrom or nanometers or identified by color
o Not all wavelengths of light are equally effective
o In Photosynthesis- red and blue wavelength
o In photoperiodism- far red and red wavelength
Effect of light on plants:
a) Photoenergetic effect- direct effect on photosynthesis (
intercepted radiation is important)
b) Photocybernetic effect- effect on plant development (light
quality is rather important than quality of light)
c) Photoperiodic effect ( response)- plant response as conditioned
by daylength
Classification of plants according to light intensity requirements
a.) Heliophytes
- Sun loving
- Light saturated at about 5000 foot candles
- Examples: banana, chrysanthemum, corn, cowpea, cucurbits, eggplant,
papaya, peanut, sugarcane.
b.) Sciophytes
- shade loving
- light saturated at about 5000 foot candles
- examples: ginger, African violet, ferns, philodendron, coffee
Plants belonging to the intermediate group may be converted through
acclimatization into other heliophytes or sciophytes
Classification of plants according to photoperiodic response

a. Day neutral- will flower over a wide range of daylength

Examples: banana, citrus, coconut, corn, tomato
b. Short day plant- requires a dark period exceeding some critical length to induce flowering
Examples: coffee, kenaf, lima bean, rice, sesame, soybean, winged bean
c. long day plant- inhibited from flowering when the dark period exceeds some critical length
Examples: aster, castor oil, onion, radish
5. Relative humidity
- proportion/amount of moisture in the air
- low relative humidity and high temperature will result to high
evapotranspiration
- high relative humidity and high temperature will result to low
evapotranspiration

1. Gaseous Environment
- Carbon dioxide- critical in enclosed environments like greenhouses
- Air pollution- toxic substances like lead, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
HF
2. Cloudiness- cloud including smog and fog affect the amount of radiation
received by plants. Most solar radiation is reflected by clouds.
Climatic Stresses:
a. Typhoon and weather variations
- Typhoon- strong winds with speed greater than 21 kph
b. Ozone Destruction
- Ozone- protective shield against the harmful UV rays; it is 6:30 miles above the earth
- Harmful effects:
I- Depressed photosynthesis
II- Reduced levels of seed protein, lipids and carbohydrates
c. Global warming
- Increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
- 𝐶𝑂2 concentration might double to around 600ppm in 30-75 years
- Methane gas contributes to global warming
d. El Niño/ La niña
- El Niño phenomenon happens when there is a periodic acean-warming and atmospheric
disturbance characterized by deficient rainfall or prolonged drought in some areas, while heavy
rains, storms or hurricanes occur in other areas of the globe
- Climatic indicators of El Niño in the Philippines include:
a. Delayed onset of the rainy season
b. Early termination of the rainy season
c. Weak monsoon activity
d. Weak tropical cyclones activity
Effects of El Niño
i. Fish kill especially cold water fish-tuna and milkfish catch declines
ii. Decrease in yield for most crops
iii. Human death
e. Acid Rain
f. Lahar
B. EDAPHIC FACTORS
- Refers to the soil as a factor in crop production
Soil
- a mixture of organic and inorganic materials which developed on the earth’s
surface through weathering process of rocks and minerals and whose properties are
conditioned in various degrees by the influence of climate, living organisms, and
topography acting on the parent material over a period of time
- serves as a medium of plant growth ( physical support for anchorage of plant
roots; water and nutrient supplier)
- considered a non-renewable resource because it takes about a hundred years for
natural processes to form an inch of soil
- a natural body with dimensions of thickness and width with indistinct horizontal
boundaries enabling it to blend with other soils and vertical boundaries of the air
above it and the unweathered rocks below it
Soil Properties in Relation to Crop Production
1. Soil Texture
- Relatives proportion of sand, silt and clay in a particular soil
- The ranges of diameters of the three separates are: sand ( 2.0-0.05 mm), silt (0.05-002
mm), and clay (<0.002 mm).
Sand Clay
Low total porosity ( more High total porosity ( more
macropores) micropores)
Low water holding capacity High water holding capacity
(droughty)
Very good aeration Poor aeration and drainage
Easy to till (“light” soil Difficult to till (“heavy” soil)
Non sticky and non plastic when Very sticky and plastic when wet
wet
Low nutrient holding capacity ( less High nutrient holding capacity
fertile) (more fertile)
2. Soil Structure
- refers to the clustering of the soil particles into characteristic aggregates
of various sizes, shapes and stability

Structural classes based on the shapes of the aggregates

a. Prismatic structure : pillar-like with level tops
b. Columnar structure : pillar-like with rounded tops; like prismatic
structure, commonly occur in subsoils and in soils of arid and semi-arid regions
c. Blocky structure – cube-like and has more or less sharp edges and the
rectangular faces are distinct
d. Sub-angular blocky structure – has edges which are more or less
rounded; like the blocky structure, typical in clayey subsoils particularly in
humid regions
2. Soil Structure
e. Platy structure – has disc-like aggregates; commonly found in virgin
soils and subsoils; generally make the soil poorly drained
f. Spheroidal structure – rounded aggregates which are more porous;
characteristic of surface soils especially those high in organic matter content
g. Granular/ Crumb – resembles cookie crumbs; commonly found in surface
horizons where roots have been growing
Importance of Soil Structure to Crops:
a. Influences the infiltration of water through the soil
b. Influences soil aeration which is critical during seed germination and
seeding emergence
3. Bulk Density
- The mass (dry weight) per unit volume of soil
- Mathematically, B.D.= 𝑊𝑠 /𝑉𝑡
- where: B.D. = bulk density in 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
𝑊𝑠 = oven-dried weight of soil in g
𝑉𝑡 = total volume of soil clod in 𝑐𝑚3 (includes solids and
pore spaces)
- A measure of degree of compaction of the soil and an indicator of porosity
- The more compact the soil, the higher is the bulk density value and the less
porous it is.
- The range of bulk density values for sand and sandy loam soils is 1.20 to 1.80
𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
- the range of bulk density values for clay, clay loam and silt loam is 1.0 to
1.60 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 .
Interpretation of some bulk density values
1.0 to 1.3 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 Normal soil
>1.3 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 Compacted soil, poor soil
structure
<1.0 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 Very loose soil
Soil Chemical Properties
1. Soil pH
- The most favorable pH for growing most agricultural plants is between pH
6 and pH 7 because at the availability of the nutrients and activities of
beneficial microorganisms are at maximum at his ranges.
- The range of pH in the Philippines is from pH 5.5 to pH 6.5
- When the pH is too low (< 5.0, strongly acidic)
- nutrients particularly Ca,Mg, K, P, Mo, N become less available to
plants
- N release may also be hindered when the symbiotic nitrogen fixation
and nitrification are inhibited
- Fe, Al and Mn become more soluble to the point of toxicity
- P becomes complexed into insoluble forms with Fe and Al
- P can also be precipitated as insoluble manganese phosphate
compounds when the soil is rich in manganese oxides
Soil Chemical Properties
1. Soil pH
- Soils also become acidic when the bases are leached out and replaced by
H + ions. Ex. Old soils in the humid tropics
- Soil acidity may also develop from the decomposition of organic matter
due to the formation of organic acids like fulvic acid, humic acid and
carbonic acid.
- When pH is too high (>8.0, strongly alkaline)
- Most micronutrients (except Mo) become unavailable at high pH
- Iron deficiency commonly develops
- P becomes complexed with calcium as precipitates of calcium
hydroxyapatite or calcium phosphate dehydrate
- K also competes with the now abundant Ca for plant absorption
Soil Chemical Properties
2. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
- The ability of the soil to absorb and exchange cations with those in the
surrounding soil solution as well as with the plant roots
- The sum of all absorbed cations per unit amount of soil
- Commonly expressed as milliequivalent per 100 g of soil (me/100g) or
cmol/kg of soil
- Reversible, instantaneous, and stoichiometric process
- Typical values ranges from 10 me/100 g to 30 me/100 g
- Increases with increasing amount of clay and organic matter
Soil Chemical Properties
3. Soil Organic Matter (SOM)
- Refers to the totality of all carbon-containing compounds in the soil
derived from either plants or animals
- Organic constituents of plants:
i. Cellulose (15 - 60%)
ii. Hemicellulose (10 – 30%)
iii. Lignin (5 – 30%)
iv. Water-soluble fractions: amino sugars, amino acids (5 – 30%)
v. Proteins
vi. Fats, oils and waxes
Soil Chemical Properties
3. Soil Organic Matter (SOM)
- Accumulation is affected by temperature, soi moisture, vegetation, soil
texture and cropping system
- Cultivated soils contain an average of 2 to 3% organic matter
- Organic matter declines when the soil is cultivated because of the
enhanced oxidation and microbial activity brought about by the loosening
of the soil.
Soil Chemical Properties
Effects of organic matter to soil properties
Physical
1. Enhances soil aggregation and aggregate stability
2. Reduces plasticity, cohesion and stickiness of clayey soils
3. Increases soil water retention, infiltration rate, water holding capacity
and aeration
4. Darkens soil
5. Reduces bulk density and compaction
Soil Chemical Properties
Effects of organic matter to soil properties
Chemical
1. Increases CEC of soils
2. Increases soil buffering capacity
3. Increases nutrient availability through solubilization of minerals by
organic acids and by chelation of metal ions
4. Reduces Al toxicity by binding the Al ions in non-toxic complexes
5. Increases soil native supply of N, P, S, etc
6. Absorbs pollutants such as Pb, Cd and Cu
7. Inactivates toxin and pesticides
Soil Chemical Properties
Effects of organic matter to soil properties
Biological
1. Provides C and energy to soil organisms and thus increases their diversity
and activity
2. Enhances microbial functions such as N fixation, decomposition, and
nutrient transformations
Soil Biological Properties
1. Soil organisms
- Composed of large and small plants and animals
- The larger organisms (insects, worms, moles, etc.) prepare the organic
materials for further degradation by breaking them into smaller pieces
- The smaller organisms (bacteria, fungi, actinomycete, algae, nematodes,
protozoa) cause biochemical changes in the organic materials
- Roles:
- Responsible for biochemical changes
- Agents in the decomposition of plant and animal residues
- Improve soil structure through aggregation
Biotic Factors
- All living elements in the environment that can affect crop production
a. Beneficial organisms – provides beneficial effects on crop production
b. Pollinators – important role in the preservation of species and in
biodiversity conservation
c. Decomposers – a trophic level, usually consisting soil microorganisms
specifically important in the maintenance of soil organic matter
d. Natural pest enemies – provide balance in a crop production system
particularly in the control of pests
e. Pests - a collective term that includes pests, diseases, weeds,
invertebrates and vertebrates
Genetic Factors
- Includes all factors internal to the plant
1. Genotype – the genetic design of a plant which dictates the ceiling of
how much a variety/cultivar can yield
Genome – sets the ultimate limit for plant variation
2. Selection indices of major Philippines crops:
a. The choice of variety is one of the most critical decisions in crop
production
b. Technologies required in growing a certain crops are dependent on the
characteristics of a particular variety especially growth characteristics,
quality of the product and market acceptability
Genetically Modified Organisms
- The latest development in biotechnology in relation to crop
improvement
- Transgenic crops: corn, tomato, soybean, cotton and potato
- Genetic engineering moves genes from one organism to another in ways
that could never be possible in nature (Kuyek D., 2000)
Human Factors
1. Farmer’s preference (crop type, variety)
2. Farmer’s capability
- Depends on resources and knowledge of the farmer
- Most Filipino farmers are resource poor
- Our culture is very rich in indigenous knowledge particularly about
farming
3. Management